INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

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SECOND SEMESTER (Midterms) — Sensory and Perception 1C Reporting (pdf)

-​ is the conversion of a sensory signal

into an electrical signal.
Sensory and Perception Processes -​ It occurs at sensory receptors through
➢​ Sensation depolarization of sensory neuron
-​ a mental process (seeing, hearing, or membranes.
smelling) -​ The resulting change in electrical
-​ resulting from the immediate external potential is called a receptor potential.
stimulation of the sense organ -​ Receptor potentials are graded
➢​ Stimulus potentials, varying with stimulus
-​ a thing or event that evokes a specific strength.
functional reaction in an organ or -​ Different senses have specialized
tissue receptors based on the type of stimulus
-​ External stimuli - changes that (receptor specificity).
originates outside an organism (ex:
heat of the sun/ extreme temperatures) -​ Mechanoreceptors
-​ Internal stimuli - are event that occur -​ Specialized membranes
within an organism (ex: hunger) respond to pressure through
physical disturbances.
➢​ Senses and sense organs -​ Compression or bending
●​ Sight opens ion channels, altering
-​ detect light and allow us to the neuron's electrical
see using the potential.
photoreceptors -​ Depolarization occurs as
●​ Hearing the membrane potential
-​ to detect sound waves and becomes more positive.
allows us to hear by our -​ Stimulus strength
auditory receptors determines the magnitude
●​ Smell of the receptor potential.
-​ detects odors and allow us
to smell with the help of our -​ Auditory receptors
tiny smell receptors -​ transmit signals through a
(olfactory receptors) dedicated system.
●​ Taste -​ Electrical activity in their
-​ We use it to taste sweet, axons is interpreted by the
salty, sour, bitter and umami brain as sound.
things.
-​ tiny taste buds on our -​ Photoreceptors
tongues send messages to -​ Specialized light-detecting
our brains, which then help cells in the retina are rods
us understand what flavors and cones.
we are experiencing. -​ Rods are highly sensitive to
●​ Touch light, enable night
-​ helps us feel different (scotopic) vision, but do not
textures and temperatures detect color or fine detail.
such as thermoreceptors, -​ Cones require more light,
mechanoreceptors and even detect color, and are
nociceptors. concentrated in the macula
for detailed vision.

-​ Thermoreceptors
Sensory Processing -​ Temperature-sensitive
sensory neurons detect
➢​ refers to how our brain receives, changes in temperature
organizes, and responds to information (cold or warmth).
from our senses, enabling us to interact -​ They are specialized
effectively with the world and our proteins on nerve endings in
bodies. the skin, located in the
dermis.
A.​ Sensory Receptors and
Transductions -​ Nociceptors
●​ Transduction

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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
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SECOND SEMESTER (Midterms) — Sensory and Perception 1C Reporting (pdf)

-​ Specialized sensory neurons primary somatosensory

detect extreme temperature, cortex.
pressure, and injury-related
chemicals, initiating the C.​ Cortical Processing
sensation of pain. ➢​ Sensory Cortex
-​ These neurons, known as -​ all cortical areas associated with
nociceptors, alert the brain sensory function, a region of the
to potential tissue damage cerebral cortex that processes and
through nociception. interprets sensory information from the
body.
B.​ Neural Pathways -​ Includes portions of the cerebral cortex
-​ is a series of connected neurons that -​ The cerebral cortex is the brain's
transmit signals within the brain. external layer, the gray matter of the
-​ It involves sensory neurons and brain.
interneurons that link neurons together.
-​ Primary Sensory Cortices
-​ Visual Pathways -​ are responsible for
-​ is the route through which processing somatic
electrical signals from the sensations.
retina travel to the brain. -​ Each of the senses has an
-​ It includes the retina, optic individual region of the
nerves, optic chiasma, optic primary sensory cortex.
tracts, lateral geniculate
bodies, and visual cortex. ➢​ Primary Sensory Cortices
-​ Signals pass through the -​ are responsible for processing somatic
cornea, pupil, lens, and sensations.
retina before reaching the -​ Each of the senses has an individual
brain, where they are region of the primary sensory cortex.
processed in the thalamus -​ the primary visual cortex is
and visual cortex. where the brain begins to
recognize contours, ledges,
-​ Auditory Pathways lines, and the movement of
-​ conveys sound information boundaries
from the inner ear to the -​ primary auditory cortex is
brain. where the brain recognizes
-​ It passes through the sound's most fundamental
cochlear nucleus, superior components, like pitch or
olivary complex, lateral frequency.
lemniscus, inferior
colliculus, and medial ➢​ Multimodal association cortex
geniculate nucleus, ending -​ sensory data is passed from the
in the auditory cortex in the secondary sensory cortex into the
temporal lobe. multimodal association cortex.
-​ helps you combine two sensory pieces
-​ Somatosensory pathways of information (u hear and see)
-​ transmit information from
the body to the brain, ➢​ Association Areas
including the dorsal -​ areas of the brain that integrate
column-medial lemniscus information from multiple sensory
pathway and the modalities (vision, hearing, touch) and
spinothalamic tract. higher cognitive functions like
-​ The dorsal column-medial memory, decision-making, and
lemniscus transmits attention.
discriminative touch, while -​ The posterior association
the spinothalamic tract cortex assists individuals in
transmits pain and locating visual objects in
temperature information. space, processing language,
-​ Both pathways are crossed and regulating their
and somatotopically attention.
organized, with sensory -​ The limbic association
input processed in the cortex integrates sensory

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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
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SECOND SEMESTER (Midterms) — Sensory and Perception 1C Reporting (pdf)

data with emotion. It is -​ Zajonc's theory suggests repeated

essential for memory and exposure to a stimulus can improve
learning. attitudes towards it, even without
-​ The anterior association conscious awareness, highlighting the
cortex merges the inputs of role of implicit memory and automatic
other association cortices processing in shaping behavior.
for complicated brain
functions like judgment, ➢​ Signal Detection Theory
language production, and -​ Signal detection theory suggests that
motor planning. both stimulus intensity and a person's
physical and psychological state affect
D.​ Sensory Threshold their ability to detect stimuli.
-​ The absolute threshold is the minimum -​ It considers how background noise and
level of stimulation required to detect a distractions impact detection.
sensory input. -​ Four possible outcomes: Hit, Miss,
-​ It varies between individuals and is False Alarm, and Correct Rejection.
influenced by factors like sensitivity,
attention, and context.
-​ Stimulus reaches the threshold when it Perceptual Processing
excites sensory receptors and sends ➢​ refers to how our brain interprets and
impulses to the brain. organizes sensory information to make
sense of the world
Weber’s law of just noticeable differences, the ➢​ It allows us to see, hear, and feel things
jnd or the difference in a structured and meaningful way
-​ The just noticeable difference (JND) is rather than as scattered pieces of
the smallest detectable difference information.
between two stimuli, detected 50% of
the time. Perceptual organization
-​ Weber's law states that the difference -​ is the brain’s ability to structure and
between stimuli is a constant arrange sensory input into meaningful
proportion, not an absolute value. patterns.
-​ Larger stimuli require larger -​ Instead of perceiving the world as
differences to be noticed, known as the random shapes and colors, our brain
Weber fraction. groups information into recognizable
objects and scenes.
➢​ Absolute Threshold
-​ Gustav Fechner (1801–1887) expanded -​ Gestalt Approach
on Weber’s work by studying -​ The Gestalt psychology
something he called the absolute theory states that our brain
threshold (Fechner, 1860). naturally organizes sensory
-​ lowest level of stimulation that a information into whole
person can consciously detect 50 patterns rather than
percent of the time the stimulation is individual parts.
present. -​ "The whole is greater than
-​ simply the smallest amount of stimulus the sum of its parts."
(like light, sound, or touch) that you -​ This means that the way our
can detect. It’s the point where you can brain arranges information
just barely notice something. results in a more
-​ generally measured under incredibly meaningful perception than
controlled conditions in situations that simply combining
are optimal for sensitivity. individual pieces.
-​ Gestalt Principles of Organization:
➢​ Subliminal Stimuli/Messages 1.​ Proximity → Objects that
-​ Subliminal stimuli are below the are close together are
threshold for conscious awareness, perceived as a group.
activating sensory receptors without 2.​ Similarity → Objects that
conscious recognition. look alike (same shape,
-​ These stimuli influence unconscious color, or pattern) are
behavior through subliminal perceived as belonging
perception, often affecting autonomic together.
reactions.

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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
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SECOND SEMESTER (Midterms) — Sensory and Perception 1C Reporting (pdf)

3.​ Continuity → The brain -​ Objects that are

prefers smooth, continuous closer appear
patterns rather than abrupt larger, while
changes. It states that distant objects
elements that are arranged seem smaller.
on a line or curve are 3.​ Height in plane
perceived to be more -​ is a monocular
related than elements not on depth cue where
the line or curve. objects placed
4.​ Closure → The brain fills higher appear
in missing parts to create a farther away.
complete image. -​ Objects placed
lower appear
-​ Figure-Ground Segregation closer
-​ states that people 4.​ Occlusion
instinctively perceive -​ is when one
objects as either being in object partially
the foreground or the hides another,
background. with the object
-​ They either stand out in front
prominently in the front perceived as
(the figure) or recede into closer.
the back (the ground). -​ For example, a
-​ Examples: triangle
-​ Reading a book → The text overlapping a
is the figure, and the white rectangle is
page is the ground. perceived as
-​ A tree against the sky → closer than the
The tree is the figure, and rectangle.
the sky is the ground.
-​ Binocular depth cues use
Depth and Motion Perception both eyes to perceive depth
-​ Cues in psychology are a stimulus and and 3D spaces, making it
there are two types of cues that affect easier for the brain to
how we see things understand than monocular
cues.
-​ Binocular and Monocular Cues -​ There are two types of
-​ Monocular depth cues binocular depth cues
allow depth perception 1.​ Convergence
using one eye and are often -​ is when the eyes
used in art. rotate inward to
-​ There are four types of focus on an
monocular depth cues object, with the
1.​ Linear perspective amount of
-​ occurs when rotation
parallel lines indicating how
converge at a close the object
point on the is.
horizon, with -​ For example,
lines appearing when a finger is
farther apart as brought closer to
they get closer. the face, the
2.​ Relative size eyes rotate more
-​ helps perceive to focus on it
depth and 2.​ Retinal disparity
distance by -​ occurs because
comparing the each eye views
size of objects in an object from a
relation to each slightly different
other. angle, creating

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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
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SECOND SEMESTER (Midterms) — Sensory and Perception 1C Reporting (pdf)

two slightly
different images. Top-down and Bottom-up Processing
-​ The brain -​ Perceptual processing involves two
processes the types of information flow
disparity -​ Top-down
between the -​ The process of using prior
images to knowledge, expectations,
perceive depth, and context to influence
with larger perception, starting with
disparities higher-level representations
indicating closer and guiding lower-level
objects and processing.
smaller -​ Bottom-up
disparities -​ The process of constructing perception
indicating from basic sensory information,
farther objects. starting with individual elements and
-​ For example, building up to more complex
switching representations.
between eyes
while focusing
on a finger Multisensory Integration
shows a ➢​ It is also known as a multimodal
difference in integration as it refers to the neural
position due to integration or combination of
retinal disparity. information from different information
modalities.
-​ Motion Detection ➢​ It is a brain process of combining
-​ is the ability of the visual information from multiple senses
system to detect and
interpret the movement of A.​ Neural Mechanisms
objects. -​ Superior Colliculus
-​ It helps navigate the -​ The structure is a laminated
environment and neural layer in the midbrain
understand dynamics, using tectum, consisting of 7-8
cues like size and speed of layers with specific
moving objects. functions.
-​ provides information about -​ It receives input from the
object movement, retina, visual cortex, as well
collisions, location in depth, as auditory and
and self-motion, somatosensory systems.
complementing vestibular -​ It is involved in visual
data for spatial perception. functions, multisensory
integration, and motor
Perceptual Constancies command initiation, and is
-​ Refer to the ability of our brain to conserved across vertebrate
maintain a consistent perception of an evolution.
object or stimulus despite changes in
external conditions, such as lighting, -​ Association Cortices
distance, or angle. -​ These are regions of the
-​ Size, shapes, and color constancy cerebral cortex responsible
-​ Size Constancy- the ability to perceive for integrating and
an object’s size as remaining constant interpreting information
despite changes in distance. from multiple sources.
-​ Shape Constancy- the ability to -​ They play a key role in
perceive an object’s shape as remaining multisensory integration,
constant despite changes in angle or forming coherent
perspective. perceptions and guiding
-​ Color Constancy- the ability to behavior.
perceive an object’s color as remaining
constant despite changes in lighting B.​ Behavioral Outcomes
conditions.

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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
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SECOND SEMESTER (Midterms) — Sensory and Perception 1C Reporting (pdf)

-​ refer to the changes in perception, -​ Plasticity is most prominent during

cognition, or actions that result from early development but continues
sensory experiences, learning, or brain throughout life.
plasticity.
-​ These outcomes influence how -​ Critical Periods
individuals interact with their -​ A critical period is a
environment. specific time in early
development when the
-​ Enhanced Perception brain is especially sensitive
-​ occurs when an individual to particular experiences.
becomes more sensitive to -​ If certain stimuli or learning
certain stimuli due to experiences do not occur
experience, training, or during this time, normal
adaptation. development may be
-​ This can happen naturally affected.
(through repeated exposure) -​ Examples:
or intentionally (through 1.​ Language Acquisition –
practice and training). Children exposed to
-​ Examples: language in their early years
1.​ Musicians’ Hearing (before puberty) learn it
Sensitivity – Trained more fluently compared to
musicians can distinguish those exposed later in life.
subtle differences in pitch 2.​ Visual Development – If a
better than non-musicians. child has an eye disorder
2.​ Athletes' Visual Perception like cataracts that isn’t
– Basketball players can treated early, their visual
quickly track moving system may not develop
objects and anticipate normally.
movements better than an
average person. -​ Cross-modal Plasticity
-​ occurs when one sensory
-​ Perceptual Illusions modality compensates for
-​ occur when our brain the loss of another, allowing
misinterprets sensory the brain to reorganize
information, leading to itself.
distortions in what we -​ This is common in
perceive. individuals with sensory
-​ These illusions highlight impairments.
how the brain processes -​ Examples:
sensory inputs and fills in 1.​ Blind Individuals’
missing information based Enhanced Hearing –
on prior knowledge. People who are blind often
-​ Examples: develop heightened
1.​ The Müller-Lyer Illusion – auditory abilities, as their
Two lines of the same brain repurposes the visual
length appear different due cortex to process sounds.
to arrow-like ends. 2.​ Deaf Individuals’
2.​ Optical Illusions like the Enhanced Vision – People
Ames Room – A specially who are deaf may have
designed room creates the better peripheral vision and
illusion that people standing motion detection, as their
in different corners appear auditory cortex adapts to
significantly larger or process visual information.
smaller than they are.

C.​ Development and Plasticity

-​ refer to the brain’s ability to change Disorders of sensory and perceptual processing
and adapt over time, especially in A.​ Agnosia
response to learning, experience, and
injury.

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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
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SECOND SEMESTER (Midterms) — Sensory and Perception 1C Reporting (pdf)

-​ A neurological disorder where the processing and responding to sensory

brain cannot process sensory input.
information despite functional senses.
-​ It results from damage to specific brain -​ Hyper or Hypo Sensitivity
areas and can affect vision, hearing, -​ Hypersensitivity results in
smell, taste, and touch. a person experiencing
overstimulation.
-​ Visual Agnosia -​ Hyposensitivity results
-​ is the difficulty or inability when a person experiences
to recognize certain visual little to no response from a
characteristics (such as stimulus.
shape, color, movement, or
category) of stimuli, despite C.​ Neurological Conditions
having no peripheral -​ are medically defined as disorders that
sensory visual impairment. affect the brain as well as the nerves
-​ Types of Visual Agnosia: found throughout the human body and
-​ Prosopagnosia (Face the spinal cord leading to impairments
Blindness). Inability to in movement, cognition, sensation, or
recognize familiar faces. behavior.
-​ Akinetopsia. You can
recognize objects but can’t -​ Stroke or Trauma
recognize that they’re -​ significantly impact
moving. sensation and perception by
-​ Alexia. You can’t recognize damaging key brain areas
words you see. That means responsible for processing
you can see the words but sensory input.
can’t make sense of or read -​ These conditions can
them. You can still write disrupt how individuals
and speak without any experience, interpret, and
problem. respond to their
-​ Achromatopsia. Also environment.
known as color agnosia,
this is where a person can -​ Synthesia
see colors and tell them -​ Also called a joined
apart, but they can’t identify sensation.
the color. -​ It signals that come from
sensory organs such eyes
-​ Auditory Agnosia etc, either go to the places
-​ refers to impairments in in the brain where they
sound perception and weren’t originally meant to
identification despite intact be or processed differently.
hearing, cognitive
functioning, and language Impact on Sensory Processing: Damage to the
abilities (reading, writing, occipital lobe can cause partial loss of sight
and speaking). resulting in visual agnosia.
-​ Types of Auditory Agnosia: Impact on Cognitive and Emotional Effects:
-​ Verbal Auditory Agnosia Stroke and trauma can also impair perception of
(Pure Word Deafness). pain, temperature, and spatial awareness, leading
Difficulty understanding to difficulty navigating environments or
spoken language. recognizing dangers.
-​ Nonverbal Auditory
Agnosia. Inability to -​ Neurodegenerative Diseases
recognize nonverbal sounds -​ Neurodegenerative
(e.g., doorbells, sirens). disorders encompass a wide
range of conditions that
B.​ Sensory Processing Disorders result from progressive
-​ is a condition where the brain has damage to cells and nervous
difficulty receiving and responding to system connections that are
sensory information (sight, sound, essential for mobility,
touch, etc.), leading to difficulties in coordination, strength,
sensation, and cognition.

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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
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SECOND SEMESTER (Midterms) — Sensory and Perception 1C Reporting (pdf)

-​ Types of Neurodegenerative Diseases: -​ Perception-Action Links

-​ Visual Agnosia in -​ involve a continuous cycle
Alzheimer’s Disease. where our senses
Patients struggle to (sensation) provide
recognize familiar faces and information, which the
objects due to damage in brain then interprets
the temporal and occipital (perception) to guide our
lobes. actions, and these actions,
-​ Hallucinations in in turn, influence future
Parkinson’s Disease. Many perceptions.
individuals experience -​ Example:
visual and auditory -​ Catching a Falling Object -
hallucinations due to When a person sees a glass
disruptions in dopamine slipping off a table, they
pathways. instinctively reach out to
-​ Impaired Proprioception catch it.
in ALS. Affected -​ triggers a rapid motor
individuals lose awareness response, demonstrating
of body position and how perception directly
movement, leading to influences action.
balance and coordination
issues. B.​ Predictive Code
-​ is the process where the brain actively
-​ Synesthesia predicts incoming sensory information
-​ is a neurological condition rather than just passively receiving it.
in which stimulation of one -​ The brain compares its predictions with
sensory or cognitive real-world sensory input and updates
pathway leads to automatic, its understanding based on any
involuntary experiences in a differences.
second sensory or cognitive
pathway -​ Brain as a predictor
-​ When one sense is -​ The brain actively predicts
activated, another unrelated sensory input based on past
sense is activated at the experiences.
same time. -​ It compares predictions to
-​ Types of Synesthesia: reality and adjusts
-​ Auditory-tactile expectations when there is a
synesthesia. Occurs when a mismatch.
sound prompts a specific
bodily sensation C.​ Normalization models
-​ Chromesthesia. Occurs -​ explain how the brain manages
when certain sounds can overwhelming sensory input by
trigger someone to see adjusting and balancing the amount of
colors. information it processes.
-​ This allows us to focus on the most
important details and ignore irrelevant
Theoretical Frameworks stimuli.
➢​ explain how sensory inputs are
processed, interpreted, and linked to -​ Sensory Processing
actions -​ The brain normalizes
➢​ provide models for understanding the sensory information across
connection between perception and senses to maintain
behavior efficiency.
-​ involves receiving,
A.​ Common Coding Theory interpreting, and responding
-​ is a cognitive psychology theory to input from the five
describing how perceptual senses, proprioception, and
representations and motor the vestibular sense.
representations are linked. -​ This organization helps us
effectively navigate our
environment.

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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
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SECOND SEMESTER (Midterms) — Sensory and Perception 1C Reporting (pdf)

activity, cognitive
processes, and perceptual
experiences.

Research and methodologies

➢​ researchers use various methods to -​ Magnetoencephalography(MEG)
examine how the brain processes -​ Measures the magnetic
sensory information. fields generated by
➢​ help uncover how we detect, interpret, electrical activity in the
and respond to stimuli from our brain
environment. -​ provides high spatial
resolution and temporal
A.​ Neuroimaging techniques resolution, allowing
-​ are methods used to visualize and researchers to study neural
study the brain's structure and function activity with precision.
-​ essential for investigating visual
perception, auditory processing, pain C.​ Computational modeling
perception, and multisensory -​ Involves creating mathematical and
integration. computational simulations to
-​ Functional Magnetic Resonance understand complex neural processes.
Imaging (fmri)
-​ measures brain activity by -​ Simulating neural processes
detecting changes in blood -​ Computational models
flow stimulate neural activity
-​ allows researchers to -​ allows researchers to test
visualize which brain hypotheses and predict
regions are active during outcomes
specific tasks or cognitive -​ range from simple neural
processes. networks to complex
simulations of brain
-​ Positron Emission Tomography function, providing insights
(PET) into sensory and perceptual
-​ scans use radioactive processes
tracers to measure -​ might stimulate how the
metabolic activity in the brain processes visual
brain, information, from edge
-​ specifically glucose detection to object
consumption recognition.
-​ It studies the neural basis of
auditory processing and
speech perception, brain’s
response to sensory stimuli,
and investigating visual
recognition.

B.​ Electrophysiological methods

-​ Measure the electrical activity of the
brain, providing insights into neural
processes.

-​ Electroencephalography(EEG)
-​ Measures the electrical
activity of the brain through
electrodes placed on the
scalp
-​ detects the synchronized
activity of large groups of
neurons, providing
information on brain