Online Continuing Education for Professional Engineers

Since 2009

Guide to Hydrographic Surveying

PDH Credits:

5 PDH
Course No.:
OHS101

Publication Source:

Original Courseware
by Donald W. Parnell, PE

Release Date:
2018

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Comprehensive Guide to Hydrographic
Surveying
Credits: 5 PDH
Course Description
Hydrography is the science of measuring and describing the topographical
features and the entire aquatic environment as a whole, beneath the
surface of water bodies. These subsurface features affect bridge scour,
flood mitigation, erosion control and siltation transport, maritime
navigation, marine construction, dredging, offshore oil exploration and
offshore oil drilling, among many other activities.

Hydrographic surveying does not strictly apply to coastal and oceanic

regions of the US. Hydrographic surveying has many applications inland.
Many environmental and civil engineering project in and around bodies
and channels of water (streams and rivers, lakes and ponds, wetlands) can
all benefit from hydrographic surveys and analysis.
Topics
 Intro and overview of hydrographic surveying
 History and early methods of measurement
 Sounding poles, lead lines, wire drags
 Echo sounders and fathometers
 Agencies which perform hydrographic surveys: office of coast
survey, NOAA, USGS, COE, IHO, NOO
 Marine magnetometry
 DC resistivity imaging
 Radar altimetry
 GPR for marine applications
 SONAR devices: side scan, single beam, multi beam sonar
 Light Pulse (LIDAR) devices
 US maritime limits and boundaries
 Sources of existing bathymetric datasets
 Types of tidal datums (sounding and chart) and tidal cycles Online-PDH
1265 San Juan Dr.
 AUV, ROV and UAS technologies Merritt island, FL 32952
 Crowdsourced bathymetric surveying
Original Courseware by:
 Fisheries acoustics Donald W. Parnell, PE
All rights reserved
 Hydrographic Surveys for Safe Navigation
Chapter 1: Introduction
There are numerous reasons to conduct a
hydrographic survey, but the most common
Page 1: Hydrographic Surveying objective is for compiling nautical data along
What is Hydrography? navigational channels, with an emphasis on the
Hydrography is a branch of physical oceanography measurement and profiling of the subsurface
or applied science which deals with the measuring physical features that may affect safe navigation
and description of the configuration of the bottoms and travel by marine vessels.
and adjacent land areas of oceans, lakes, rivers,
harbors, and other water forms.
What are Hydrographic Surveys?
A hydrographic survey deals with measuring and
description of features of a water area and the bed
configuration; however, it may also encompass a
wide variety of other objectives such as the
measuring of tides, currents, gravity, Earth
magnetism, and for determining the physical and
chemical properties of water.
The image above shows a dredging operation
Bathymetric Surveying consisting of a clamshell bucket dredge on a barge
The label of hydrographic surveying is often
synonymously applied to bathymetric surveying. Documenting the Geomorphic Changes
However, the Routine hydrographic surveys are essential to
latter actually documenting the transportation of silt and
Bathymetry refers to the sedimentation, in order to unsure safe lanes of
The term "bathymetry," originally shipping in rivers and along coastlines.
study and
nautical in origin, referred to the
ocean's depth relative to the sea measurement of
level (free surface), although it the bottom or Natural currents and storm events such as
has since come to refer to the “bed” of a hurricanes tends to shift the silt on the sea or river
“submarine topography,” or the navigable water beds, potentially accumulating in previously
depths and shapes of the dredged channels, causing dangerous conditions or
body (whether it
underwater earthen terrain. obstructions.
is an ocean, river,
lake or other body or channel of water.) In other Locating Submerged Obstacles
words it deals with the topography of the solid In addition to the surveying of geomorphic
earth, beneath a body of water. changes, hydrographic surveys may be utilized to
locate submerged vessels and other hazardous
Below are various types of hydrographic surveying debris along river and sea beds.
methods.
A hydrographic survey can be used to facilitate
offshore oil and gas exploration, drilling operations,
marine construction, dredging, installation of
subsea cables and more.
Other Applications
Other applications for hydrographic surveying:
 to generate the data needed to create and
update nautical charts
  to verify that navigational channels are This agency was established when then President,
clear and accurate Thomas Jefferson and Congress authorized a
 port and harbor maintenance (dredging), survey to be taken of coasts of the newly formed
expansion, and re-design “United States of America."
 coastal engineering and geomorphological First Head of the US Coast Survey
evaluations
The first person to officially head the US Coast
 beach erosion and replenishment studies Survey was Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler, who
 coastal zone management assembled a number of skilled professionals from
 offshore resources development various scientific communities, to survey and chart
 oil and gas exploration out the coastlines of the US.
 volumetric studies
 erosion and siltation studies
 pre- and post-dredge evaluations Types of Professionals at
 river crossing profiles and evaluations the USCS
 mathematicians
 aquatic vegetation design
 cartographers
 flood studies  geodesists
 to locate and verify the integrity of  meteorologists
submerged cabling and piping  hydrographers
 for determining fisheries habitat and  topographers
understanding marine geologic processes  sailors and laborers
 administrators
 to determine seabed and riverbed materials
(i.e. sand, mud, rock)
The first official US survey - 1834
 preliminary bed analysis for anchoring,
construction of marine structures, and The first official hydrographic survey performed in
pipeline and cable routing the US was conducted along the southern shore of
Long Island in 1834.
 disaster response following storm events;
looking for changes in depth or debris in The first official US nautical chart – 1839
navigational channels In 1839, the US government produced its first
nautical chart. However, many privately
commissioned charts of the Americas were known
Page 3: History of Hydrographic Surveying to exist prior to this date.
Origins
The history of hydrographic and bathymetric
surveying likely dates back to the origins of sailing.
As long as people have sailed the oceans, there has
been the need to chart pathways for safe travel to
avoid vessel groundings, and to document regional
and seasonal oceanic currents and meteorological
patterns.
US Coast Survey
Establishment of the US Coast Survey – 1807 Navigational chart of the Potomac estuary
In the US, the first officially sanctioned (created in 1838 by the Alex’a Canal Company)
hydrographic surveying office began in 1807, with
the establishment of the “US Coast Survey”, which
is one of the oldest scientific agencies in the US.
 Page 4: Early Hydrographic Surveying and other bathymetric methodologies, they are still
Methods – Sounding Poles and Lead Lines sold by some
“Mark Twain” survey supply
Prior to 1900s – Poles and Lines In modern literature, Samuel companies, and
Shallow water surveys – In early hydrographic Clemens took his pen name from may be used in
his early employment as a
practice, shallow water surveys consisted of depth areas where
leadsman on the Mississippi River.
measurements conducted by use of sounding The leadsman was the person large amounts of
poles. who used a sounding pole or lead vegetation or
line to measure the river depths thick mud would
Deep water surveys – Sounding Lines to ensure the boat was staying tend to distort
In greater depths, a sounding line (or lead line) was away from the shallow banks. To
the electronic
used to make measurements of river channel, "mark twain" referred to marking
a depth of the water of two returns of
estuarial and oceanic navigational pathways. modern
fathoms, or 12 feet.
Positions were determined by three-point sextant equipment.
fixes to mapped reference points. A more
sophisticated means of measuring deep water at Lead Lines
this time was through the use of sounding Lead line systems consisted of ropes or lines, with
machines, which were simply reel or drum based depth markings and
line devices. lead weights attached
(see image). The lead
Sounding poles
weights were usually
A sounding pole (see image below) is simply a long conical in shape,
rod, (usually made of wood, or aluminum in weighing around 12-
present day use), that is used to measure 14 lbs., and
navigational channel depths. Though mainly used occasionally had a
to measure water depth, they may be used to small amount of wax
measure the depths of boreholes, snow piles, or or lard on the base to
loose soil stockpiles as well. collect a small sample
of the surface sedimentary deposits. This
A typical length of a sounding pole is about 20 feet, rudimentary but effective system could reportedly
marked in one inch increments. They might have a provide reliable soil samples to depths of 100
circular plate at one end to ensure that the location fathoms or 600 ft.
being measured is somewhat level and normalized,
and to prevent inaccuracies due to the pole sinking The “Fathom”
The line was lowered In the early days of
too deep into the until it hit bottom, hydrographic surveying, a
muck or silt bottom. then read manually in fathom was used to
The pole technician a tedious, painstaking measure water depth. A
would drop the pole process. These initial fathom is a linear unit of
until there is adequate measurement, equal to 6
depth soundings were feet.
resistance at the soil fairly accurate.
bed, and then a
measurement is taken However due to the time involved per reading,
at that depth. Multiple there were a limited number of sounding
drops are made within close proximity to verify measurements relative to the area being surveyed,
that a consistent reading was taken. which inevitably left gaps in coverage between the
individual soundings.
Though rudimentary equipment such as sounding
poles have since been replaced by SONAR, LIDAR
Sounding Machines obstacles at the time. Wire drag data was used
Several sounding machines were patented in the mainly to supplement the existing hydrographic
late 19th century, using reels or drums with a survey data used when preparing navigational
handle, to deploy the wire charts.
and measure output.
Fashioned after the lead This system was used for a good part of the 20th
line method of depth century, until electronic and acoustic technologies
measurement, they were arrived that allowed a single ship to do the same
invented out of a need to work as two wire-drag vessels, using side-scan
increase the accuracy and sonar or multibeam sonar.
speed of deeper water
Wire Drag Operation
soundings.
The wire drag operation operated at a speed of
Accumulators around 2 knots. Each vessel was independently
The heave effects on the sounding lines were controlled to maintain position along a pre-plotted
compensated for, by devices called course. One of the vessels, the “guide ship,”
“accumulators.” They were attached at intervals maintained a planned speed along the course
along the length of the sounding line and could without regard to its position relative to the sister
stretch up to lengths of 17 feet, with a maximum vessel. The sister vessel would adjust its position,
exertion of 70 pounds force, in order to somewhat to remain abeam of the guide ship, speeding up or
equalize the strain and prevent snapping of the line slowing down slightly as needed.
due to vessel roll, bottom snags, or other abrupt
motions. The buoys which suspend the drag wire were under
constant observation for any “hang,” (which was an
Page 5: Early Methods – Wire Drag Surveys indication of a submerged object.) When a hang
occurred, it was necessary to determine as
1900s - Weighted Wire-drag Surveys
accurately as possible the coordinates of the
In 1904, the weighted wire-drag method (see
obstacle, be it a wreck, shoal, or other form of
image below) of surveying was implemented,
debris.
whereas a wire would be attached in between two
vessels, and dragged between the two points.
Location of the hang was determined by recording
the locations of each vessel and the bearing of each
vessel to the apex of the “V” which marked the
location of the hang. Scuba divers were then
dispatched to swim along the ground wire until the
snag was located. The obstruction was then
investigated and its exact depth measured by
divers using a lead line.
Use of Sister Ships
There were a limited number of ships which
The wire was set at a given depth using a system of specifically performed these wire drag operations
weights and buoys. When this rig encountered an for the US Coast and Geodetic Survey, and later
obstruction, it would become tight, forming a "V" NOAA. Until the late 80’s these ships were
shape, thus revealing the depth and position of commissioned jointly as “sister ships”.
submerged rocks and other obstructions. The wire
drag system was the most reliable means of
detecting and recording the location of submerged
Marindin and Ogden
Page 6: Early Methods – Echo Sounders and
From 1919 to 1942, the USC&GS Marindin and
USC&GS Ogden conducted wire-drag surveys as a
Fathometers
joint operation. 1930s - Single beam echo sounders and
fathometers
Hilgard and Wainwright
In the 1930s, single-beam echo sounder systems
From 1942 to 1967, the USC&GS employed two
were developed and subsequently implemented
ships, the Hilgard and her sister ship the
for use in
Wainwright, which conducted wire-drag
hydrographic
hydrographic survey operations together along the
surveying
US East Coast until 1967, when they were then
practice. Echo
replaced by the USC&GS Rude (ASV90, and S590)
sounding was
and Heck (ASV91, and S591).
based on
technological
Research ships of this type were known as auxiliary
concepts
survey vessels or “ASV” while under the authority
published in
of the USC&GS, then later to be designated as
1904 by Norwegian Inventor Hans Sundt Berggraf,
survey vessels or “S”, following the 1970 change of
and patented by German inventor Alexander
agency, falling under the new authority of NOAA.
Behm, in 1913. These devices used sound to
Heck and Rude measure the distance to the sea floor directly
Commissioned in 1967, the Heck and her sister ship beneath a survey vessel.
the Rude, (see image below) like the previous
paired vessels, were specifically designed for By running a series of lines at a specified spacing,
conducting single beam echo sounders and fathometers
wire-drag greatly increased the speed of the surveying
survey process by allowing a greater number of data
operations. points to be collected. Even so, this method still left
These ships gaps in the quantitative depth data in between the
worked survey lines.
together
under a single In addition to single beam echo sounder devices,
command there are echo sounders that are capable of
conducting wire-drag surveys, clearing large swaths receiving multiple return "pings". These systems
between them with a submerged wire. known as multi-beam echo sounders are covered in
depth in chapter 4 of this course.
During their commissions, however, electronic and
Fathometers
acoustic technologies were developed that allowed
From the combination of “fathom” and “meter,”
a single ship to perform the same work as two
fathometers were a type of echo sounder. In 1925,
wire-drag vessels, using side-scan sonar or multi-
the Submarine Signal Company of Boston
beam sonar.
developed the first fathometer, under the product
title “312 fathometer,” for charting the water
As a result, Heck and Rude began to operate
depth while a ship was moving.
independently in 1989, employing this improved
technology, thus ending the days of these wire
The fathometer proved to be more precise and
drag pairings.
easier to use than previous sounding methods,
making it an essential device for hydrographic
surveying, and safer navigation in some uncharted Page 7: Modern Day Hydrographic Survey
regions. Methods
These 312 Fathometers displayed deep-water Modern Tools for Hydrographic Surveying
depth soundings with a continuously rotating white A number of revolutionary technologies have been
light. The fathometer technician would read depth advanced in the latter half of the 20th century that
measurements by monitoring the position of the changed the fundamentals of hydrographic
light when an echo was heard in a set of surveying, and how we view the seafloor.
headphones.
New technologies such as side scan sonar offered a
The 312 Fathometer differed from previous means of obtaining high quality underwater
systems, in that it could still be operated while the imaging, improving the ability to identify long lost,
survey ship was moving. This technique was submerged shipwrecks (see image below), or
eventually improved upon with a red light method, viewing subtle obstructions and protrusions.
where a rotating neon tube flashed adjacent to the
depth scale when the echo returned. Other new marine
surveying technologies
Dorset Fathometer with Transceiver
include: single and
In 1933, the Dorsey fathometer was developed,
multibeam sonar,
which incorporated a transmitter plus a receiver
LIDAR, Magnetometry,
into a singular unit which came to be known as a
DC Resistive Imaging,
“transceiver”. The Dorsey fathometer had an
radar altimetry, and
operating range of 3 to 900 feet, and by 1939,
ground penetrating
could record depths automatically, using a graph-
radar. These topics will
recording instrument.
be discussed in further
Other Improvements in Fathometers detail in chapters 3 and 4 of this course.
In 1940, the portable 808 fathometer was released,
Side Scan SONAR
which was equipped with a graphic recording
Side scan sonar is a type of sonar imaging device
device. This became the standard device for
that efficiently
shallow to intermediate surveying until the mid-
and clearly
60’s.
creates an image
of large regions
In the mid-60s, with the advent of digital
of the sea bed.
technology, computerized data collection systems
(The image to the
for hydrographic surveying equipment became the
left) show a
standard. In the 70’s, the accuracy of echo
diagram of a side
sounding devices were increased with the
scan sonar’s
development of single-beam frequency systems,
potential imaging
and by the 80’s, were enhanced by the deployment
path. This type of
of dual frequency beams.
sonar system will
be discussed in depth, later in this course.
These systems combined a narrow high-frequency
beam for precision, and a wider low-frequency LIDAR
beam to provide broader sampling of the LIDAR (or Light Detection And Ranging) technology,
surrounding area. measures the elevation or depth by analyzing the
pulses of laser light reflecting off an object. LIDAR
survey systems which perform bathymetric surveys
are usually mounted on aircraft and provide Applications include characterizing sediment types,
seamless, contiguous coverage between land and identifying zones of underwater groundwater seep
sea. and discharge, as well as the mapping of geological
structures.
Bathymetric LIDAR
This can be used to acquire imaging in areas with Georadar
complex and rugged shorelines where surface (GPR) Ground penetrating radar or “georadar” is a
vessels cannot operate efficiently or safely because geophysics seismic method based on the use of
of rocks, kelp or breaking surf. Some of the focused radar energy which penetrates the ground
inhospitable areas include Alaska, the North to image subsurface conditions.
Atlantic Coast and the Caribbean Isles. LIDAR
systems will This system can only be used in fresh water
be covered in applications and is not suited for use in brackish or
more depth, saltwater environments.
later in this
Satellite-based Radar Altimetry
course, as
Satellite measurements of sea floor features are
well.
based on gravitational bulges in sea surface caused
Marine by underwater topography change. The surface of
Magnetometr the ocean bulges outward and inward representing
y the topography of the ocean floor.
Marine magnetometry surveys are performed
using a specially modified magnetometer which is The bumps, too small to be seen, can be measured
housed within a tow-behind shell known as a accurately by a radar altimeter aboard a satellite.
towfish. Satellites are also used to measure bathymetry.
Satellite radar maps deep-sea topography by
The magnetometer is dragged behind the vessel detecting the subtle variations in sea level caused
using a tether line which doubles as a data by the gravitational pull of undersea mountains,
transmission cable. Magnetometers come in a ridges, and other masses.
variety of designs, used for a variety of specialized
applications. On average, sea level is higher over mountains and
Marine DC Resistive Imaging ridges than over abyssal plains and trenches.
Direct current (DC) electrical resistivity is a
geophysical surveying technique that has a long
track record for characterizing subsurface
conditions.

Marine electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) has the

precision capabilities of DC electrical resistivity
methods, combined with the data collection speed
of traditional EM techniques. By towing an
electrode array behind a survey vessel and
continuously recording data, the marine resistivity
system can record many times the line distance of
a traditional electrical resistivity land system.
 Chapter 2: Official Agencies of procedures, charts, and publications. In 1889, an
International Maritime Conference was held,
Hydrographic Surveying proposing the establishment of a "permanent
international commission."
Page 1: The International Hydrographic
Organization (IHO) Similar proposals were suggested at the sessions of
the International Congress of Navigation in 1908,
The International Hydrographic Organization
and the International Maritime Conference in
(IHO)
1912. In 1919, hydrographers from England and
Consisting of a collaboration of roughly 87
France collaborated, taking the necessary steps to
countries, the IHO is the inter-governmental
convene an international conference of
organization which represents hydrographic
hydrographers selecting London as the most
interests throughout the globe.
suitable locale for the conference.
A primary goal of the IHO is to ensure that the 1919 Conference
world’s seas, oceans and other significant navigable In July of 1919, the First International Conference
water regions are adequately surveyed and opened, attended by the hydrographers of 24
charted. The IHO establishes international sets of nations. The objective of the conference, which still
standards for hydrographic surveying, and stands today, was:
coordinates the efforts of the various national
hydrographic survey offices. "To consider the advisability of all maritime nations
adopting similar methods in preparation,
Observer Status at the UN
construction, and production of their charts and all
The IHO has “observer status” at the United
hydrographic publications; of rendering the results
Nations, which means it has non-member
in the most convenient form to enable them to be
privileges, giving them the ability to participate in
readily used; of instituting a prompt system of
the UN's activities.
mutual exchange of hydrographic information
between all countries; and of providing an
The IHO is the principally recognized authority on
opportunity to consultations and discussions to be
hydrographic surveying and nautical charting
carried out on hydrographic subjects generally by
within the United Nations. When referring to
the hydrographic experts of the world."
hydrography and nautical charting in Conventions
and similar Instruments, it is the IHO standards and
As a result of this 1919 Conference, the permanent
specifications that are typically referenced.
organization was formed and statutes for its
History of the IHO operations were prepared.
The IHO was first established in 1921, as the
International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB). In 1970 Page 2: Office of Coast Survey
the present title of IHO was adopted as part of a
US Coast Survey
new international “Convention on the IHO.”
The “US Coast Survey” was the official title of the
Throughout the 19th century, a number of governmental agency tasked with creating nautical
maritime nations established individual charts for the US. Established in 1807 by Thomas
hydrographic agencies as a way of improving the Jefferson, it is among the oldest scientific
navigational abilities of naval and merchant organizations still in operation within the US
vessels, by providing nautical publications, charts, government.
and other navigational services. However, there
were considerable differences in hydrographic In 1878, the name was changed to that of the “US
Coast and Geodetic Survey (C&GS),” and later, in
1970 it was transferred, as an organizational sub on land-based topographic surveying and mapping,
branch of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric while naval personnel worked on hydrographic
Administration (NOAA,) under the title of “The surveying in coastal waters.
Office of Coast Survey,” which remains as the
1970 to present – as a NOAA agency
official name.
In 1970, Richard Nixon formed the still operational
Background National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
In 1807, acting President Thomas Jefferson signed The Coast and Geodetic Survey (C&GS) was
the document entitled “An act to provide for subsequently brought into this new scientific
surveying the coasts of the United States.” While oceanographic agency.
the bill’s objective was specific, to produce nautical
charts, it reflected larger issues of concern to the Today, the “Office of Coast Survey” provides the
new nation, being national boundaries, commerce, nation with navigation products and information
and defense. for improving commerce and security, and for
protecting coastal environments.
The early years of this agency were unsteady, and
struggled for a stable direction. Ferdinand Rudolph The “Office of Coast Survey, NOAA” conducts
Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler Hassler, who hydrographic surveys to measure the depth and
Ferdinand Hassler was appointed was to bottom configuration of water bodies, using the
the superintendent of the Survey in eventually data to update nautical charts, create GIS layers,
1832, and served in that position become the and to develop hydrographic modeling.
until his death in 1843. Originally
from Switzerland, he was a surveyor
Coast Survey’s
who worked predominantly in the first Increasingly, this hydrographic data is being used
US, heading the US Coast Survey superintendent for a multitude of uses, through the Integrated
and the Bureau of Weights and , traveled to Ocean and Coast Mapping program.
Measures (under the US Treasury England for the
Dept.)
purpose of Page 3: National Oceanic and Atmospheric
acquiring scientific instrumentation. However, he Administration (NOAA)
was prevented from returning throughout the
duration of the War of 1812. ESSA
In 1965, the Environmental Science Services
Following his return, he began work on a survey of Administration (ESSA), was established and became
the New York Harbor in 1817. But before the the new parent organization of both the Coast and
survey could be completed, the US Congress Geodetic Survey and the US Weather Bureau.
intervened, suspending the work due to tensions
between civilian and military control of the agency, In the process, the Coast and Geodetic Survey
eventually falling under the control of the US Army. Corps was removed from the Survey's direct
control, and put under the subordination of ESSA,
After a number of years under military authority, and renamed the Environmental Science Services
the Survey of the Coast was reestablished in 1832, Administration Corps, or "ESSA Corps." As the ESSA
with acting President Andrew Jackson appointing Corps, it still had the responsibility for providing
Hassler as superintendent. commissioned officers to man Coast and Geodetic
Survey ships.
The U.S. Coast Survey continued as a civilian
NOAA
agency with military personnel and vessels of the
Navy and Army being detailed to service with the In 1970, ESSA was
Survey. For the most part, army personnel worked expanded and
reorganized to form the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The Coast and identified above: ecosystems, climate, weather and
Geodetic Survey became defunct, as it merged with water, and commerce and transportation.
other governmental scientific agencies to form
Five Fundamental Activities of NOAA:
NOAA; however its constituent parts lived on
 Monitoring and observing Earth systems
within other agencies.
with instruments and data collection
networks.
The geodetic responsibilities were reassigned to
the newly formed “National Geodetic Survey,” its  Understanding and describing Earth
hydrographic survey duties to NOAA's new “Office systems through research and analysis of
of Coast Survey,” and its ships to the new NOAA that data.
fleet, while the ESSA Corps became the new  Assessing and predicting the changes of
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration these systems over time.
Commissioned Officer Corps, or "NOAA Corps".  Engaging, advising, and informing the public
and partner organizations with important
The National Geodetic Survey, Office of Coast information.
Survey, and NOAA fleet all fell under control of  Managing resources for the betterment of
NOAA's new National Ocean Service. society, economy and environment

Roles of NOAA Page 4: US Naval Oceanographic Office

NOAA plays several specific roles in society, the
benefits of which extend beyond the US economy Depot of Charts and Instruments
and into the larger global community: In 1830, the US Navy established the “Depot of
Charts and Instruments” to maintain a supply of
1) As a Supplier of Environmental Information
nautical charts for issue to naval vessels. It soon
Products
became apparent that the Depot would be unable
NOAA supplies information to its customers and
to obtain and maintain an adequate supply of the
partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and
latest data unless it undertook production of charts
the atmosphere.
from its own surveys.
This is clearly manifest in the production of
In 1837, the first survey sponsored by the Depot
weather warnings and forecasts through the
and led by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes resulted in
National Weather Service, but NOAA's information
four engraved charts published for use by the US
products extend to climate, ecosystems, and
Navy. Lieutenant Wilkes continued his surveying
commerce as well.
and gained fame as leader of the U.S. Exploring
2) As a Provider of Environmental Stewardship Expedition.
Services
NOAA is also the steward of U.S. coastal and The expedition ranged over the eastern Atlantic to
marine environments. In coordination with federal, Antarctica, the coasts of both Americas, and far
state, local, tribal, and international authorities, into the west and southwest Pacific. It began the
NOAA manages the use of these environments, U.S. collection of world magnetic data and
regulating fisheries and marine sanctuaries as well contributed substantially to hydrographic,
as protecting threatened and endangered marine meteorological, botanical and geological
species. knowledge of the explored regions.
3) As a Leader in Applied Scientific Research
Over the next five years, 87 similar charts were
NOAA is intended to be a source of accurate and
published and issued from the results of surveys by
objective scientific information in the four
Wilkes and his officers. These individual surveys,
particular areas of national and global importance
however, were limited in scope; the Depot needed This was the beginning of our present day's
a way to gather information quickly on a worldwide sophisticated, high-tech methods of surveying,
basis. measuring and recording of ice thickness, ice-ridge
profiles and other characteristics to monitor ocean-
Matthew Fontaine Maury
ice conditions above and below the surface.
Naval officer Matthew Fontaine Maury, who
became known as "The Pathfinder of the Seas", Advent of Sonic Sounding Methodology
supplied the answer to this dilemma. Commander Because features and conditions of the world's
Maury, who held the position of Hydrographer of oceans are constantly changing, surveying, charting
the Navy from 1842-1861, is credited with and mapping must be continuous processed.
founding the science of oceanography. His system Experiences during World War I showed the need
for collecting and using oceanographic data for a greater level of accuracy for oceanographic
revolutionized navigation of the seas. data.

Maury assuming command of the office in 1842 By 1922, responding to these needs, the Navy had
recognized the possibilities for expanding the developed the first practical sonic sounding
services of the Depot. He suggested the creation of machine, making it possible to surpass all previous
a central agency, so that hydrographic data could efforts in deep-sea sounding and bathymetric
be digested, compiled and published for the charting. Aerial photography was used for the first
benefit of all. time that year.
WWII Era Hydrographic Surveying
This idea became the basic formula of
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the demands
hydrographic offices throughout the world, making
for charts increased to about 40 times that of the
Maury's contributions a milestone in naval
pre-war rate.
oceanography. Within five years, 26 million reports
poured into the Depot, which originally had been
The Hydrographic Office was moved to more
intended only as a storehouse of charts and
adequate facilities at Suitland, Maryland, about 6
instruments.
miles from the nation’s Capital building, and was
placed under the cognizance of the Chief of Naval
US Naval Observatory and Hydrographical Office
Operations to focus activities directly to programs
In 1854, the agency was given the official name of
of national security.
The US Naval Observatory and Hydrographical
Office. In 1866, an Act of Congress separated the
Additional survey vessels were obtained, each
two functions, establishing the Hydrographic Office
equipped to conduct surveys and to produce
as a distinct activity.
printed charts aboard ship in a minimum of time to
keep up with fleet advances across the Pacific. At
By this time the Office's mission had expanded to
the peak of World War II, 43 million charts were
include "the carrying out of surveys, the collection
printed and issued in one year.
of information and the printing of every kind of
nautical chart or publication." The Office continued Present day Location and Title
to grow throughout the nineteenth century. The Hydrographic Office was redesignated as the
US Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) in
Surveying Ice Hazards
1962, and in 1976 the Office was relocated to the
The collision of the Titanic with an iceberg in 1912
National Space Technology Laboratory (NSTL),
prompted the Hydrographic Office to urge that an
which is now known as the John C. Stennis Space
ice patrol be established to document sea-ice
Center, in southern Mississippi.
hazards to prevent such disasters.
NAVOCEANO still oversees the Naval Ice Center in The NHD can take advantage of a flow direction
Suitland, Maryland, and the Fleet Survey Team at network that can be processed to trace the flow of
Stennis Space Center, Mississippi, and is the largest water downstream.
subordinate command under the parent agency
(CNMOC) or “Commander, Naval Meteorology and A rich set of attributes used to identify the water
Oceanography Command,” which is also located at features includes an identifier, the official name of
Stennis Space Center. the feature, the length or area of the feature, and
metadata describing the source of the data.
Page 5: US Geological Survey - National
Hydrography Dataset (NHD)
No Bathymetric Data
Though the NHD does not specifically contain the
bathymetric or underwater topographic profile
data for the nation’s waterways, it does contain the
boundaries of these water bodies and channels. This image shows a digital terrain map, overlain
with hydrological features.
The National Hydrography Dataset (NHD)
The NHD is a digital database which consists of The identifier is used in an addressing system to
surface water features used in mapping link specific information about the water such as
applications. water discharge, water quality, and fish population.

It contains features such as lakes, ponds, streams, Using the basic water features, flow network,
rivers, canals, dams and stream gages. linked information, and other characteristics, it is
Cartographers can link to or download the NHD to possible to study cause and affect relationships,
use within their own computer mapping software. such as how a source of poor water quality
The NHD can be used in mapping, or can also be upstream might affect a fish population
used to perform geospatial analysis within GIS downstream.
applications.
The National Map

It is a digital vector-based geospatial dataset The NHD is part of the USGS’s “The National Map
designed for use in analyzing the flow of water Project,” which is the collaboration between the
throughout the nation, representing over 7.5- USGS and other federal, state, or local agencies to
million miles of streams and rivers and 6.5-million improve and deliver topographic information of the
lake and ponds. US.

Use in GIS Applications The NHD is also linked with similar datasets which
In mapping, the NHD is used with other types of represent the surface waters of Canada and
data themes such as elevational, boundary, or Mexico. The dataset primarily maps features a
transportation features to produce general 1:24,000-scale, but in certain areas provides detail
reference maps. at 1:5,000-scale.

In geospatial analysis, the NHD can be utilized by a Some of the GIS thematic features which are
variety of different GIS specialists and scientists available in the National Map project are:
which use GIS technology for their geospatial  Hydrography
analysis and modeling.  Roadway Infrastructure
 Structures
Analyzing water flow using directional attributes  Ortho-imagery
  Topography tabular information concerning the US Port System,
 3D elevations and associated harbor channels. Each district
 Historical Features maintains their own database of survey sheets;
 Land cover select a location and district to find files available
for download.
NHDPlus
A version of the NHD, called the “NHDPlus,” is US Port System
integrated with elevational and other landscape The U.S. deep-water port system includes more
data to create detailed drainage catchments and than 300 federal harbor channel projects. There
flow volume and velocity estimates for streams and are 51 ports with depths greater than or equal to
rivers of the US at 1:100,000-scale. This data is 40 feet.
available from the EPA agency.
Federal channels are the main arteries of our
Page 6: US Army Corps of Engineers and the nation’s waterways, and it is imperative that
Intercoastal Waterway System accurate depth and position data remains up to
date and accurate. Ports do not only exist in
USACE seacoast cities, but exist in a number of deep
The US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) is the inland cities as well, such as St. Paul and St. Louis,
largest supplier of nautical chart update data for Kansas City, and Louisville, to name a few.
NOAA. USACE is the governmental agency which is
responsible for developing the nation's inland Major rivers such as the Mississippi, Ohio, James,
waterways for commercial navigational use. Delaware, Arkansas, Verdigris, Illinois, Columbia,
Snake, Hudson, and the Great Lakes regions all
The USACE is tasked with the operation and have ports which are maintained by the USACE. In
maintenance of roughly 12,000 miles of addition, there are a number of USACE ports
navigational channels and 230 locks, and are situated in the various bays, sounds, canals, and
responsible for surveying much of the US inland inlets throughout the US.
waterways and
The Intracoastal Waterway
Projects overseen by the ship channels,
including the The Intracoastal Waterway (ICW) is a 3,000-mile
USACE:
inland waterway along the Atlantic and Gulf of
 waterway channels Intercoastal
Waterway Mexico coasts of the US, running from Boston,
(roughly 12,000
Systems. Massachusetts, southward along the Atlantic
miles)
Seaboard and around the southern tip of Florida,
 anchorages USACE Districts then following the Gulf Coast to Brownsville, Texas.
 turning basins Approximately Some sections of the waterway consist of natural
 lock systems (230) 25 USACE inlets, saltwater rivers, bays, and sounds, while
 dams districts located others are artificial canals.
 protective jetties throughout the
 breakwaters country provide
 The Intercoastal NOAA with
Waterway System charting
 US Port System (926 information.
federal harbor NOAA relies
channel projects exclusively on
that support the US the USACE to
port system) provide this The ICW provides a safe, well-maintained navigable
survey and route along its length without many of the
navigational hazards of travel found on the open surveys of public waterways prior to developing
sea. areas in the proximity of navigable waterways.

Page 7: Non-official, Privately Funded Private surveying firms are also contracted to
Surveys survey in support of design and engineering firms
that are under contract for large public projects.
Surveys by the Oil Industry
Governmental agencies are not the only parties Dredging Operations

which conduct hydrographic surveys. Many Private surveys are also conducted prior to and
commercial entities also conduct large-scale following most dredging operations to obtain
hydrographic and geophysical survey ventures; volumetric readings before and after the sediment
especially in the oil exploration, and offshore is removed.
drilling industries. Private Harbors and Waterfront Facilities
Surveys for Submarine Cabling Companies with large private slips, docks, or other
Industrial entities installing submarine waterfront installations have their facilities and the
communications cables or power lines require open water near their facilities surveyed regularly;
detailed surveys of cable routes prior to particularly following any major storm events.
installation.
Page 8: Crowdsourced Bathymetric
They increasingly use acoustic imagery equipment Surveying
previously found only in military applications when
Crowdsourcing
conducting their highly specialized marine surveys.
This means of private funding is entering the
hydrographic surveying arena as well. Publicly
Specialized companies
funded projects such as OpenSeaMap, TeamSurv
exist that have both
and ARGUS, are some examples of these public
the equipment and
collaborations.
expertise to contract
with both commercial Outdated Sounding Data
and governmental Nearly half of the sounding data which is shown on
entities to perform US NOAA nautical charts dates back to pre-1940.
such surveys. This data was collected by antiquated lead line
soundings and wire drag operations. Even the
The above image shows a cross section of a subsea 500,000 square nautical miles of the most
cable cluster. navigationally significant EEZ waters would require
167 years to survey.
Private Funding of Projects
Large construction companies, universities, and EEZ
investment groups will often fund hydrographic The (EEZ) or exclusive economic zone is the zone

The “average area end” method

This is typically used to approximate the
volume of sedimentary material to be
removed by dredging. This method
assumes that the volume quantity between
adjacent sections is linear and does not
account for irregularities.
where the US and other coastal nations have Although these collaborative surveys are normally
jurisdiction over natural resources, (see image accurate to 0.1 - 0.2 meters, this approach is no
below.) valid substitute for a professional and systematic
survey. Nevertheless, the results are often more
Augmenting existing Geodata
than sufficient to meet many requirements where
Crowdsourced data can significantly augment
high resolution, high accuracy surveying is not
authoritative geodata bases and provide answers
necessary or affordable.
to critical mapping deficiencies. The challenge in
the marine geospatial sector is to ensure the
reliability of crowdsourced data by managing and
structuring the process to ensure that it can be
confidently relied upon as useable and accurate.
OpenSeaMap
This is a software project collecting freely usable
nautical information and geospatial data to create
a worldwide nautical chart.
TeamSurv
This is a collaborative effort to gather GPS and
depth data from small craft in order to fill in data
gaps in existing datasets.

ARGUS
This is similar to the TeamSurv effort, which seeks
to augment the existing bathymetric datasets with
small vessel volunteer collaboration.
Volunteer Crowdsourced Surveying
Volunteer crowdsourced vessels record position,
depth, and time data using standard navigation
instruments, and then the data is post-processed
to account for speed of sound, tidal, and other
corrections.

With this approach there is no need for a specific

survey vessel, or for professionally qualified
surveyors to be on board, as the expertise is in the
data processing that occurs following the raw data
upload to the server.

Crowdsourcing has the benefit of greatly reduced,

or free surveying providing a continuous survey of
an area, however some of the drawbacks include
the effort and time involved in recruiting
participants, and in acquiring a high enough density
and quality of data.
 Chapter 3: Acoustical (Sound) the speed of sound must also be measured through
means, such as deploying a sound velocity probe
Based Techniques and into the water.
Equipment Higher Accuracy
Most charted ocean depths use an average or
Page 1: Echo Sounding and SONAR standard sound speed. Where greater accuracy is
required average and even seasonal standards may
SONAR
be applied to ocean regions.
Sonar (which was originally an acronym for SOund
Navigation And Ranging) is a technique that uses
For high accuracy depths, usually restricted to
sound propagation in a water medium, to navigate,
special purpose or scientific surveys, a sensor may
communicate with or detect objects on or beneath
be lowered to measure the temperature, pressure
the surface of the water, such as rocks, shoals, or
and salinity.
other vessels.
Active and Passive Sonar These factors have subtle effects on sound
Two forms of sound technology share the name propagation, and are used in calculations to fine
"sonar": passive sonar is essentially listening for tune the actual sound speed in the local water
the sound made by vessels; active sonar is emitting column.
pulses of sounds and listening for echoes.
Fathometers
Sonar may be used as a means to acoustically
Echo sounding is
locate or measure the echo characteristics of
effectively a special
"targets" in the water.
purpose application
Air-based Sonar of sonar used to
Acoustic location in air was used before the locate the bottom.
development of radar wave technology. Sonar may In the past, prior to
be used in air for robotics navigation, and SODAR present day depth
(upward looking in-air sonar) is used for measurement units,
atmospheric investigations. The term sonar is also a unit of water
used for the equipment used to generate and depth was the fathom. Thus early echo sounding
receive the sound. devices or instrumentation used for determining
water depth was referred to, as a fathometer (see
Hydroacoustics
image above).
The acoustic frequencies used in sonar systems
vary from very low (infrasonic) to extremely high Hydro Acoustic Assessments
(ultrasonic). The study of underwater sound is Echo sounding can also refer to hydro acoustic
known as underwater acoustics or hydroacoustics. "echo sounders" defined as active sound in water
(sonar) used to study fish.
Echo Sounding
Echo sounding is a type of sonar which is used for
Hydro acoustic assessments have traditionally
determining the depth of a body of water by
employed mobile surveys from boats to evaluate
transmitting sound pulses into water. The distance
fish biomass and spatial distributions. Conversely,
is measured by multiplying half of the time, (from
fixed-location techniques use stationary
the signal's outgoing pulse to its return after
transducers to monitor passing fish.
reflecting from a solid surface,) by the speed of
sound in the water. For precise applications of
echo-sounding, such as hydrographic applications,
“Sounding” frequencies for deep water sounding are 33 kHz
The term “sounding” refers to all types of depth and 24 kHz.
measurements, including those that don't use
sound, and is unrelated in origin to the word sound Narrow beam width for deeper soundings
in the sense of noise or tones. The beam width of the transducer is also a
consideration for the hydrographic surveyor.
Page 2: SONAR for Hydrographic Surveying
In order to obtain the best resolution of the data
Considerations
which is captured, a narrow beam width is
In areas where detailed bathymetry is necessary, a
preferred. This is especially important when
precise echo sounder may be used for the work of
sounding in deep water, as the resulting footprint
hydrography. There are a number of variables to
of the acoustic pulse can be a very wide swath
consider when evaluating such an echo sounding
once it reaches the distant sea floor.
system.
Multibeam Sounders
Considerations such as:
In addition to the single beam echo sounder, there
 vertical accuracy
are echo sounders that are capable of receiving
 resolution multiple “return pings". These systems are
 acoustic beam width of the transmitting or discussed in further detail on page 4.
receiving beam
 the acoustic frequency of the transducer Standards
Standards for hydrographic echo sounding
Dual Frequency
The required precision and accuracy of a
Most hydrographic echo sounders are dual hydrographic echo sounding is defined by the
frequency, having a low frequency pulse (which is requirements of the International Hydrographic
typically around 24 kHz) that can be transmitted Organization (IHO) for surveys that are to be
simultaneously with a high frequency pulse undertaken to IHO standards.
(typically around 200 kHz).
These values are contained within the IHO
Since both frequencies are discrete, (as opposed to publication S44. In order to comply with these
continuous) the two return signals do not typically standards, the surveyor needs to take into
interfere with one another. consideration, the vertical and horizontal accuracy
Advantages of the echo sounder and transducer, as well as the
There are many advantages of dual frequency echo survey system as a whole.
sounding, including the ability to identify a
vegetative layer or a layer of soft silt or muck on Different hydrographic organizations, such as
top of a layer of rock. Most hydrographic NOAA for example, will have their own sets of field
operations use a 200 kHz transducer, which is procedures and operations manuals, to guide their
suitable for inshore work up to 100 meters in surveyors in meeting the required standards.
depth.
Page 3: Side Scan Sonar
Use of Lower Frequencies
Lower frequencies required for deeper soundings Side Scan Sonar
Deeper water requires a lower frequency This is a type of sonar system that is very efficient
transducer than shallower waters, as the acoustic at clearly imaging large areas of the sea floor. A
signal of these lower frequencies is less susceptible Side Scan Sonar is able to provide a near
to attenuation (a reduction in the amplitude of the photographic imaging of the sea’s bottom, allowing
signal) in the water column. Commonly used for a clear and concise evaluation of the subsurface
conditions. This provides a clear picture of the SSS Towfish
bottom of the scanned area, showing major The Side Scan Sonar (SSS) Tow Fish contains the
obstructions and protrusions, cabling piping and transmitting circuitry to energize transducers,
mechanical infrastructure, and other objects such which project high intensity, high frequency bursts
as shipwrecks. of acoustic energy in the fan-shaped beams, which
are narrow in the horizontal plane and wide in the
Most side scan systems provide clear imaging but vertical plane. These sound beams project along
cannot provide depth information. Like other types the sea bed on both sides of the moving vessel.
of sonar devices, a side scan type transmits pulsed
sound energy in the form of a fan and analyzes the Objects or
return signal (echo) that has bounced off the topographic
seafloor or other solid surfaces. features on
the seabed
In a side scan, the fan of transmitted energy produce
sweeps the seafloor from directly beneath the echoes, which
towfish to either side, typically to a distance of 100 are received
meters. The strength of the return echo is by the
continuously recorded, creating a "picture" of the transducers.
ocean bottom and solid surfaces which the scan
encounters. Echoes are received and amplified and sent up the
Tow cable to the Graphic Recorder located on a
Objects that protrude from the bottom create a ship. The data is also tape recorded for future post-
light area (strong return) and shadows from these processing.
objects are dark areas (little or no return), or vice
versa, depending on operator preference. The system has widespread applications on oceans,
inland lakes, rivers, harbors and canals.
Side scan sonar is typically used in conjunction with
a single beam or multibeam sonar system to meet The SSS method is used for a number of different
full bottom coverage specifications for submarine applications, such as:
hydrographic surveys. For instance, NOAA field  geological studies
units normally use various models of side scan  sand ripple studies
sonar in both hull-mounted and towed  bathymetry & hydrography
configurations.  mineral search
 cable and pipeline locating (SSS for exposed
The intensity of the acoustic reflections from the and SBP for buried)
seafloor of this fan-shaped beam is recorded in a  Various types of marine construction and
series of cross-track slices. When stitched together engineering surveys
along the direction of motion, these slices form an  Dredging
image of the sea bottom within the swath  wreck location and general searching
(coverage width) of the beam.  underwater archaeology
 gas seeps
The sound frequencies used in side-scan sonar  military applications
usually range from 100 to 500 kHz; higher  iceberg scour mapping
frequencies yield better resolution but less range.
 fisheries applications
 etc.
The basic components of the system consist of: profile directly beneath the transducer, and are run
 Side Scan Sonar Tow Fish on lines, or “transects” at approximately 90
 Towing Cable degrees to the underwater slopes.
 Graphic Recorder
They are typically separated by between 25 and 50
GLORIA Side Scan Sonar
feet in docks and harbors, and between 100 and
The GLORIA side scan sonar is another type of side 2000 feet in navigation channels.
scan sonar system used for determining the
topography of the ocean floor. GLORIA stands for Multi Beam
“Geological Long Range Inclined Asdic.” Like most A multi beam system is a more complex and
side-scan sonars, the GLORIA instrument is towed advanced technology than single beam. They are a
behind a ship. appropriate choice for a variety of different
projects, including construction, dredging, and
This type of sonar operates at relatively low engineering. An advantage of these systems is that
frequencies to obtain long range scans, and is used they provide 100% bottom coverage and are able
for surveying large areas. GLORIA has a ping rate of to complete a scan of a given area much quicker.
two per minute, and detects returns from a range
of up to 22 km on either side of the sonar fish. The larger the project area and the deeper the
water, the more advantageous this method will
Page 4: Single Beam and Multi Beam Sonar become, as the reduced time on the field more
than compensates for the higher daily cost of
Single Beam vs Multi Beam operation.
When choosing between various depth sounding,
hydrographic survey approaches, there are several Pros of Multi Beam

factors that a hydrographic surveyor must Most end users of the data will value the greater
consider, with pros and cons in each type of density of multi beam depth measurements, the
surveying system. increased resolution of smaller features, and the
ability to view upslope areas, or beneath docks and
ships. The quality of the datasets which are
created, and the methods of displaying the results,
show more detail and are often easier to
comprehend.
Cons of Multi Beam
On the other hand, the equipment is more difficult
to use and understand. Also in very shallow waters,
the multi-beam system will become nothing more
than an expensive single beam system, because the
swath width reduces to nearly the same coverage
The image above shows a comparison of the width as a single beam.
coverage with lead line (non-sonar), single beam
sonar and multi beam sonar surveys Although, with the multi-beam system, high spots
and even some objects that would normally be
Single Beam missed in a single beam survey, can easily be
A single beam system provides a less expensive, detect.
simpler technique, providing faster processing and
results. Single-beam depth sounding (both single
and dual frequency systems) can only capture a
 Chapter 4: Other Hydrographic frequency green laser penetrates through the
water column and reflects off the bottom surfaces.
Surveying Methods Analyses of these two distinct pulses are used to
establish water depths and shoreline elevations.
Page 1: LIDAR
Water Turbidity Problems
LIDAR With proper water clarity, these systems can reach
Provides seamless land and sea coverage depths of 50 meters. However, turbidity is
LIDAR (light detection and ranging) technology sometimes an issue by obscuring the laser,
measures elevation or depth by analyzing the preventing it from reaching the bottom. However,
reflected recent advances in turbid water post-processing
pulses of techniques are helping to remedy the situation.
laser light off
an object. Good choice for scanning complex shoreline areas
Lidar-based Bathymetric LIDAR is very useful in acquiring
surveying datasets in areas with complex and rugged
systems are shorelines, where surface vessels cannot operate
usually efficiently or safely because of rocks, vegetation or
mounted on breaking surfs.
aircraft and are capable of providing seamless,
US Virgin Islands (NOAA)
contiguous coverage between land and sea.
NOAA recently began a LIDAR-based survey of the
shorelines of the U.S. Virgin Islands, where some of
The image above shows a LIDAR image of land
the charted areas were the last official US survey
areas, a marina, and a dredged navigation channel.
was in 1924. The high volume of vessel traffic
Point Clouds transiting the Pillsbury Sound, between St. Thomas
LIDAR scanners collect datasets in the form of point and St. John islands, makes this a critical area for
clouds, which are simply datasets of millions of NOAA hydrographic surveying.
geospatial referenced, data points which represent
the point in space where the laser beam reflects Unlike more common topographic LIDAR that
from the surface and sends a “return” back to the measures land elevation, a bathymetric LIDAR
scanner’s receiver circuitry. survey measures water depths and the shape and
slope of the adjacent shoreline. NOAA uses
These datasets are extremely large in terms of data bathymetric LIDAR data acquired by aircraft to
quantity, and require up to date computing power augment its traditional vessel-borne hydrographic
for handling their storage and post processing. This surveys.
raw data is usually not usable until it has been
imported and converted for use in 3D modeling While sonar surveys performed from boats provide
software programs. greater resolution, an airplane flying a LIDAR
system over a shallow coastal environment can
Bathymetric LIDAR (dual frequencies for water
and bed surfaces)
cover a large area more quickly and safely.
Bathymetric LIDAR is used for determining water
The datasets gathered from these surveys will
depth by measuring the time delay between the
mostly be used to update NOAA’s nautical charts,
transmission of a pulse and its return signal.
however the data will also support a wide range of
Systems use laser pulses received at two
coastal management and marine habitat studies.
frequencies: a lower frequency infrared pulse is
reflected off the sea surface while a higher
UAV (Drone-based) LIDAR electronics on the tow vessel.
Recent advances in UAV technologies, and the
Marine Magnetic Surveys
greater affordability of both the UAV (unmanned
aerial vehicle) and the LIDAR units, is making UAV- Magnetic surveys are very useful in the excavation
based LIDAR scanning a much more popular choice and exploration of underwater archaeological sites.
for scanning coastal areas and gathering The apparatus used on the water slightly differs
bathymetric datasets. from that on land.

This is creating a cottage industry for many Marine magnetometers come in two types:
adventurous surveying entrepreneurs, and opening  Surface towed
new streams of revenue for hydrographic survey  Near-bottom
professionals.
Both types are towed at a sufficient distance from
Page 2: Marine Magnetometry the ship to allow them to collect data without the
data output being affected by the ship's magnetic
Localized Magnetic Field Variations properties.
Local variations found within the Earth's magnetic
field are most often caused by ferromagnetic Surface towed magnetometers allow for a wider
objects or other magnetized objects which are range of detection at the expense of precise
located in the proximity of a given area. By accuracy that is possible using near-bottom
measuring and recording these variations, it’s magnetometers.
possible to detect objects submerged beneath the
Fluxgate Magnetometer
water (and sediments). An accurate map of the
object's position can be created by recording the The most common type of magnetometer used in
sensor's position along with the magnetic variation. marine surveying applications is the “fluxgate
magnetometer.”
Magnetometer
Marine magnetometry surveys are performed These types of magnetometers utilize two
using a specially modified magnetometer, designed ferromagnetic cores each wound with a primary
for use in coil and an outer secondary coil attached to an
marine survey ammeter. When an AC current passes through the
operations. primary coils, it creates opposing magnetic fields
The that vary in intensity based on the outside
magnetometer magnetic fields.
is installed in a water-tight towfish (image), which
is dragged behind the vessel using a tow cable. By floating them parallel to the seafloor, they can
These magnetometers come in a variety of designs, measure the changes in magnetic fields over the
used for a variety of specialized applications. seabed.
Tow Cable Proton precession magnetometer
The magnetometer towfish shelled housing is Another common type is the newer proton
connected to the data precession magnetometer. This utilizes a container
collection unit via a tow full of hydrogen rich liquids (commonly kerosene or
cable (image). The cabling methanol) that, when agitated by a direct current
plugs in to the towfish in or Radio Frequency (RF), cause the electrons to
the front, doubling as a become energized, transferring the energy to the
tow cable and for data protons due to the “Overhauser Effect” basically
transmission to the turning them into dipole magnets.
 Self-potential (SP)
When the stimulus is removed, the protons Self-Potential (SP) geophysical surveys measure the
“precess” at a rate that can be interpreted to potential difference between any two points on the
determine the magnetic forces of the area. ground produced by the small, naturally produced
currents that occur beneath the Earth's surface.
Applications
Magnetometers have a very diverse range of The SP method is passive, and non-intrusive; not
applications, including locating objects, such as: requiring the application of an electric current. The
 sunken vessels self-potential method is traditionally used as a
 hazards for tunnel boring machines mineral exploration tool and for downhole logging
 archaeological in the oil industry, but recently it has been adapted
 unexploded ordnance location (UXO) for use in hydrogeological (groundwater)
 toxic waste drums applications, by the use of more sensitive
 as well as a wide range of mineral deposits equipment and the careful application of data
and geological structures correction processes.

Typical applications of marine magnetometry This technology is not suitable for use in most
surveying are: hydrographic applications.
 Archaeologic studies
Marine ERI
 Engineering studies
The marine-based ERI unit works in a similar
 Geologic studies
fashion to the land-based model, with the
 Mineral exploration
electrode being towed behind a survey vessel
 Search and recovery instead of being dropped into boreholes.
Compared to
Page 3: DC Marine Resistivity Imaging land system,
Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI) the Marine ERI
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) or electrical is able to
resistivity imaging (ERI) is a geophysical technique collect
used for imaging sub-surface structures from extraordinarily
electrical resistivity measurements made at the large amounts
surface, or by electrodes in one or more boreholes. of data in an average day.

If the electrodes are suspended in the boreholes, To use the marine module, you simply connect the
deeper sections can be investigated. It is closely accessories and then tow the sensor cable behind
related to the medical imaging technique electrical the boat at 2 to 4 miles/h. The module gathers
impedance tomography (EIT), and is continuous 2D scans. In an eight hour day, it is not
mathematically the same inverse problem. uncommon to gather over 25 linear miles of data.

Induced polarization (IP) Marine DC electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) allows

A related geophysical method called “induced for the collection of streaming marine data using a
polarization” measures the transient response. The towed cable rig. With marine ERI, hydrographic
technique evolved from techniques of electrical surveys can be performed with continuously
prospecting that predate digital computers, where recorded electrical resistivity imaging data. The
layers or anomalies were sought rather than recorded data
images. contains
positional
attributes from a GPS receiver, along with the the reflected radar pulse is interpreted in order to
depth profile measured with a 200 KHz echo estimate the distance between the radar altimeter
sounder. and the reflecting surface. Surface irregularities can
also be estimated. The expected return pulse can
By towing an electrode array behind a ship and be derived from a few basic mathematical
continuously recording data with the ERI unit, the considerations.
marine resistivity set-up can record many times the
Frequency modulated continuous-wave (FMCW)
line-distance of a traditional land-based ERI system. radar
Applications for Marine ERI With this system, the greater the frequency shift
These include: the further the distance traveled. This method can
 characterizing sediment type (sand vs. clay) achieve better accuracy than the pulsed radar
or identifying hard rock system using the same outlay. And radar altimeters
 identifying zones of submarine that utilize frequency modulation (FM) are the
groundwater discharge industry standard.
 mapping geologic structures
 Determining sub-bottom geology for As of 2010, all commercial radar altimeters use
dredging purposes linear frequency modulation - continuous wave
 Monitoring leakage in a dam (LFM-CW or FM-CW). About 25,000 aircraft in the
 Mapping fresh and saltwater interfaces US have at least one radio altimeter unit onboard.
near shorelines or offshore
This includes all commercial transport and all
 Characterizing the sub bottom of estuaries
business aircraft licensed to fly for hire, which are
 Measuring water column salinity variations
required to have at least two separate radio
 Mineral exploration (usually placer
altimeters onboard each aircraft.
deposits)
 Locating freshwater springs at sea Delay Doppler (or SAR) Altimetry
(submarine groundwater discharge) The primary difference between Delay Doppler (or
Synthetic Aperture Radar) and pulse-limited
Page 4: Radar Altimetry; Satellite-based radar altimetry is that Delay Doppler altimetry looks at a
smaller section of the pulse-limited radar footprint,
Radar Altimetry
but emits far more pulse signals to give the effect
A radar altimetry system is typically mounted on of covering the same footprint as pulse-limited but
aircraft or satellite, and measures the altitude with better resolution.
above the terrain which is presently beneath the
altimetry unit by timing how long it takes for a Hydrographic applications for radar altimetry
beam of radio waves to reflect from the ground Some applications include:
and return to the plane or satellite.

This type of altimeter provides the distance

between the antenna and the ground directly
below it, in contrast to a barometric altimeter
which provides the distance above a defined
datum, which is usually mean sea level.
Pulse-Limited Altimetry
With this type, the radar altimeter measures the
return power of the radar pulse that's reflected off
the land or ocean surface. The time differential for
  For conducting static bathymetric surveys sound waves scattered back from particles within
and current field observations analyzing the the water column. The term ADCP is a generic term
“Local Gravity Wave Dispersion*.” for all acoustic current profilers although the
 For conducting dynamic profiling of sea abbreviation originates from an instrument series
currents by the “Radar Doppler Current introduced by RD Instruments in the 1980s.
Profiler” method.
The working frequencies range of ADCPs range
from 38 KHz to several MHz.
*Water Wave Dispersion
Measuring Bathymetry
In fluid dynamics, dispersion of water waves
generally refers to frequency dispersion, RA satellites can be useful in measuring
which means that waves of different
bathymetry in the oceans. Satellite radar maps out
the deep-sea topography by detecting the subtle
wavelengths travel at varied phase speeds.
variations in sea level caused by the gravitational
Water waves, in this context, are waves
pull of undersea mountains, ridges, and other land
propagating on the water surface, with
masses.
gravity and surface tension as the
restorative forces. As a result, water with a On average, sea level is higher over mountains and
free surface is usually considered a ridges than over abyssal plains and trenches.
dispersive medium.
Other uses of radar altimetry:
For a given water depth  Navigation
Surface gravity waves (i.e. waves which  Prediction of seafloor depth
occur where the air and water meet) and  Planning shipboard surveys
gravity (as the only force restoring the  Identifying plate tectonics
surface to flatness), propagate faster with  Underwater volcanoes
increasing wavelength.  Petroleum and gas exploration
For a given (fixed) wavelength
 Identifying lithospheric structure
Gravity waves in deeper water have a larger
phase speed than in shallower water.
Page 5: Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
In contrast with the behavior of gravity
GPR
waves, capillary waves (i.e. only forced by
(GPR) Ground penetrating radar or georadar is a
surface tension) propagate faster for
geophysics seismic method based on the use of
shorter wavelengths. Besides frequency focused radar energy which penetrates the ground
dispersion, water waves also exhibit to image subsurface conditions.
amplitude dispersion. This is a nonlinear
effect, by which waves of larger amplitude Recent advances in technology have led to more
have a different phase speed from small- compact and better quality imaging systems which
amplitude waves. can be operated by a single technician, for
performing a detailed examination of the
subsurface. This system is used in shallow water in
Acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP)
addition to dry ground.
An acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) is a
hydro acoustic current meter similar to sonar,
Fresh water applications only (no salt water)
attempting to measure water current velocities
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) can be used in
over a depth range using the Doppler effect of
fresh water lakes and river; however it cannot be
used in salt water or brackish water due to the depths and then recorded by the antenna. The
increased conductivity values of these water system records the amplitude of the reflected
bodies. signal and the two-way time it takes to complete
the cycle in order to calculate the depth of the
Applications of GPR
anomaly.
GPR is used in freshwater environments to
determine the bathymetry, and for profiling sub-
bottom sedimentary stratigraphy and stratum
Page 6: Locating of UXO using GPR
interfaces.
Locating of UXO
It is also useful in identifying natural and man- The locating of (UXO) unexploded ordnances is also
made objects including cables, pipes, boats, a valuable and life-saving application of marine
outboards, logs and other artifacts buried deep in GPR. Many UXO have wound up in the muck and
the sediment. It can be used in frozen regions to sediment in wetlands throughout the world; even
measure ice and permafrost thickness or to in the US.
determine the structural aspects of ice and snow.
GPR is useful in locating these ordnances which
GPR is considered to be the most effective method, wind up submerged in freshwater.
on land and for water bodies (rivers & lakes only), Lakes, rivers, and wetlands are common on many
to obtain information of buried objects, buried military bases, especially within artillery and
pipelines, rails, and more. bombing ranges, some of which have been
mandated to close and convert to public use.
This method has the advantage of being
instantaneous in imaging the subsurface, allowing Many of these ranges have been in use since the
the technician to actually view the subsurface 1930s, but environmental mapping of stray
conditions while performing the data acquisition. ordnance has been implemented on some bases
The data is later post-processed for establishing only within the last 20 years.
the depth, diameter and other properties of
detected pipes. Of particular concern are dangers associated with
shallow lakes because unexploded ordnance (UXO)
GPR is able to detect both metallic and non- are then close to waders, fishermen, motors, and
metallic objects, and even objects very close to one paddles. Lakes and ponds may dry up and leave
another. It is effectively used for regions where the buried UXO dangerously close to the surface.
sea bottom has vegetation making it unsuitable for
GPR vs. SONAR
an ordinary depth sounder.
GPR is a competing method against SONAR for
It can detect the presence of boulders, rocks or locating submerged or buried UXO. As does
other objects lying on the sea floor or buried SONAR, GPR can delineate sub bottom strata and
beneath the soil. The technique also detects detect localized objects within it, to resolution of a
geologic contacts and other features having a decimeter or better.
dielectric contrast with surroundings.
Unlike SONAR, GPR is able to operate from either
Principle of GPR an ice or a water platform, can propagate within a
The operational principle of GPR is based on the heavy suspended load, is not affected by
propagation of electromagnetic wave impulses of vegetation or gaseous sediments, is not subject to
very high frequency (40 to 1000 MHz) that are masking reverberation in shallow water (as SONAR
reflected by anomalies in the subsurface (such as is), and is a more affordable option.
joints, irregularities, and interfaces etc.), at varying
The image above shows UXO’s on display at the
Laos visitors center in Luang Prabang, Laos.
 Chapter 5: Additional Topics
Page 1: Types and Causes of Tidal Cycles
Continental Interference
If the Earth were a perfectly shaped sphere with no
large continental land masses, all regions of the
globe would experience two equally proportioned
high and low tidal cycles each lunar day. However,
the large continents block the westward passage of
High water and Low Water
the tidal bulges as the Earth rotates.
The highest level reached by the water surface in
one complete oscillation is known as high water,
Without being able to move uninhibited around
while the low water refers to the lowest level
the globe, these tides establish complex patterns
reached by the water surface in one oscillation.
within each ocean basin that often differ greatly
from tidal patterns of adjacent ocean basins or Height of Tide
other regions within the same ocean basin. The height of tide is the vertical distance from a
specified datum (in most cases the chart datum) to
Three types of Tidal Patterns
the level of the water surface at any time. The
Three basic tidal patterns occur along the Earth’s
height of tide is usually a positive value, while
major shorelines:
negative values may still occur when the adopted
 Diurnal datum is not low enough to take into account
 Semidiurnal extreme low waters.
 Mixed Semidiurnal
It is also possible to refer the tide to the mean sea
Generally, most regions have two high tides and level that is in relation to the average height of the
two low tides per day. When the two highs and the surface of the sea. The height of the tide obtained
two lows are about the same height, the pattern is thereby will be either negative, as in the case of
called a semi-daily or “semidiurnal” tide. low waters, or positive, as with high waters.

If the high and low tides differ in height, the Range of Tide
pattern is known as a “mixed semidiurnal” tide. The range or elevational difference of the tide,
When an area has only one high and one low tide between consecutive high and low (or low and
per day, this tidal pattern is known as a “diurnal” high) waters at one place, is variable.
tide. Spring and neap tides
Spring tides and neap tides refer to the cases when
The US West Coast tends to have mixed the value of the range of tide is maximum and
semidiurnal tides, whereas a semidiurnal pattern is minimum respectively, which happens at time
more typical of the East Coast, while the Gulf of periods of roughly 14 days.
Mexico is diurnal.
While a spring tide occurs around every new and
The following image shows a map which illustrates full moon, a neap tide will occur around any of the
the geographic distribution of different tidal cycles. two situations of quadrature, (which is the position
(Coastal areas with diurnal tides are yellow, areas of the moon when it is 90° from the sun as viewed
with semidiurnal tides are red and regions with from the earth.)
mixed semidiurnal tides are outlined in blue.)
 Page 2: Tidal Datums (Sounding and Chart)  Should comply with the data of neighboring
Tidal phenomenon varies in different regions of the surveys.
world, thus no single formula will satisfy all tidal
regimes. Sounding and chart datums are low water datums,
which refer to the level of the water surface at low
Concept of a Tidal Datum tide. Additionally, there are datums based on high
A tidal datum can be understood to be the water levels, but they are not used as a reference
reference plane or surface to which the height of level for depths in hydrographic surveys and
the predicted tide is referenced. nautical charts.
Vertical Datums
Two concepts derived from this may be:
These two different datums may be included in the
 Sounding datum - the plane to which
broader category of vertical datum, which
soundings are reduced in the course of a
comprises a plane or surface used as a reference to
hydrographic survey.
measure vertical distances (such as depths, drying
 Chart datum (CD) - the plane of reference to
features, heights on shore, etc.). Any tidal datum is
which all charted depths and drying heights
thus a vertical datum.
are related.
Sounding Datum Tidal levels, either high water or low water datums,
All depths indicated on nautical charts are have several definitions depending upon the
reckoned from a selected level of the water called information used to compute them; meaning that
the sounding datum (which is sometimes referred they vary according to the parameters that were
to as the reference plane). For most NOAA charts considered in their calculation.
of the US in coastal areas, the sounding datum is
Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW). The existence of different definitions means that,
when referring to high water or low water,
Due to technical considerations, the chart datum is attention must be drawn to the tidal reference
not always the same as the sounding datum; with being used.
the datum selected, generally being an arbitrary
Lowest astronomical tide
level.
Many national charting agencies, including the
Chart Datum United Kingdom Hydrographic Office and the
A chart datum is the level of water that charted Australian Hydrographic Service, use the Lowest
depths, which are displayed on a nautical chart, are Astronomical Tide (LAT) - the height of the water at
measured from. A chart datum is generally a tidal the lowest possible theoretical tide - to define
datum; meaning a datum derived from some phase chart datums. LAT is the lowest levels which can be
of the tide. Common chart datums are lowest predicted to occur under average meteorological
astronomical tide and mean lower low water. conditions.
Three considerations need to be taken into
account when selecting a datum:
One advantage of using LAT is that all predicted
tidal heights must then be positive (or zero)
 Should be low enough under normal
avoiding possible ambiguity and the need to
weather conditions, to have minimally the
explicitly state sign.
depth shown on the chart.
 Should not be so low as to give an unduly
Calculation of the LAT only allows for gravitational
pessimistic idea of the least depth of water
effects so lower tides may occur in practice due to
likely to be found.
other factors (e.g. meteorological effects such as
high pressure systems).
Mean lower low water
Page 3: U.S. Maritime Limits & Boundaries
NOAA uses mean lower low water (MLLW), which
is the average height of the lowest tide recorded at Maritime limits and boundaries
a tide station each day during the recording period Maritime limits and boundaries for the US are
(the National Tidal Datum Epoch - a 19 year measured from the official US baseline, (which is
period). MLLW is only a mean, so some tidal levels recognized as the low-water line along the coast as
may be negative relative to MLLW, such as mean marked on the NOAA nautical charts in accordance
low water spring. with the articles of the Law of the Sea.)
Mean low water spring
The Office of Coast Survey depicts on its nautical
This is the average of the levels of each pair of
charts the territorial sea (12 nautical miles),
successive low waters during that period of about
contiguous zone (24 nautical miles), and exclusive
24 hours in each semi-lunation (approximately
economic zone (200 nautical miles, plus maritime
every 14 days), when the range of the tide is
boundaries with adjacent/opposite countries).
greatest (Spring Range).
General Information about U.S. Maritime Limits
Charts and tables
and Boundaries
Charted depths and drying heights on nautical
NOAA is responsible for depicting on its nautical
charts are given relative to chart datum. Some
charts the limits of the 12 nautical mile territorial
height values on charts, such as vertical clearances
sea, 24 nautical mile contiguous zone, and 200
under bridges or overhead wires, may be
nautical miles Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
referenced to a different vertical datum, such as
These zones are highlighted in orange in the image
Mean High Water Springs or Highest Astronomical
below.
Tide.

Tide tables give the height of the tide above a chart

datum making it feasible to calculate the depth of
water at a given point and at a given time by
adding the charted depth to the height of the tide.

One may calculate whether an area that dries is

under water by subtracting the drying height from
the given height calculated from the Tide table.
Using charts and tables not based on the same
datum can result in incorrect calculation of water
depths, so care should be taken to always confirm
Territorial Sea
their compatibility.
The territorial sea is a maritime zone over which
Chart Datum and GNSS the US exercises sovereignty. Sovereignty extends
In recent years national hydrographic agencies to the airspace above and to the seabed below the
have spearheaded developments to establish Chart territorial sea. The US territorial sea extends 12
Datum with respect to the GRS 80 reference nautical miles from the baseline.
ellipsoid, thus enabling direct compatibility with
Contiguous Zone
GNSS positioning.
The contiguous zone of the US is a zone contiguous
to the territorial sea. In this zone, the US may
exercise the control required to prevent and punish
any infringement upon its customs, fiscal,
immigration, cultural heritage, or sanitary laws and
regulations within its territory or territorial sea. The Page 4: (AUV) Use of Autonomous
US contiguous zone is measured out to 24 nautical Underwater Vehicles
miles from the baseline.
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV)
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV), also
The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of the US
known as unmanned underwater vehicles, can be
extends 200 nautical miles from the territorial sea
used to perform underwater survey tasks such as
baseline and is adjacent to the 12 nm territorial sea
detecting and mapping submerged wrecks, rocks,
of the U.S., overlapping the 12-24nm contiguous
and obstructions that pose a hazard to commercial
zone.
navigation and recreational vessel travel.
Within the EEZ, the US has sovereign rights for the
The AUV (see
purposes of:
image) conducts
The exploration, exploitation, conservation and
its survey tasks
management of natural resources, whether living
without the
and nonliving, of the seabed and subsoil and the
need for
superjacent waters
operator
And with regard to other activities for the
participation.
economic exploitation and exploration of the zone,
When a mission
such as the production of energy from the water,
is completed,
currents and winds jurisdiction (as provided for in
the AUV will return to a pre-programmed location
international and domestic laws with regard to the
and the data collected can be downloaded and
establishment and use of artificial islands,
processed in the same way as data collected from
installations, and structures, marine scientific
shipboard systems.
research, and the protection and preservation of
the marine environment, and other rights and
AUV Components AUVs can
duties provided for under international and
NOAA’s hydrographic survey be
domestic laws)
AUVs are typically equipped with: equipped
Certain U.S. fishery laws use the term “exclusive  Side scan sonar with a wide
 Conductivity- variety of
economic zone” (“EEZ”). While the outer limit
Temperature-Depth (CTD) oceanograp
stated in these laws is the same as the EEZ on
sensors hic sensors
NOAA charts, the inner limit generally extends
 GPS-aided Inertial or sonar
landward to the seaward boundary of the coastal
Navigation Systems (INS) systems.
states of the US For the seaward limit of the state’s
 Acoustic Doppler Current Currently,
jurisdiction under the Submerged Lands Act.
Profiler (ADCP) NOAA’s
Maritime Boundaries with adjacent and opposite Coast
countries Survey Development Lab is evaluating the use of
Maritime boundaries with adjacent and opposite Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV) as tools
countries are established through agreement and for hydrographic surveying, to support their
treaties with these neighboring nations. More nautical charting missions.
information concerning these treaties can be found
online at the Department of State website on “US The use of AUVs, in collaboration with NOAA’s
Maritime Boundaries: Agreements and Treaties.” manned survey fleet, could greatly increase survey
efficiency.
Additionally, AUVs could be used for marine  lighting – for illumination, to navigation and
incident response and port security surveys due to retrieval purposes
their small size and flexible deployment options.  sonar systems – for sounding purposes, and
hydrographic surveying tasks
 an articulating arm – for retrieval of small
items, to cut lines, or to attach lifting hooks
to for retrieving larger objects
Applications of ROV Units
Typical hydrographic uses for the ROV include
locate and retrieve operations for small objects,
object identification (such as submerged navigation

AUV vs ROV
The primary difference between an AUV and a
Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) is that the AUVs
operate on their own, independently of the ship
and have no connecting cables.

Page 5: Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV)

hazards), vessel hull inspections, and least depth
Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV) determination. This system is not intended as a
A Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) is an replacement for hydrographic diver investigations,
unoccupied underwater robot which is connected but could serve as a substitute when the safety of
to a topside control unit by a series of tethering the diver is in question, or when divers are not
and transmission cables. available.

The connecting cables transmit the command and The CSDL,

control signals between the underwater vehicle mentioned
and the ROV technician, allowing remote below, is
navigation of the vehicle. evaluating the
use of a
Components of an ROV
commercially
A remotely operated underwater vehicle has three available ROV.
main components:
 Topside control unit – which includes: hand
box controller, laptop computer, video The ROV is an inspection class vehicle equipped
display with a forward-looking high-resolution color zoom
 Remote Vehicle – which includes propulsion video camera. There are two fixed-focus low light
and steering, housing, and attachments cameras that can be mounted on the ROV sides,
 Cabling and Tether management system – for facing aft of the vehicle, or on the bottom of the
data and signal transmission, and tethering vehicle, facing down.
to prevent loss of the unit
A high resolution imaging sonar is also available,
A typical hydrographic ROV configuration might increasing the ROV’s ‘visual’ range and
include the following attachments: functionality in varying conditions.
 Video camera – for locate and retrieve,
exploration, etc.
Up to 300 meters of neutrally buoyant tether are 2005-2007 resulted in a series of tests using both
available for operations in depths up to 150 meters large and small UAS for various applications. Since
and an articulating arm is mounted on the front of those beginnings, the NOAA UAS Program was
the ROV. Sonar records as well as digital video formally established and has been expanding UAS
imagery are products from ROV dives. research, development and transitions to
operations and commercialization.
Coast Survey Development Lab (CSDL)
NOAA’s Coast Survey Development Laboratory UAS Components
explores, develops, and transitions emerging The typical UAS consists of an unmanned aerial
technologies and techniques of charting, vehicle, a launch system, a recovery system, a
hydrographic, and oceanographic systems used by video camera payload carried aboard the UAV, and
the Coast Survey and NOAA to support safe and a ground control system.
efficient marine navigation and a healthy and
sustainable coastal environment. The vehicle will usually have a propulsion system in
the rear section, a turret in the nose section (to
From looking at new methods of obtaining mount and rotate the survey instrumentation), and
accurate depth data using autonomous underwater the avionics (aviation electronics) within the
vehicles and interferometric side scan sonars to the forward fuselage section.
development of models that provide forecast
guidance to the Nation’s shipping community and
others, a variety of interesting projects and
experimental products are available here for
review.

Page 6: NOAA’s Unmanned Aircraft Systems

Program (UAS)
Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Page 7: Fisheries Acoustics
Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) can potentially Not all hydrographic surveying with echo sounding,
revolutionize the ability for NOAA to monitor and consists of bathymetric measurements, depth
understand our land and sea environments. There measurements, and such. The detection and
are gaps in key information, between the measuring of marine life is another form of survey
instrumentation on Earth's surface and on which can be accomplished with sonar devices.
satellites, which UAS can fill.
Fisheries Acoustics

Operated by remote pilots and ranging in wingspan Fisheries acoustics includes a range of research and
from less than six feet to more than 115 feet, UAS practical application topics using acoustical devices
can also collect data from dangerous or remote as sensors in aquatic environments. Acoustical
areas, such as the poles, oceans, wildlands, techniques can be applied to sensing aquatic
volcanic islands, and wildfires. animals, zooplankton, and characteristics of
physical or biological habitats.
Better data and observations improve Biomass Estimation
understanding and forecasts, save lives, property, Biomass estimation is a method of detecting and
and resources, advancing NOAA's mission goals. quantifying fish and other marine organisms using
sonar technology. An acoustic transducer emits a
NOAA has been involved with the testing and brief, focused pulse of sound into the water. If the
development of UAS for several years. sound encounters objects that are of different
Collaboration with NASA and industry partners in
density than the surrounding medium, such as fish, Twin Beam Echo Sounder
they reflect some sound back toward the source. The need to determine the angle to a target led to
These echoes provide information on fish size, the development of the twin-beam echo sounder,
location, and abundance. which forms two acoustic beams, one inside the
other. By comparing the phase difference of the
High Quality “fishfinders”
same echo in the inner and outer beams, the angle
The basic components of the scientific echo off-axis can be estimated.
sounder hardware function is to transmit the
sound, receive, filter and amplify, record, and Split Beam Echo Sounders
analyze the echoes. In a further refinement of the above concept, a
split-beam echo sounder divides the transducer
While there are a number of manufacturers of face into four quadrants, allowing the location of
commercially available fishfinder equipment, targets in three separate dimensions.
accurate quantitative analysis requires that
measurements be made with calibrated echo Single-frequency, split-beam echo sounders are
sounder equipment, having high signal-to-noise now the standard instrument of fisheries acoustics.
ratios. Multibeam Sonars
Sonars Multibeam sonars project a fan-shaped set of
The primary tool in fisheries acoustics is the sound beams outward into the water and record
scientific echo sounder. This instrument operates echoes in each beam. These have been widely used
on the same principles as a recreational or in bathymetric surveys, but have only recently
commercial fishfinder or echo sounder, but is begun to find use in fisheries acoustics
engineered for greater accuracy and precision, applications.
allowing quantitative biomass estimates to be
made. Their main advantage is the addition of a second
dimension to the narrow water column profile
In an echo sounder, a transceiver generates a short given by an echo sounder. Multiple pings can thus
pulse which is sent into the water by the be combined to give a three-dimensional picture of
transducer, an array of piezoelectric elements animal distributions.
arranged to produce a focused beam of sound. Acoustic Cameras
Acoustic cameras are instruments that image a
In order to be used for quantitative work, the echo three-dimensional volume of water
sounder must be calibrated in the same instantaneously. These typically use higher-
configuration and environment in which it will be frequency sound than traditional echo sounders.
used; this is typically done by examining echoes
from a metal sphere with known acoustic This increases their resolution so that individual
properties. objects can be seen in detail, but means that their
range is limited to tens of meters.
Early echo sounders only transmitted a single beam
of sound. Because of the acoustic beam pattern, They can be very useful for studying fish behavior
identical targets at different azimuth angles will in enclosed and/or murky bodies of water, for
return different echo levels. instance monitoring the passage of anadromous
fish at dams.
If the beam pattern and angle to the target are
known, this directivity can be compensated for. Target Strength (TS)
This is a measure of how well a fish, zooplankter, or
other aquatic target scatters sound back towards
the transducer; in general, the larger the marine
life, the larger the target strength. Other factors,
such as the presence or absence of a gas-filled
swim bladder in fish, may have a much larger
effect.

Target strength is of critical importance in fisheries

acoustics, since it provides a link between acoustic
backscatter and animal biomass.

TS can be derived theoretically for simple targets

such as spheres and cylinders, but in practice, it is
usually measured empirically or calculated with
numerical models.
 Bibliography
1) Much of this course is based on articles obtained
from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Administration,
(NOAA), and the Office of Coast Survey
2) Some course material comes from Wikipedia and
images from Creative Commons
3) Some materials are based on information
gathered from Corp of Engineers publications
4) Based on materials from the USGS or US
Geological Survey
5) Portions of the magnetometry page were based
on an article by Geophysics GPR International
6) Hydrographical standards are gathered from the
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)
7) Marine ERI course materials were based in part
on information gather from (AGI) Advanced
Geosciences Inc.
8) Course materials on UXO, were based on articles
from SERDP and ESTCP.