GEOE-302
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Course Instructor
Engr. Saleem Ullah
Department of Geological Engineering
Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering &
Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta. Geological Structures
Geological structures are usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that occur
within the earth. These forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build
mountains.
Structural geology is the study of the processes that result in the formation of geologic
structures and how these structures affect rocks.
Structural geology is the branch of geology that deals with the form, arrangement, and
internal structure of rocks, and especially with the description, representation, and analysis
of structures that can range in size from microscopic (such as traces of earlier folds after
multiple events of deformation have occurred) to large enough to span the globe (such as
mid-oceanic ridges). Geological Structures
+ Stress and Strain in the Earth’s
Lithosphere:
+ Tectonic forces deform parts of the lithosphere,
particularly along plate margins. Deformation
may cause a change in orientation, location, and
shape of a rock body. In figure 6.1, originally
horizontal rock layers have been deformed into
wavelike folds that are broken by faults. The
layers have been deformed, probably by tectonic
forces that pushed or compressed the layers
together until they were shortened by buckling
and breaking.
+ When studying deformed rocks, structural
geologists typically refer to stress, a force per unit
area,
+ Strain is the change in shape or size (volume), or
both, in response to stress.
FicURE 6.1 Geological Structures
‘The relationship between stress and strain can be illustrated by deforming a piece of Silly Putty (figure 6.2) or
any other soft material such as pizza dough.
If the Silly Putty is pushed together or squeezed from opposite directions, we say the stress is compressive.
Compressive stress results in rocks being shortened or flattened.
In figure 6.24, an elongate piece of Silly Putty may shorten by bending, or folding, whereas a ball of Silly
Putty will flatten by shortening in the direction parallel to the compressive stress and elongating or stretching
in the direction perpendicular to it.
Rocks that have been shortened or flattened are typically found along convergent plate boundaries
where rocks have been pushed or shoved together. Geological Structure:
+ A tensional stress is caused by forces pulling away from one another in opposite directions (figure 6.2B). Tensional
stress results in a stretching or extension of material. If we apply a tensional stress on.a ball of Silly Putty, it will
elongate or stretch parallel to the applied stress. If the tensional stress is applied rapidly, the Silly Putty will first
stretch and then break apart (figure 6.28). At divergent plate boundaries, the lithosphere is undergoing extension as
the plates move away from one another. Because rocks are very weak when pulled apart, fractures and faults are
common structures. When stresses act parallel to a plane, shear stress is produced
+ It is much like putting a deck of cards in your hands and shearing the deck by moving your hands in opposite
directions (figure 6.3). A shear stress results in a shear strain parallel to the direction of the stresses. Shear stresses
occur along actively moving faults. Geological Structures
Compressive secs
=e =
Tenotnalorese Svetenng anton
A particularly large and persistent discontinuity (joint) could critically affect the stability of any surface or
underground excavation.
>For these reasons, it is necessary to develop a thorough understanding of the geometrical, mechanical and
hydrological properties of discontinuities.
You should remember that stability is inversely proportional to the number of
Shafis and Tunnels
+ Rotana by
+ Watrows|
‘een wre Thanks for your kind atten
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