Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability 897

Chapter

21
Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability
Functions Intervals
If A and B are two non-empty sets, then a rule f which There are four types of interval:
associated to each x  A, a unique number y  B, is called a (1) Open interval : Let a and b be two real numbers such that
function from A to B and we write, f : A  B . a<b, then the set of all real numbers lying a<x<b
strictly between a and b is called an open ( )
Some important definitions interval and is denoted by ]a, b[ or (a, b). a b
Thus, ]a, b[ or (a, b)= { x  R : a  x  b} . Open interval
(1) Real numbers : Real numbers are those which are either
rational or irrational. The set of real numbers is denoted by R. (2) Closed interval : Let a and b be two real numbers such
(2) Related quantities : When two quantities are such that that a<b, then the set of all real axb
the change in one is accompanied by the change in other, i.e., if the numbers lying between a and b [ ]
value of one quantity depends upon the other, then they are called including a and b is called a closed a b
related quantities. interval and is denoted by [a, b]. Thus, Closed interval
(3) Variable: A variable is a symbol which can assume any [a, b] = {x  R : a  x  b }
value out of a given set of values. (3) Open-Closed interval : It is denoted by ]a, b] or (a, b] and
(i) Independent variable : A variable which can take any ]a, b] or (a, b] = { x  R : a  x  b } . a<xb
arbitrary value, is called independent variable. ( ]
a b
(ii) Dependent variable : A variable whose value depends
Open closed interval
upon the independent variable is called dependent variable.
(4) Constant : A constant is a symbol which does not change (4) Closed-Open interval : It is denoted by [a, b[ or [a, b) and
its value, i.e., retains the same value throughout a set of [a, b[ or [a, b) = {x  R : a  x  b } ax<b
[ )
mathematical operation. These are generally denoted by a, b, c etc. a b
There are two types of constant, absolute constant and arbitrary Closed open interval
constant.
(5) Absolute value : The absolute value of a number x, Definition of function
denoted by |x|, is a number that satisfies the conditions (1) Function can be easily defined with the help of the
 x if x  0 concept of mapping. Let X and Y be any two non-empty sets. “A
 function from X to Y is a rule or correspondence that assigns to
| x |   0 if x  0 . We also define |x| as follows,
 x if x  0 each element of set X, one and only one element of set Y”. Let the
 correspondence be ‘f’ then mathematically we write f : X  Y
|x|= maximum {x, – x} or |x|= x 2 . where y  f (x ), x  X and y  Y . We say that ‘y’ is the image of ‘x’
(6) Fractional part : We know that x  [x ]. The difference under f (or x is the pre image of y).
between the number ‘x’ and it’s integral value ‘[x]’ is called the Two things should always be kept in mind:
fractional part of x and is symbolically denoted as {x}. Thus, (i) A mapping f : X  Y is said to be a function if each
{ x }  x  [ x ] e.g., if x = 4.92 then [x] = 4 and {x}= 0.92. element in the set X has its image in set Y. It is also possible that
Fractional part of any number is always non-negative and less there are few elements in set Y which are not the images of any
than one. element in set X.
 898 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability
(ii) Every element in set X should have one and only one
image. That means it is impossible to have more than one image for
a specific element in set X. Functions can not be multi-valued (A
mapping that is multi-valued is called a relation from X and Y) e.g.
Set X Set Y Set X Set Y
(1) Methods for finding domain and range of function
a 1 a 1
(i) Domain
b 2 b 2
c c 3 (a) Expression under even root (i.e., square root, fourth root
3
Function
etc.)  0. Denominator  0.
Function
Set X Set Y Set X Set Y If domain of y  f (x ) and y  g (x ) are D1 and D2
a 1 a 1
respectively then the domain of f (x )  g ( x ) or f (x ).g ( x ) is
b 2 b 2 D1  D2 .
c 3 c 3 f (x )
Not function
While domain of is D1  D2  {g(x )  0}.
Not function g( x )
(2) Testing for a function by vertical line test : A relation
f : A  B is a function or not it can be checked by a graph of the Domain of  
f (x )  D1  {x : f (x )  0}
relation. If it is possible to draw a vertical line which cuts the given
(ii) Range : Range of y  f (x ) is collection of all outputs
curve at more than one point then the given relation is not a
function and when this vertical line means line parallel to Y-axis f (x ) corresponding to each real number in the domain.
cuts the curve at only one point then it is a function. Figure (iii) (a) If domain  finite number of points  range  set of
and (iv) represents a function. corresponding f (x ) values.
Y Y
(b) If domain  R or R – [some finite points]. Then express x
in terms of y. From this find y for x to be defined (i.e., find the
X X values of y for which x exists).
O
(c) If domain  a finite interval, find the least and greatest
X X value for range using monotonicity.
O
Y (i) Y (ii)
Y Y Algebra of functions
(1) Scalar multiplication of a function : (c f )( x )  c f (x ),
where c is a scalar. The new function c f (x ) has the domain X f .

X X X X (2) Addition/subtraction of functions

O O
Y (iii) Y (iv) ( f  g)( x )  f ( x )  g(x ). The new function has the domain X.
(3) Number of functions : Let X and Y be two finite sets (3) Multiplication of functions
having m and n elements respectively. Then each element of set X
( fg )(x )  (g f )( x )  f ( x )g (x ). The product function has the
can be associated to any one of n elements of set Y. So, total
domain X.
number of functions from set X to set Y is n m .
(4) Value of the function : If y  f (x ) is a function then to (4) Division of functions :
find its values at some value of x, say x  a, we directly substitute f f (x )
(i)   ( x )  . The new function has the domain X, except
x = a in its given rule f (x ) and it is denoted by f (a) . g
  g (x )
e.g. If f ( x )  x 2  1, then f (1)  1 2  1  2, f (2)  2 2  1  5, for the values of x for which g ( x )  0 .
f (0)  0 2  1  1 etc. g g( x )
(ii)   ( x )  . The new function has the domain X,
Domain, co-domain and range of function f f (x )
If a function f is defined from a set A to set B then for except for the values of x for which f (x )  0 .
f : A  B set A is called the domain of function f and set B is called (5) Equal functions : Two function f and g are said to be
the co-domain of function f. The set of all f-images of the elements of equal functions, if and only if
A is called the range of function f. (i) Domain of f = Domain of g
In other words, we can say (ii) Co-domain of f = Co-domain of g
Domain = All possible values of x for which f(x) exists.
(iii) f (x )  g(x ) x  their common domain
Range = For all values of x, all possible values of f(x).
(6) Real valued function : If R, be the set of real numbers
and A, B are subsets of R, then the function f : A  B is called a
Range
real function or real –valued function.
Kinds of function
A Domain B Co-domain
f
a p Domain = {a, b, c, d} = A
b q
c Co-domain = {p, q, r, s} = B
r
d s Range = {p, q, r}
 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability 899

(1) One-one function (injection) : A function f : A  B is  If the graph of y  f (x ) is given and the line parallel to x-
said to be a one-one function or an injection, if different elements axis cuts the curve at more than one point then function is many-
of A have different images in B. Thus, f : A  B is one-one. one. Y Y
a  b  f (a)  f (b) for all a, b  A
 f (a)  f (b )  a  b for all a, b  A .
e.g. Let f : A  B and g : X  Y be two functions
X X X X
represented by the following diagrams. O O
f (x) = x2 f (x) = |x|
A B X Y Y Y
f g (3) Onto function (surjection) : A function f : A  B is
a1 b1 x1 y1
y2 onto if each element of B has its pre-image in A. Therefore, if
a2 b2 x2
b3 y3 f 1 (y )  A, y  B then function is onto. In other words, Range of
a3 x3
b4 y4 f = Co-domain of f. e.g. The following arrow-diagram shows onto
a04 x4 y5
b5 function.
Clearly, f : A  B is a one-one function. But g : X  Y is A B X Y
f g
not one-one function because two distinct elements x 1 and x 3 a1 x1 y1
b1
have the same image under function g. x2 y2
a2 b2
(i) Method to check the injectivity of a function
x3
Step I : Take two arbitrary elements x, y (say) in the domain a3 b3 x4 y3
of f.
Number of onto function (surjection) : If A and B are two
Step II : Put f ( x )  f (y ). sets having m and n elements respectively such that 1  n  m ,
Step III : Solve f ( x )  f (y ). If f (x )  f (y ) gives x = y only, then n
n r n
f : A  B is a one-one function (or an injection). Otherwise not. then number of onto functions from A to B is  (1)
r 1
Crr m .

If function is given in the form of ordered pairs and if two

(4) Into function : A function f : A  B is an into function if
ordered pairs do not have same second element then function is
one-one. there exists an element in B having no pre-image in A.
In other words, f : A  B is an into function if it is not an
If the graph of the function y  f (x ) is given and each line
parallel to x-axis cuts the given curve at maximum one point then onto function e.g. The following arrow-diagram shows into
function is one-one. e.g. function.
A B X Y
Y Y
f g
a b1 x1 y1

a2 b2 x2 y2
(0, 1) y3
a3 b3 x3 y4
X X X X
O O (i) Method to find onto or into function
f (x) = ax (0 < a < 1)
f(x) = ax + b (a) Solve f ( x )  y by taking x as a function of y i.e., g(y ) (say).
Y Y
(ii) Number of one-one functions (injections) : If A and B (b) Now if g(y ) is defined for each y  co-domain and
are finite sets having m and n elements respectively, then number g(y )  domain for y  co-domain, then f (x ) is onto and if any one
n
 P , if n  m of the above requirements is not fulfilled, then f (x ) is into.
of one-one functions from A to B =  m
 0 , if n  m (5) One-one onto function (bijection) : A function
f : A  B is a bijection if it is one-one as well as onto.
(2) Many-one function : A function f : A  B is said to be a
In other words, a function f : A  B is a bijection if
many-one function if two or more elements of set A have the same
image in B. (i) It is one-one i.e., f (x )  f (y )  x  y for all x , y  A.
Thus, f : A  B is a many-one function if there exist (ii) It is onto i.e., for all y  B , there exists x  A such that
x , y  A such that x  y but f ( x )  f (y ). f (x )  y . A B
a1 f b1
In other words, f : A  B is a many-one function if it is not a
one-one function. a2 b2
A B X Y a3 b3
f g
a1 b1 x1 y1 a4 b4
b2
a2 b3 x2 y2
a3 x3 y3 Clearly, f is a bijection since it is both injective as well as
a4 b4
b5 x4 y4 surjective.
a5 b6 x5 y5 Number of one-one onto function (bijection) : If A and B
 If function is given in the form of set of ordered pairs and are finite sets and f : A  B is a bijection, then A and B have the
the second element of atleast two ordered pairs are same then same number of elements. If A has n elements, then the number of
function is many-one.
 900 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability
bijection from A to B is the total number of arrangements of n
items taken all at a time i.e. n!.
(6) Algebraic functions : Functions consisting of finite
number of terms involving powers and roots of the independent
variable and the four fundamental operations +, –, × and  are
called algebraic functions. (ii) Inverse trigonometric functions
3
x 1 Table : 21.1
e.g., (i) x 2  5 x , x  1 (iii) 3 x 4  5 x  7
(ii)
x 1 Definition
Function Domain Range
of the function
(7) Transcendental function : A function which is not
algebraic is called a transcendental function. e.g., trigonometric; y  sin 1 x
sin 1 x [1, 1] [ /2,  /2]
inverse trigonometric , exponential and logarithmic functions are  x  sin y
all transcendental functions.
y  cos 1 x
(i) Trigonometric functions : A function is said to be a cos 1 x [–1, 1] [0, ]
 x  cos y
trigonometric function if it involves circular functions (sine,
cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant) of variable angles. y  tan 1 x
(a) Sine function : tan 1 x (–,) or R (–/2, /2)
(/2,1) Y  x  tan y
(–
3/2,1) y  cot 1 x
cot 1 x (–,) or R (0, )
 x  cot y
X  X
– O y  cosec 1 x
cosec 1
x R – (–1, 1) [ /2,  /2]  {0}
 x  cosec y

Domain = R (–/2,–1) Y (3/2,–1) Range = [–1, 1] [0,  ]  [ /2] y  sec 1 x

sec 1 x R – (–1, 1)
(b) Cosine function : Y  x  sec y
(0,1)
(iii) Exponential function : Let a  1 be a positive real
number. Then f : R  (0 , ) defined by f (x )  a x called
X’  O  X exponential function. Its domain is R and range is (0, ) .

2 2 Y Y
a>1 a<1
Domain = R (–,–1) (,–1) Range = [–1, 1] (0, 1) f(x) = ax
Y f(x) = ax (0, 1)
(c) Tangent function :
Y X X X
O X O

– O 
X X Y Y
–3/2 –/2 /2 3/2 x
x Graph of f (x )  a , when a<1
Graph of f (x )  a , when a > 1
(iv) Logarithmic function : Let a  1 be a positive real
Y number. Then f : (0 , )  R defined by f (x )  log a x is called
Domain = R – {(2n +1) /2|n  I}, Range = R
(d) Cosecant function : logarithmic function. Its domain is (0, ) and range is R.
Y Y Y

(–3/2,1) f(x) = loga x

(/2,1)
y=1 (1, 0)
X X X X X X
O O O
y = –1 (1, 0)
f(x) = loga x
(–/2,–
(–3/2,–1)
1)
Y Y Y
x = –2 x = – x= x = 2
Domain = R – {(n|n  I}, Range = (– , –1]  [1,) Graph of f (x )  log a x , when a > 1 Graph of f (x )  log a x , when a < 1
(e) Secant function : Y (8) Explicit and implicit functions : A function is said to be
explicit if it can be expressed directly in terms of the independent
(–2,1) (0, 1) (2,1) variable. If the function can not be expressed directly in terms of
the independent variable or variables, then the function is said to
X O
X be implicit. e.g. y  sin 1 x  log x is explicit function, while
(–,–1) (,–1) x 2  y 2  xy and x 3 y 2  (a  x )2 (b  y )2 are implicit functions.
(9) Constant function : Let k be a fixed real number. Then a
x = –3/2 x = –/2 Y x = /2 x = 3 /2 function f(x) given by f ( x )  k Y
(f)Domain
Cotangent function
= R – {(2n+1) /2:|n  I},
Y Range = (– , –1]  [1,)
for all x  R is called a constant
function. The domain of the f (x) = k
k
constant function f ( x )  k is the
(– (– (/2,0 (3/2,0) X X
X 3/2,0) /2,0) X complete set of real numbers O
O )

Y
x = –2 x = – x= x = 2
Y
Domain = R – {n|n  I}, Range = R
 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability 901

and the range of f is the singleton set {k}. The graph of a constant Constant function K R {K}
function is a straight line parallel to x-axis as shown in figure and it 1
is above or below the x-axis according as k is positive or negative. Reciprocal function R0 R0
x
If k = 0, then the straight line coincides with x-axis.
(10) Identity function : The function defined by f ( x )  x for x 2 ,| x | R R+ {0 }

all x  R , is called the identity Y x3, x| x | R R

function on R. Clearly, the domain
Signum function R {1, 0 , 1}
and range of the identity function
f (x) = x
is R. x| x | R R+ {0 }
The graph of the identity X X
O x | x | R R– {0 }
function is a straight line passing
through the origin and inclined at [x ] R I
an angle of 45o with positive Y x  [x ] R [0, 1)
direction of x-axis.
x [0, ) [0, ]
(11) Modulus function : The function defined by
x R R+
 x , when x  0 Y a
f (x ) | x |   is log x R+ R
-x , when x  0
called the modulus function. The f (x) =– x f (x) = x sin x R [1, 1]
domain of the modulus function cos x R [1, 1]
X
is the set R of all real numbers X O
and the range is the set of all   3 
tan x R–  , ,...  R
non-negative real numbers.  2 2 
Y cot x R– {0,   ,  2 ,...} R
(12) Greatest integer
  3 
function: Let f ( x )  [ x ], sec x R–  , ,...  R –(–1, 1)
Y  2 2 
where [x] denotes the greatest 3
cosec x R– 0 ,   ,  2 ,...  R – (–1, 1)
integer less than or equal to x.
2
The domain is R and the range    
1 sin 1 x [1, 1]  2 , 2
is I. e.g. [1.1] = 1, [2.2] = 2,
X X  
[– 0.9] = –1, [– 2.1] = – 3 etc. O
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 [1, 1] [0,  ]
The function f defined by –1 cos 1 x
f (x )  [ x ] for all x  R , is –2   
tan 1 x R  , 
called the greatest integer –3  2 2
function. Y
cot 1 x R (0, )
(13) Signum function : The function defined by  
 1, x  0 Y sec 1 x R– (1, 1) [0,  ]   
| x |
  2
, x  0 or  (0, 1)
f(x)   x f ( x )  0, x  0
 0, x  0  1, x  0   
 cosec 1 x R– (1, 1)   2 , 2   {0}
X X  
is called the signum function. The O
domain is R and the range is the set Even and Odd function
{–1, 0, 1}. (0, –1)
Y (1) Even function : If we put (–x) in place of x in the given
(14) Reciprocal function : The function and if f ( x )  f ( x ) , x  domain then function f(x) is
function that associates each non- Y
zero real number x to be reciprocal called even function. e.g. f (x )  e x  e  x , f (x )  x 2 ,
f(x) =1/ x
1 f ( x )  x sin x , f ( x )  cos x , f ( x )  x 2 cos x all are even functions.
is called the reciprocal function.
x (2) Odd function : If we put (–x) in place of x in the given
X X
The domain and range of the O function and if f ( x )   f ( x ), x  domain then f(x) is called odd
reciprocal function are both equal to
R  {0} i.e., the set of all non-zero function. e.g., f (x )  e x  e  x , f (x )  sin x , f ( x )  x 3 ,
real numbers. The graph is as Y f (x )  x cos x , f (x )  x 2 sin x all are odd functions.
shown. Properties of even and odd function
(15) Power function : A function f : R  R defined by,  The graph of even function is always symmetric with
f (x )  x  ,   R is called a power function. respect to y-axis. The graph of odd function is always symmetric
with respect to origin.
Table : 21. 2 Domain and Range of Some Standard Functions
 The product of two even functions is an even function.
Function Domain Range  The sum and difference of two even functions is an even
Polynomial function R R function.
Identity function x R R
 902 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability
 The sum and difference of two odd functions is an odd f 1 : B  A, f 1 (b )  a  f (a)  b
function.
In terms of ordered pairs inverse function is defined as
 The product of two odd functions is an even function.
 The product of an even and an odd function is an odd f 1  (b , a) if (a, b)  f .
function. It is not essential that every function is even or odd. It is For the existence of inverse function, it should be one-one and
possible to have some functions which are neither even nor odd onto.
function. e.g. f(x) = x2+ x3, f(x) = loge x, f(x) = ex. Properties of Inverse function :
 The sum of even and odd function is neither even nor odd (1) Inverse of a bijection is also a bijection function.
function.
(2) Inverse of a bijection is unique.
 Zero function f(x) = 0 is the only function which is even and
odd both. (3) (f–1)–1= f
(4) If f and g are two bijections such that (gof) exists then
Periodic function (gof)–1 = f–1og–1.
A function is said to be periodic function if its each value is (5) If f : A  B is a bijection then f–1. B  A is an inverse
repeated after a definite interval. So a function f(x) will be periodic if function of f. f–1of = IA and fof–1 = IB. Here IA, is an identity function
a positive real number T exist such that, on set A, and IB, is an identity function on set B.
f ( x  T )  f (x ) , x  domain. Here the least positive value of T is
called the period of the function. Limits
Composite function Limit of a function
If f : A  B and g : B  C are two function then the
Let y  f (x ) be a function of x. If at x  a, f ( x ) takes
composite function of f and g,
indeterminate form, then we consider the values of the function
gof A  C will be defined as gof ( x )  g [ f ( x )], x  A
which are very near to ‘a’. If these values tend to a definite unique
(1) Properties of composition of function : number as x tends to ‘a’, then the unique number so obtained is
(i) f is even, g is even  fog even function. called the limit of f (x ) at x  a and we write it as lim f ( x ) .
x a
(ii) f is odd, g is odd  fog is odd function.
(1) Left hand and right hand limit : Consider the values of
(iii) f is even, g is odd  fog is even function. the functions at the points which are very near to a on the left of a.
(iv) f is odd, g is even  fog is even function. If these values tend to a definite unique number as x tends to a,
(v) Composite of functions is not commutative i.e., then the unique number so obtained is called left-hand limit of
fog  gof . f (x ) at x  a and symbolically we write it as f (a  0 ) 
(vi) Composite of functions is associative i.e., lim f ( x )  lim f (a  h) .
x a h0
( fog )oh  fo (goh )
Similarly we can define right-hand limit of f (x ) at x  a
(vii) If f : A  B is bijection and g : B  A is inverse of f.
which is expressed as f (a  0 )  lim f ( x )  lim f (a  h) .
Then fog  IB and gof  I A . 
x a h0

where, I A and IB are identity functions on the sets A and B (2) Method for finding L.H.L. and R.H.L.
respectively. (i) For finding right hand limit (R.H.L.) of the function, we
(viii) If f : A  B and g : B  C are two bijections, then write x + h in place of x, while for left hand limit (L.H.L.) we write x
– h in place of x.
gof : A  C is bijection and (gof )1  ( f 1 og 1 ).
(ii) Then we replace x by ‘a’ in the function so obtained.
(ix) fog  gof but if, fog  gof then either f 1  g or (iii) Lastly we find limit h  0 .
g 1  f also, ( fog ) (x )  (gof ) (x )  ( x ). (3) Existence of limit : lim f (x ) exists when,
x a
(x) gof(x) is simply the g-image of f(x), where f(x) is f-image of
elements x  A. (i) lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) exist i.e. L.H.L. and R.H.L. both
x a  x a 
(xi) Function gof will exist only when range of f is the subset
exists.
of domain of g.
(xii) fog does not exist if range of g is not a subset of domain (ii) lim f (x )  lim f (x ) i.e. L.H.L. = R.H.L.
x a  x a
of f.
(xiii) fog and gof may not be always defined. Fundamental theorems on limits
(xiv) If both f and g are one-one, then fog and gof are also one-
one. The following theorems are very useful for evaluation of
(xv) If both f and g are onto, then gof is onto. limits if lim f (x )  l and lim g( x )  m (l and m are real numbers)
x 0 x 0
Inverse function then
If f : A  B be a one-one onto (bijection) function, then the (1) lim( f (x )  g(x ))  l  m (Sum rule)
x a

mapping f 1 : B  A which associates each element b  B with (2) lim( f ( x )  g( x ))  l  m (Difference rule)
x a
element a  A, such that f (a)  b , is called the inverse function of
the function f : A  B . (3) lim( f ( x ).g(x ))  l.m (Product rule)
x a
 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability 903

(4) lim k f (x )  k .l (Constant multiple rule) (ix) lim sin 1 x  sin 1 a, | a |  1

x a x a

f(x ) l (x) lim cos 1 x  cos 1 a; | a |  1

(5) lim  ,m  0 (Quotient rule) x a
x  a g( x ) m
1 (xi) lim tan 1 x  tan 1 a;    a  
x a
(6) If lim f ( x )   or  , then lim 0
x a x a f (x ) sin x cos x
(xii) lim  lim 0
(7) lim log{ f (x )}  log { lim f ( x )} x  x x  x
x a x a
sin 1 / x 
(8) If f (x )  g(x ) for all x, then lim f (x )  lim g(x ) (xiii) lim 1
x a x a x  1 / x 
lim g( x ) (3) Logarithmic limits : To evaluate the logarithmic limits
(9) lim[ f (x )]g ( x )  { lim f ( x )}x  a
x a x a we use following formulae
(10) If p and q are integers, then lim ( f ( x ))p / q  l p / q , provided x2 x3
x a
(i) log(1  x )  x   .......... .. to  where 1  x  1
2 3
(l) p / q is a real number. and expansion is true only if base is e.
(11) If lim f (g(x ))  f ( lim g(x ))  f (m ) provided ‘f ’ is log(1  x )
x a x a (ii) lim 1
x 0 x
continuous at g(x )  m . e . g. lim ln[ f ( x )]  ln(l), only if l  0 .
x a (iii) lim log e x  1
x e

Methods of evaluation of limits log(1  x )

(iv) lim  1
x 0 x
We shall divide the problems of evaluation of limits in five
categories. log a (1  x )
(v) lim  log a e , a  0 ,  1
(1) Algebraic limits : Let f (x ) be an algebraic function and x 0 x
‘a’ be a real number. Then lim f ( x ) is known as an algebraic limit. (4) Exponential limits
x a (i) Based on series expansion
(i) Direct substitution method : If by direct substitution of x2 x3
the point in the given expression we get a finite number, then the We use e x  1  x    .......... ...
number obtained is the limit of the given expression. 2! 3!
(ii) Factorisation method : In this method, numerator and To evaluate the exponential limits we use the following
denominator are factorised. The common factors are cancelled results
and the rest outputs the results. ex 1 ax  1
(a) lim 1 (b) lim  log e a
(iii) Rationalisation method : Rationalisation is followed x 0 x x 0 x
1 1 x
when we have fractional powers (like , etc.) on expressions e 1
2 3 (c) lim   (  0 )
x
x 0
in numerator or denominator or in both. After rationalisation the
terms are factorised which on cancellation gives the result. (ii) Based on the form 1 : To evaluate the exponential form

(iv) Based on the form when x   : In this case expression 1 we use the following results.
should be expressed as a function 1/x and then after removing (a) If lim f ( x )  lim g( x )  0 , then
x a x a
1
indeterminate form, (if it is there) replace by 0. lim
f (x )
x
lim {1  f ( x )}1 / g ( x )  e x  a g ( x ) or when lim f ( x )  1 and
(2) Trigonometric limits : To evaluate trigonometric limit x a x a

the following results are very important. lim g( x )   .

x a
sin x x
(i) lim  1  lim lim ( f ( x )1)g ( x )
x 0 x x  0 sin x Then lim { f ( x )}g ( x )  lim [1  f ( x )  1]g( x ) = e x  a
x a x a
tan x x x
(ii) lim  1  lim  1
x 0 x x  0 tan x (b) lim (1  x )1 / x  e (c) lim  1    e
x 0 x   x
sin 1 x x
(iii) lim  1  lim  
x
x 0 x x 0 sin 1 x (d) lim (1  x )1 / x  e  (e) lim  1    e 
x 0 x   x
tan 1 x x
(iv) lim  1  lim  , if a  1
x x 0 tan 1 x
x 0
 lim a x   i.e., a    , if a  1 and a   0 if
x 
0 , if a  1
sin x 0 
(v) lim  (vi) lim cos x  1 a 1.
x 0 x 180 x 0
(5) L-Hospital’s rule : If f (x ) and g(x ) be two functions of x
sin( x  a) tan( x  a)
(vii) lim 1 (viii) lim 1 such that
x a x a x a x a
(i) lim f (x )  lim g(x )  0
x a x a
 904 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability
(ii) Both are continuous at x  a f (x ) exist i.e. lim f (x )  lim f ( x ) or R.H.L. = L.H.L.
(2) xlim
a x a  x a 
(iii) Both are differentiable at x  a .
(3) lim f ( x )  f (a) (limit equals the value of function).
(iv) f ' ( x ) and g ' ( x ) are continuous at the point x  a , then x a

f (x ) f ' (x ) Cauchy’s definition of continuity : A function f is said to be

lim  lim provided that g ' (a)  0 .
x  a g( x ) x  a g ' (x ) continuous at a point a of its domain D if for every   0 there
The above rule is also applicable if lim f ( x )   and exists   0 (dependent on  ) such that | x  a |  
x a
| f (x )  f (a)|   .
lim g( x )   .
x a Comparing this definition with the definition of limit we find
f ' (x )  that f (x ) is continuous at x  a if lim f ( x ) exists and is equal to
If lim assumes the indeterminate form 0 or and x a
x a g' (x ) 0  f (a) i.e., if lim f ( x )  f (a)  lim f ( x ) .
f ' (x ), g ' (x ) satisfy all the condition embodied in L’ Hospital rule, x a  x a 

f ' (x ) Continuity from left and right

we can repeat the application of this rule on to get,
g' (x )
f ' (x ) f "(x ) Function f (x ) is said to be
lim = lim . Sometimes it may be necessary to repeat
x a g' (x ) x  a g " (x ) (1) Left continuous at x = a if lim f (x )  f (a)
x a
this process a number of times till our goal of evaluating limit is
achieved. (2) Right continuous at x  a if lim f ( x )  f (a) .
x a

Continuity Thus a function f (x ) is continuous at a point x  a if it is left

continuous as well as right continuous at x  a.
Introduction
Properties of continuous functions : Let f (x ) and g(x ) be
The word ‘continuous’ means without any break or gap. If the two continuous functions at x  a. Then
graph of a function has no break or gap or jump, then it is said to (i) A function f (x ) is said to be everywhere continuous if it is
be continuous. continuous on the entire real line R i.e. (, ) . e.g., polynomial
A function which is not continuous is called a discontinuous
function. While studying graphs of functions, we see that graphs of function, e x , sin x , cos x , constant, x n , | x  a | etc.
functions sin x , x, cos x , ex etc. are continuous but greatest (ii) Integral function of a continuous function is a continuous
integer function [x] has break at every integral point, so it is not function.
1 (iii) If g(x) is continuous at x = a and f(x) is continuous at x =
continuous. Similarly tan x , cot x , sec x , etc. are also
x g(a) then (fog) (x) is continuous at x  a .
discontinuous function. (iv) If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval [a,b] then it is
Continuous function bounded on this interval.
Y Y (v) If f(x) is a continuous function defined on [a, b] such that
f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs, then there is atleast one value of
(0, 1) x for which f(x) vanishes. i.e. if f(a) > 0, f(b) < 0  c  (a, b ) such
f (x) = x that f(c) = 0.
–  2
X X X
–2 – /2 O /2
Discontinuous function
(0,–1) (1) Discontinuous function : A function ‘f’ which is not
y = sinx
Y
continuous at a point x  a in its domain is said to be
discontinuous there at. The point ‘a’ is called a point of
Discontinuous function discontinuity of the function.
Y The discontinuity may arise due to any of the following
Y situations.
3
2 (i) lim f ( x ) or lim f (x ) or both may not exist
x a x a 
1
(ii) lim f ( x ) as well as lim f (x ) may exist, but are unequal.
X X’ O X x a x a 
O –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1 (iii) lim f ( x ) as well as lim f (x ) both may exist, but either
f(x)= 1/x x a  x a 
–2
y = [x] of the two or both may not be equal to f (a) .
–3
Y’
Continuity of a function at a point Differentiability
A function f (x ) is said to be continuous at a point x  a of its Differentiability of a function at a point
domain if and only if it satisfies the following three conditions :
(1) f (a) exists. (‘a’ lies in the domain of f)
 Functions, Limits, Continuity and Differentiability 905

The function, f (x ) is differentiable at point P, iff there exists a

unique tangent at point P. In other words, f (x ) is differentiable at  If the domain of the function is in one quadrant then the
trigonometrical functions are always one-one.
a point P iff the curve does not have P as a corner point. i.e., "the
function is not differentiable at those points on which function has  If trigonometrical function changes its sign in two
jumps (or holes) and sharp edges.” consecutive quadrants then it is one-one but if it does not
change the sign then it is many one.
Let us consider the function f ( x ) | x  1 | , which can be
 In three consecutive quadrants trigonometrical functions
graphically shown, are always many one.
Y
 Any function, which is entirely increasing or decreasing in
the whole of a domain, is one-one.
 Any continuous function f(x), which has at least one local
f (x)=–x+1 f (x) = x – 1 maximum or local minimum, is many-one.
f ' (x)= –1 f ' (x) = 1  Any polynomial function f : R  R is onto if degree of f is
odd and into if degree of f is even.
X  An into function can be made onto by redefining the co-
O 1 2 3
domain as the range of the original function.
Which show f (x ) is not differentiable at x  1 . Since, f (x ) has 1
 If f(x) is periodic with period T then is also periodic
sharp edge at x  1 . f (x )
(i) Right hand derivative : Right hand derivative of f (x ) at with same period T.
f (a  h)  f (a)  If f(x) is periodic with period T, f (x ) is also periodic with
x  a , denoted by f ' (a  0 ) or f ' (a ) , is the lim .
h0 h same period T.
(ii) Left hand derivative : Left hand derivative of f (x ) at  Period of x  [x ] is 1. Period of algebraic functions
f (a  h)  f (a) x , x 2 , x 3  5 etc. doesn't exist.
x  a, denoted by f ' (a  0 ) or f ' (a ) , is the lim .
h0 h  If lim f (x ) does not exist, then we can not remove this
x a
(iii) A function f (x ) is said to be differentiable (finitely) at x = discontinuity. So this become a non-removable discontinuity or
a if f ' (a  0 )  f ' (a  0 ) = finite essential discontinuity.

f (a  h)  f (a) f (a  h)  f (a)  If f is continuous at x = c and g is discontinuous at x = c,

i.e., lim  lim = finite and the then
h0 h h0 h
common limit is called the derivative of f (x ) at x  a , denoted by (a) f +g and f – g are discontinuous

f ( x )  f (a) (b) f.g may be continuous

f ' (a) . Clearly, f ' (a)  lim {x  a from the left as well as
x a x a  If f and g are discontinuous at x = c, then f + g, f – g and fg
from the right}. may still be continuous.
 Point functions (domain and range consists one value only)
Some standard results on differentiability
is not a continuous function.
(1) Every polynomial function is differentiable at each x  R .  If a function is differentiable at a point, then it is
x continuous also at that point.
(2) The exponential function a , a  0 is differentiable at
i.e., Differentiability  Continuity, but the converse need
each x  R .
not be true.
(3) Every constant function is differentiable at each x  R .  If a function ‘f’ is not differentiable but is continuous at
(4) The logarithmic function is differentiable at each point in x = a, it geometrically implies a sharp corner or kink at x = a.
its domain.  If f(x) and g(x) both are not differentiable at x = a then the
product function f(x).g(x) can still be differentiable at x = a.
(5) Trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions are
differentiable in their domains.  If f(x) is differentiable at x = a and g(x) is not differentiable
at x = a then the sum function f(x)+ g(x) is also not
(6) The sum, difference, product and quotient of two differentiable at x = a.
differentiable functions is differentiable.
 If f(x) and g(x) both are not differentiable at x = a, then the
(7) The composition of differentiable function is a sum function may be a differentiable function.
differentiable function.