HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE – III

Group Assignment by:

 Kareema Qudoos (ARCH-23-10)

 Aimen Mohsin (ARCH-23-03)
 Urooj Aamir (ARCH-23-26)
 Umar Liaqat (ARCH-23-24)

Date: 26th February, 2025.

Submitted to: Ar. Maria Jabeen

Department of Architecture, PUCAD.

 The Rise and Influence of
Ottoman Architectural Heritage

Introduction

The Ottoman Empire, founded in 1299 by Osman I, rose to prominence as one of the
most influential Islamic empires, lasting until 1922. Spanning across Southeast Europe, Western
Asia, and North Africa, the Ottoman dynasty is renowned for its architectural advancements that
combined Islamic traditions with Byzantine, Persian, and local influences. Ottoman architecture
played a crucial role in shaping the aesthetic and cultural landscape of its territories, particularly
through the construction of grand mosques, palaces, and public buildings.
Rise, Decline, and Timeline of the Ottoman Empire

Rise:
 The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I in 1299 and gradually expanded its
territories through military conquests.

 The capture of Constantinople in 1453 by Sultan Mehmed II marked a significant turning

point, establishing the city—renamed Istanbul—as the empire's capital.

 The empire reached its peak during the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–
1566), known for military prowess, administrative reforms, and monumental architecture.

Decline:
 The empire began to weaken in the late 17th century due to military defeats,
administrative inefficiencies, and economic struggles.

 The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 marked the first significant territorial loss.

 Internal corruption, European imperialism, and nationalist movements led to the gradual
erosion of Ottoman control.

 The empire formally ended in 1922, giving way to the establishment of the Republic of
Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1923.

Timeline:
 1299: Foundation of the Ottoman Empire by Osman I.

 1453: Fall of Constantinople; renamed Istanbul.

 1520–1566: Reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.

 1571: Battle of Lepanto—naval defeat by Christian forces.

 1699: Treaty of Karlowitz—first major territorial loss.

  1839–1876: Tanzimat reforms—modernization efforts.

 1914–1918: Participation in World War I.

 1922: Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate.

Architectural Elements
Ottoman architecture is distinguished by its innovative use of materials, construction
techniques, and artistic motifs. Key elements include:

 Materials: Stone, marble, and brick were the primary materials, often adorned with Iznik
tiles and calligraphy.

 Construction Techniques: The Ottomans mastered the use of domes, semi-domes, and
buttresses, allowing for expansive interior spaces and lofty ceilings.

 Motifs and Design Principles: Geometric patterns, floral designs, and intricate
arabesques were prevalent. Symmetry and balance were essential, with an emphasis on
centralized domed spaces inspired by Byzantine architecture.

Urban Planning of the Ottoman Empire

 Centralized Mosque Complex (Külliye): Ottoman cities were structured around
külliyes, which integrated religious, educational, medical, and social facilities, serving as
both spiritual and communal hubs.

 Radiating Street Patterns: Streets and markets often radiated from the central mosque,
reflecting the mosque’s role as the heart of urban life and reinforcing the connection
between faith and daily activities.

 Public Amenities: Urban designs included public fountains, gardens, and squares,
fostering social interaction and providing essential resources like water for both personal
and ritual use.
  Balance of Functionality and Aesthetics: Ottoman planners emphasized both
practicality and beauty, ensuring their cities were not only efficient but also symbolically
rich, reflecting Islamic principles of harmony and order.

Case Studies

1. The Sulaymaniyah Mosque (Istanbul, 1557):

The Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul is one of the most magnificent examples of

classical Ottoman architecture, commissioned by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and
designed by the renowned architect Mimar Sinan between 1550 and 1557. The mosque
symbolizes the sultan's power, combining spiritual devotion with imperial authority. Positioned
on the city’s Third Hill, the mosque dominates the skyline of Istanbul, reflecting both its
architectural grandeur and its role as a spiritual and social hub.

The Süleymaniye Mosque is not just a place of worship — it is part of a larger külliye
(complex), embodying the Ottoman tradition of integrating religious, educational, and social
services. The mosque’s design balances Byzantine influences (especially from the Hagia Sophia)
with traditional Islamic elements, reflecting Sinan’s mastery of form, space, and light.

Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul

Key Components of the Süleymaniye Mosque:

 Central Dome and Semi-domes:

The mosque features a grand central
dome rising 53 meters high with a
27.5-meter diameter. It is supported by
four massive piers and flanked by two
semi-domes, a design inspired by the
Hagia Sophia. The cascading
View of the semi-domes around the central dome
arrangement of the central dome, semi-
domes, and smaller domes creates a sense of verticality and spiritual elevation.

 Minarets:
The mosque has four minarets with a total of ten balconies (şerefe), symbolizing
Suleiman as the fourth sultan to rule after the conquest of Constantinople and the tenth
ruler of the Ottoman dynasty. The towering minarets frame the mosque, reinforcing its
imperial status.

Detail of the minarets and

Ten balconies on four minarets
their sculpted balconies

 Courtyard (Avlu):
The rectangular courtyard is lined with
 colonnaded porticos and features a central ablution fountain (şadırvan). The
courtyard's symmetry and open design emphasize spiritual purity and preparation for
prayer. The entrances are marked by arched gateways decorated with Quranic
calligraphy.

Courtyard of the mosque,

looking towards the prayer hall Courtyard of the mosque with central fountain
(şadırvan), looking towards the entrance

Inside the central fountain of The entrance portal to the prayer One of the "stalactites" or
the courtyard, where water hall from the courtyard muqarnas capitals in the courtyard
originally sprayed down from
the ceiling
 Prayer Hall (Haram):
The vast prayer hall is illuminated by 138 windows, some filled with stained glass. The
interior walls are adorned with Iznik tiles and calligraphic inscriptions. The simplicity
of the decoration draws focus to the grandeur of the domes and the spiritual atmosphere.

Interior of the Suleymaniye mosque Qiblah wall of the Suleymaniye mosque

 Mihrab and Minbar:

The mihrab is made of finely carved
marble, indicating the direction of Mecca,
and is framed by elegant stalactite
designs. The minbar (pulpit) is an
intricately carved structure, used by the
imam for Friday sermons, symbolizing
religious authority.
View of the mihrab (niche symbolizing the qibla)
and the minbar (pulpit)

 Külliye (Complex):
The mosque is part of a larger complex that includes:

o Madrasahs (Religious Schools): For teaching Islamic theology and sciences.

o Hospital (Darüşşifa): Providing medical care to the public.

o Public Kitchen (Imaret): Offering free meals to the poor.

 o Musafir Khana (Guesthouse): Offering temporary shelter to travelers and the
homeless, symbolizing Ottoman hospitality and social welfare.

o Bathhouse (Hamam): Reflecting the Ottoman emphasis on cleanliness.

o Primary School (Sıbyan Mektebi): Providing basic education to young children,

focusing on Quranic studies, reading, and writing — highlighting the importance
of early education in the Ottoman Empire.

Exterior of the Süleymaniye Hamam (bathhouse)

Interior of the tabhane or caravanserai (guesthouse)

Interior of the imaret (public kitchen) Back side of the darüşşifa (hospital), with the
substructure visible below

The Evvel Medrese, as seen from the market street The sloped courtyard of the Salis Medrese,
on its east side. The domed chamber on the left one of the four madrasas of the complex
corner is part of the mekteb (primary school).
 Ablution Facilities:
Water fountains for wudu (ritual purification)
are placed around the courtyard, symbolizing
both physical and spiritual cleansing before
prayer.

One of the arcaded galleries on the

mosque's exterior and the water taps for
ablutions

 Tombs and Cemeteries:

Within the mosque grounds, the mausoleum of Sultan Suleiman and Hürrem Sultan
and tomb of Mimar Sinan is situated, featuring intricate tilework and Quranic
inscriptions. The cemetery also contains the tombs of important court members.

The cemetery behind the mosque Tomb of Mimar Sinan

Mausoleum of Suleiman the Magnificent Detail of Iznik tiles under the Interior of Suleiman's mausoleum
portico of Suleiman's mausoleum

Interior of Hürrem Sultan's mausoleum

Mausoleum of Hürrem Sultan
(Roxelana)
  Interior: The interior of the Süleymaniye Mosque is a breathtaking display of Ottoman
artistry. The prayer hall is illuminated by stained glass windows, casting colorful patterns
across the space. The walls and ceilings are adorned with intricate calligraphy and
geometric patterns, blending Islamic symbolism with elegant design. Floral motifs,
inspired by traditional Ottoman art, further enhance the mosque's serene ambiance. The
balance of light, symmetry, and decoration creates an atmosphere of spiritual reflection
and architectural brilliance.

The muezzin mahfili

One of the side aisles Calligraphic decoration at the apex of the dome, (muezzin's platform)
of the mosque surrounded by later Baroque painted decoration
added by the Fossati brothers

One of the stained-glass windows on the

qibla wall Interior of the prayer hall, looking towards the mihrab
 2. Topkapi Palace (Istanbul, 15th century):

As the administrative heart of the Ottoman Empire, Topkapi Palace showcases a blend of
Islamic and Byzantine influences. It served as both the residence of the Ottoman sultans and the
center of government for nearly 400 years. The palace consists of multiple components,
including courtyards, gates, and chambers, each symbolizing various aspects of power and
governance. These components include the Kiosk of Baghdad, Gate of Salutation, Harem,
Courtyards, Imperial Gate, Church of Hagia Irene, Imperial Council (Divan-ı Hümayun),
Palace Kitchens, Gate of Felicity, Audience Chamber (Arz Odası), Conqueror's Pavilion
(Fatih Köşkü), Imperial Treasury, Library of Sultan Ahmed III, Privy Chamber, Baths of
Sultan, Fruit Room, The Golden Road, Circumcision Room, and Imperial Sofa Mosque
(Sofa-i Hümayûn Cami). Each of these spaces reflects the architectural grandeur, political
hierarchy, and cultural richness of the Ottoman court, blending function with intricate design and
spiritual symbolism.
 View of the Topkapı Palace

Key Components of the Topkapi Palace:

 Courtyards: The palace is divided into four

main courtyards, each serving different
functions—ranging from official ceremonies
to private royal quarters. Architecturally, the
courtyards feature colonnaded walkways,
ornamental fountains, and symmetrical
garden layouts. The First Courtyard, known
as the Court of the Janissaries, was open to
the public, while the succeeding courtyards
became progressively more private and
restricted.

Overview map of the courtyards

 Gate of Salutation: This gate
separates the First and Second
Courtyards and serves as the
entrance to the palace’s
administrative sections. It
features twin octagonal towers
and a pointed archway,
reflecting a blend of Islamic and
Byzantine design. Only the
sultan could pass through on
The Gate of Salutation
horseback, emphasizing its ceremonial significance.
 Gate of Felicity: Marking the entrance to the Third Courtyard, the Gate of Felicity leads
to the private section of the palace and symbolizes the sultan's absolute authority. Topped
with a dome and decorated with gold calligraphy and floral motifs, the gate reinforced the
power dynamics within the palace.

Gate of Felicity

 Imperial Chamber: Situated in the Third

Courtyard, this chamber was the sultan's
private residence. Adorned with Iznik tiles
in geometric and floral patterns, stained
glass windows, and luxurious carpets, the
chamber combined spiritual symbolism
with opulent design. The high ceilings and
elaborate arches amplified its grandeur.

The Gate of Imperial Hall (Bâb-ı Hümâyûn)

Dome ceiling of imperial Hall

 The Interior of Dome of the Imperial Hall The Interior of Imperial Hall with Sultan’s throne

 Hagia Irene: Located in the First Courtyard, this Byzantine church predates the Ottoman
conquest. It was used as an armory and a repository for military artifacts, showcasing the
Ottomans' adaptive use of existing architecture.

Byzantine Church Hagia Irene

 Tile Work: The palace is renowned for its Iznik tile work, often featuring blue and
turquoise hues. The tiles display intricate floral and arabesque designs, with Quranic
inscriptions symbolizing spiritual purity. These tiles were not merely decorative but
served to cool the interiors and reflect light, enhancing the palace's serene atmosphere.

Animal and flower figures, 16th century, Toppaki Palace Inzik ceramic tiles in the Topkapi Palace, Istanbul, Turkey.
 Palace Kitchens: Positioned in the Second
Courtyard, the kitchens were an architectural marvel
with high chimneys and domed roofs for ventilation.
They included separate sections for desserts,
beverages, and ceremonial feasts, reflecting the
palace’s scale and sophistication.

The palace kitchens with the tall chimneys

 Harem: The Harem

housed the sultan's
family and concubines,
adorned with elaborate
ceilings, gold
calligraphy, and
stained-glass windows,
reflecting the wealth
and influence of the
Ottoman court.
Interior of Harem

 Audience Chamber: Found in the

Third Courtyard, this chamber was
where the sultan met viziers and
foreign envoys. The square-plan
structure featured a central dome,
Iznik tilework, and lavish fabrics,
symbolizing the grandeur of imperial
diplomacy.

Arz Odası, the Audience Chamber

  Imperial Sofa Mosque: Situated in the Fourth
Courtyard, the Imperial Sofa Mosque (Sofa-i
Hümayûn Cami) was constructed in the 19th
century for the sultan's personal use. Reflecting
the Empire style, its simple yet elegant white
facade and peaceful location emphasized the
importance of private devotion.

The Imperial Sofa Mosque (Sofa-i

Hümâyûn Cami) in the fourth courtyard

3. Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque) (Istanbul, 1616):

The Sultan Ahmed Mosque (also known as the Blue Mosque) is an iconic Ottoman
mosque in Istanbul, built between 1609 and 1616 during the reign of Sultan Ahmed I. Designed
by Sedefkar Mehmed Agha, a student of the renowned architect Mimar Sinan, the mosque is
celebrated for its harmonious blend of Islamic and Byzantine architectural elements. It earned
its nickname, the Blue Mosque, due to the stunning blue Iznik tiles that adorn its interior walls.
The mosque not only serves as a place of worship but also as a symbol of Ottoman imperial
authority, reinforcing the sultan's spiritual and political dominance. The mosque complex
includes the central dome, minarets, courtyard (Avlu), prayer hall (Haram), Sultan’s Lodge
(Hünkâr Mahfili), Qur'an calligraphy and Iznik tiles, windows and lighting, ablution
facilities, outer courtyard and the tomb of Sultan Ahmed I, madrasah (religious school),
and imaret (soup kitchen) — each contributing to the mosque’s architectural magnificence and
functional significance.
Key Components of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque:

 Domes and Semi-domes: The massive central dome, reaching 43 meters in height and 23.5
meters in diameter, is supported by four large piers (Elephant Feet) and flanked by eight
smaller domes and semi-domes. These cascading domes create a sense of grandeur,
symbolizing the heavens, while the central dome dominates the skyline, reinforcing the
mosque's majestic presence.

Domes of blue mosque View from above, with the courtyard

(bottom) and domes of the prayer hall (top)
 Minarets: The
mosque is unique for
having six minarets,
an unprecedented
feature at the time.
Four of these
minarets have three
balconies (şerefe)
each, while the other
two, located at the
end of the courtyard,
have two balconies
each — totaling 16 Minarets with
terraces
balconies, said to symbolize Sultan Ahmed as the 16th ruler of the Ottoman Empire.

 Courtyard (Avlu):
The expansive courtyard, almost the same size as the prayer hall, is enclosed by a
continuous arcade (revak) and features a central ablution fountain (şadırvan). The
courtyard is accessed through three gates, the main one being a grand archway with a
heavy chain — symbolizing that the sultan had to bow his head when entering on
horseback, emphasizing humility before Allah.

View from above, with the courtyard Blue Mosque Courtyard Arcades
(bottom) and domes of the prayer hall (top)
 Prayer Hall (Haram): The prayer hall is a vast space with over 20,000 hand-painted
Iznik tiles depicting traditional Ottoman floral motifs like tulips, lilies, and carnations.
The mihrab (niche indicating the direction of Mecca) is finely carved from marble, while
the minbar (pulpit) stands beside it, used for Friday sermons.

General view of the interiorIznik tiles inside the BlueView of the qibla wall with the niche center, the minbar
Mosque
right, and the sultan’s platform far right, Blue Mosque;
note the massive piers at the far left and right.
  Windows and Lighting:
The mosque contains 260 stained-glass windows, arranged in tiers to allow natural light
to flood the prayer hall. Originally, these windows were fitted with Venetian glass but
have since been replaced. Large chandeliers, once adorned with ostrich eggs (believed to
repel spiders), hang from the ceiling.

 Outer Courtyard and Tomb of Sultan Ahmed

I:
The mosque complex also includes the tomb of
Stained glass windows
Sultan Ahmed I, his family, and other royals. The
tomb is an octagonal structure adorned with Iznik
tiles and Quranic inscriptions, symbolizing the
sultan's devotion

Mausoleum of Sultan Ahmed I.

 Madrasah (Religious School):

Adjacent to the mosque, the madrasah served as
an educational center where students studied
Islamic theology, law, and science.

The madrasa of the complex, including

the dershane (classroom) on the right

Cultural and Socio-political Influences

Ottoman architecture was deeply intertwined with the empire’s cultural and political
fabric:

 Religious Influence: The Ottomans viewed architecture as a form of devotion, with

mosques serving not only as places of worship but also as centers for education,
healthcare, and charity.
  Political Power: Monumental structures like the Sulaymaniyah Mosque reinforced the
sultan's authority and the empire's Islamic identity.

 Cultural Exchange: The Ottomans incorporated elements from conquered territories,

blending Islamic, Byzantine, and Persian architectural traditions.

Conclusion

The Ottoman dynasty left an indelible mark on Islamic architecture, influencing

subsequent styles in the Middle East, North Africa, and Eastern Europe. The harmonious
integration of religious, cultural, and political elements in their architectural works laid the
foundation for future Islamic design, ensuring the empire's legacy endures.

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