Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

Flowering plants produce flowers for sexual reproduction. A flower consists of an expanded stem tip,
the receptacle, which usually bears four whorls (rings) of modified leaves, sepals, petals, stamens, and
one or more carpels in the centre.
Most flowers contain both female and male reproductive parts. The female parts are the carpels; these
produce one or more ovules which contain the female gametes. The male parts are the stamens; these
produce the pollen grains which contain the male gametes.
petal – provides colour
and scent to attract insects
and birds for pollination
honey guides – markings or
patterns on petals to guide
insects to the nectar stigma – sticky end of the
style. Catches pollen grains
anther – produces
pollen grains containing style – holds the stigma where
male gametes it can best catch pollen carpel – female
stamen – male part of the flower
part of the flower ovary – contains ovules
filament – holds the
anther where it can
best deliver pollen ovule – contains an ovum,
the female gamete
sepal – usually green. nectary – at the base of the petal.
Protects the flower when in bud Contains nectar to attract insects
and birds for pollination
pedicel – the flower stalk
receptacle – bears the flower parts

Figure 14.6 A longitudinal section of a generalised flower showing the function of the parts
Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigmas of flowers.
Pollination leads to fertilisation and there are two types:
• Self pollination occurs when a pollen grain is transferred from an anther to a stigma of the same
flower or to a stigma of another flower on the same plant.
• Cross pollination occurs when a pollen grain is transferred from an anther of a flower on one plant
to a stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species.
Agents of pollination carry the pollen grains between flowers. They may be the wind, insects and some
birds, e.g. humming birds. Flowers are usually adapted to be pollinated by wind or by insects.
Table 14.6 Comparing flowers adapted for wind pollination and insect pollination
Wind pollinated Insect pollinated
Flower • Usually small and inconspicuous. • Usually large and conspicuous.
Petals • Often absent. If present they are small, • Usually relatively large, brightly
green or dull coloured and have no coloured and scented, and have
scent, nectar or honey guides. There nectaries and honey guides to attract
are no pollinating agents to attract. insects.
Pollen grains • Small, smooth and light so they are • Relatively large, sticky or spiky to stick
easily carried by the wind. onto the body of insects.
• Large quantities are produced as many • Smaller quantities are produced as
are lost. fewer are lost.

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 Wind pollinated Insect pollinated
Stamens • Anthers are loosely attached to long, • Anthers are firmly attached to short,
thin filaments and they hang outside stiff filaments, and are usually inside
the flower so the pollen can be easily the flower so the insect brushes
blown off them by the wind. against them as it goes to get nectar
• Anthers are large to produce a lot of and picks up pollen grains without
pollen grains. damaging the anthers.
Stigmas • Long, branched and feathery and hang • Flat or lobed and sticky, and are
outside the flower to provide a large usually situated inside the flower so
area to catch the pollen grains. the insect brushes against them as it
goes to get nectar and deposits pollen
onto them.
Examples Guinea grass, maize, sugar cane. Pride of Barbados, flamboyant,
allamanda.

stigma – large and feathery.

Projects outside the flower
bract – small and green
ovary
anther – large and loosely
attached to the filament.
Hangs outside the flower

Figure 14.7 Generalised structure of a wind pollinated flower

Fertilisation in flowering plants

After pollination has occurred, the male gamete then has to reach the female gamete for fertilisation
to take place.
1
pollen grain stigma 1 A pollen grain lands on the stigma. It
pollen tube absorbs nutrients present, swells and
two male nuclei develops a pollen tube.
(male gametes) style 2 The pollen tube, with two male nuclei
and a tube nucleus in its tip, grows down
tube nucleus 2 through the style by secreting digestive
enzymes that digest a pathway.
ovary 3 The pollen tube grows through the
polar nuclei
ovary wall and through the micropyle of
embryo sac the ovule and bursts. The tube nucleus
degenerates, and one male nucleus
integuments ovule fuses with the female gamete to form
female the zygote. The other male nucleus and
3 gamete (ovum) the two polar nuclei fuse to form the
endosperm.
micropyle
Figure 14.8 Longitudinal section through a carpel showing the mechanism of fertilisation

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Events following fertilisation in flowering plants
Seed development
After fertilisation, each ovule develops into a seed:
• The zygote divides by mitosis forming the embryo which develops into three parts:
the plumule or embryonic shoot
the radicle or embryonic root
one cotyledon or seed leaf in monocotyledons or two cotyledons in dicotyledons (see Figure 13.2,
page 114).
• The endosperm remains in endospermic seeds, e.g. maize and castor oil, but is absorbed by the
cotyledons in non-endospermic seeds, e.g. green bean and pigeon pea. In endospermic seeds, the
endosperm stores food; in non-endospermic seeds, the cotyledons store food.
• The integuments become dry and develop into the testa, and the micropyle remains in the testa.
Water is withdrawn from the seed and it becomes dormant.

Fruit development
After fertilisation, the ovary wall develops into the fruit. A fruit contains one or more seeds; the
number depends on the number of ovules in the original ovary that were fertilised. The shape and
structure of many fruits is very similar to the original ovary.
The stigma, style, stamens and petals wither and drop off. The sepals may drop off or they may remain,
e.g. in eggplant.
Fruits
Fruits protect the developing seeds and they help to disperse seeds. The wall of the fruit is known as
the pericarp and may be composed of three layers:
• the exocarp (epicarp) or outer layer
• the mesocarp or middle layer
• the endocarp or inner layer.
There are two main types of fruits:
• Succulent (fleshy) fruits. One or more layers of the pericarp are fleshy and juicy, e.g. mango, guava,
tomato and cucumber.
• Dry fruits. The pericarp is thin and dry, e.g. the pod of pride of Barbados or pigeon pea and the
capsule of castor oil.
A fruit has two scars, one where it was attached to the parent plant and one where the style was
attached. A seed only has one scar, the hilum, where it was attached to the fruit.
Seed dispersal
Fruits aid in dispersing seeds. Spreading seeds away from the parent plant is important to increase the
chances of survival.
• Dispersal prevents overcrowding thereby preventing competition for light, water, carbon dioxide
and minerals.
• Dispersal allows plants to colonise new habitats.

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 Fruits and seeds often have adaptations to help dispersal.
• Dispersal by animals
Many succulent fruits contain stored food which attracts animals to eat them, e.g. orange, mango,
guava, tomato and golden apple.

exocarp – brightly coloured

to attract animals
seeds – pass through
digestive systems
unharmed when the
fruit is eaten; the mesocarp and endocarp – contain
testa provides protection stored food to attract animals
against digestive enzymes

a succulent fruit of orange

exocarp – brightly coloured

to attract animals
seed – discarded
when the fruit is eaten
mesocarp – contains stored
food to attract animals
endocarp – hardened to form
the stone around the seed

b succulent fruit of mango

Figure 14.9 Succulent fruits

Certain small dry fruits develop hooks that attach the fruits onto the fur of animals, e.g. castor oil,
duppy needle, sweethearts and burr grass.

dry fruit – contains

a seed hooks on the fruit – attach the
fruit to the fur of animals or
human clothing

Figure 14.10 The hooked fruit of castor oil

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• Dispersal by wind
Some small dry fruits develop one or more wing-like extensions, e.g. crow and Combretum, or
the seeds contained in certain fruits develop one or more wings, e.g. mahogany and Tecoma.
These provide a large surface area to help the wind carry the fruits or seeds.

wing – provides a
large surface area

four wings at 90° – provide

a large surface area to help
dry fruit – contains the wind to carry the fruit
a seed. Small and light
seed

a winged fruit of Combretum b winged seed of mahogany

Figure 14.11 Winged fruits and seeds

Some small dry fruits develop hair-like extensions that form a ‘parachute’, e.g. Tridax, or the seeds
contained in certain fruits develop a ‘parachute’ of hairs, e.g. Stephanotis, cotton and silk cotton.
These provide a large surface area to help the wind carry the fruits or seeds.

parachute of hairs – provides a large

surface to help the wind to carry the
fruit
dry fruit – contains a
seed. Small and light

a parachute fruit of Tridax

parachute of hairs – provides a large

surface area
seed – small and light

b parachute seed of Stephanotis

Figure 14.12 Parachute fruits and seeds

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 • Dispersal by water
Some succulent fruits develop a waterproof exocarp and become buoyant so they can float on water,
e.g. coconut and manchineel.

endocarp – hardened exocarp –

to form the stone waterproof
around the seed
mesocarp – initially fleshy
seed but becomes dry and fibrous
with air trapped between the
fibres to make the
fruit buoyant

Figure 14.13 The succulent fruit of coconut

• Dispersal by mechanical means
Some dry fruits split open along lines of weakness and eject their seeds, e.g. pride of Barbados,
pigeon pea and crotalaria.
remains of style

dry fruit – when fully dry

funicle – stalk attaching it splits down the lines of
the seed to the fruit weakness between the
two halves. The halves
curl back suddenly and
flick out the seeds
seeds

Figure 14.14 The pod of pride of Barbados

Revision questions
100 What is the importance of flowers to flowering plants?
11 State the functions of the parts of a flower.
122 What is pollination?
133 Give FOUR features that would enable you to determine that a flower is
insect pollinated.
144 Describe the events that occur in the carpel of a flowering plant following pollination
that lead to the development of the seed and the fruit.
155 Plants are usually the first organisms to colonise new environments even though they
cannot move from place to place by themselves. Explain, giving specific examples,
the different ways plants can arrive in new environments.

134 14 Concise Revision Course: CSEC® Biology