COMMUNICATION SKILLS

2.1 Definition of Communication

The root of the word “communication” in Latin is communicare, which means to share, or to
make common. (Weekley, 1967).

It is the ability to convey information to another effectively and efficiently. Business

managers with good verbal, non- verbal and written communication skills help facilitate the
sharing of information between people within a company for its commercial benefit.

Why study communication?

1. Studying Communication can improve self-knowledge and self - perception because most
self-knowledge comes to us through communication. Studying Communication can improve
how we see others as communication is the way we meet others, develop and manage
relationships and work effectively with others.

Top 10 Reasons to Learn Communication Skills by JoJo Tabares

Study after study shows that effective communicators have longer marriages, deeper
friendships, better relationships, more successful college and career experiences, make more
money, and are generally happier than their less articulate counterparts. Most people know
communication is important, but they don’t fully understand to what degree. Eighty-seven
percent of everything we do during the day is communication related; communication is far
more than just making speeches or having good manners. While you may manage to live your
entire life without making a speech, you will not get through one day without communicating
something to someone! Here are the top 10 reasons you and your children should learn
effective communication skills.

1. Your Marriage

“It is better to dwell in the wilderness, than with a contentious and an angry woman.” -
Proverbs 21:19

According to the National Center for Health Statistics, over half of all marriages end in
divorce, and the number one reason cited is lack of effective communication! By the way,
that number doesn’t improve if you only consider the Christian community. No two people
are going to get along ALL the time. The trick in a long relationship isn’t avoiding conflict;
it’s the successful resolution thereof! In addition, men and women communicate in
completely different ways and sometimes for very different reasons. I talk about this in my
book Say What You Mean Every Day, in chapter one, “How to Talk to Your Spouse ‘Cuz
You Must!”

2. Your Kids/children
“Fathers, provoke not your children to anger, lest they be discouraged.” - Colossians 3:21

Parents who communicate effectively with their children give them a clear sense of
boundaries and security. They show them love and give them a sense of self-worth and self-
esteem. Children who learn to communicate effectively can articulate their wants and needs.
Those who don’t are led to violent behaviour in order to have those misunderstood needs met.

3. Your Ministry

“But sanctify the Lord God in your hearts: and be ready always to give an answer to every
man that asketh you a reason of the hope that is in you with meekness and fear:”-1Peter 3:15

What harm does it do if you approach someone the wrong way about Jesus? The worst they
can do is say no, right? Wrong! Someone who has been told repeatedly that they are going to
hell may grow weary of people spiritually beating them up. It leaves them with a bad taste in
their mouth about Jesus, Christianity, or Christians in general. This can apply to other
Christians who don’t see things exactly as you do. “Give none offence, neither to the Jews,
nor to the Gentiles, nor to the church of God” - 1 Cor 10:32

2. Communication is the heart of every organisation. Everything you do in the workplace

results from communication. Therefore good reading, writing, speaking and listening skills
are essential if tasks are going to be completed and goals achieved.

4. Your Education

“He that answereth a matter before he heareth it, it is folly and shame unto him.” - Proverbs
18:13

“Students with ineffective listening skills fail to absorb much of the material to which they
are exposed. Their problems are intensified when they respond incorrectly or inappropriately
because of poor speaking skills.”-National Communication Association study on why
communication is important.

6. Your Job Interview

“A fool’s mouth is his destruction, and his lips are the snare of his soul.” - Proverbs 18:7

These days, companies are looking for someone who is knowledgeable and confident without
being arrogant. They ask interview questions designed to flush out your true desires and
beliefs and they evaluate your appearance to help them judge which candidate is best. Not all
of your interview is based on your resume; in fact, they will only grant an interview if you
have a stellar resume! The resume is just the beginning of the job interview process.
Interviewers will ask you things like, “Where do you see yourself in five years?” Employers
want a concise, but not negative, reason why you left your previous employment. According
to a study in 2000 done by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, 1000 human
resource managers ranked preferred skills for being hired as follows: 1) Oral Communication
Skills, 2) Written Communication Skills and 3) Listening (which is a communication skill).

5. Your College Career

“A man’s belly shall be satisfied with the fruit of his mouth; and with the increase of his lips
shall he be filled.” - Proverbs 18:20

College applications require several essays these days. Not only do they evaluate your
student’s accomplishments, which are written into the essay, but they evaluate the ability of
the student to convey this effectively. Admission officers are looking for articulate and
accomplished candidates. If your student is accomplished but cannot convey that to a college
admissions board, he will be passed over for one who can! Even the college entrance exams
are communication skills-intensive these days.

7. Climbing your Corporate Ladder

“He that loveth pureness of heart, for the grace of his lips the king shall be his friend.” -
Proverbs 22:11

People with good communication skills are more likely to do a better job, which would
naturally result in promotions. Here are some of the results of various studies on the impact
of communication skills on job success:

* Research done by the U.S. Department of Labor concluded that the skills most needed by
employers in the 21st century that tomorrow’s workers must master are “listening and
speaking abilities.”

* Persuasion skills and the ability to interact with others result in greater career advancement
and higher salaries for graduates according to a 20-year study of Stanford University MBAs.

8. Your Business

“Let your speech be alway with grace, seasoned with salt, that ye may know how ye ought to
answer every man.” - Colossians 4:6

Business owners have to communicate on a variety of issues, including 1) how to save time
and money on your supplies, 2) creating a communication package for your business, 3) how
to present yourself as an expert in your field, 4) how to effectively handle customer service,
complaints, and returns, 5) how to make contacts, 6) effective use of social networking
groups, 7) handling kids and business, 8) how/when to share your faith in business, 9) how to
gain support from family and friends, 10) how to motivate your employees, 11) how to train
your customer service staff, and 12) how to deal with customer relations and company image
issues. All of these issues involve mastering certain communication skills!
9. Your Friendships

“A brother offended is harder to be won than a strong city: and their contentions are like the
bars of a castle.” - Proverbs 18:19

Good communicators enjoy 1) self-confidence, 2) leadership, 3) personal presence, 4)

credibility, 5) ability to explain and persuade, 6) understanding of others, and 7) interaction
enjoyment. Every one of these qualities helps us to make friends and maintain relationships!

10. Your Happiness

“A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver.” - Proverbs 25:11

Studies show that effective communicators are actually happier than their counterparts. This
is precisely because they have happier marriages, better friendships and relationships, better
careers, make more money, and are fulfilled. They know how to get the things they want and
need in life because they know how to communicate those wants and needs effectively.

In today’s complicated and secular world, miscommunication and misunderstanding abound

and, because of this, it takes far more communication skill to get along in the world these
days. Further, each aspect of communication requires different skills and techniques in order
to master. For these reasons, the Lord mentions communication skills HUNDREDS of times
in His Word. Communication skills are vital for all relationships, for career success, and most
importantly, are imperative in order to fulfill The Great Commission. God talks about
communication skills in His Word literally hundreds of times. Isn’t it about time we heeded
His warnings and studied them?

The Communication Process & The Elements of Communication

Systematic=Step by Step=Process

Communication as a Process
Human communication is interpersonal, it is purposive and it is a process.
Steps have to be taken and in a set/particular order to achieve a desired result/goal. These are
the important elements of the communication process:
1. SENDER/ENCODER
The sender also known as the encoder decides on the message to be sent, the best/most
effective way that it can be sent. All of this is done bearing the receiver in mind. In a word, it
is his/her job to conceptualize.
The sender may want to ask him/herself questions like: What words will I use? Do I need
signs or pictures?

2. MEDIUM
The medium is the immediate form which a message takes. For example, a message may be
communicated in the form of a letter, in the form of an email or face to face in the form of a
speech.

3. CHANNEL
The channel is that which is responsible for the delivery of the chosen message form. For
example post office, internet, radio.

4. RECEIVER
The receiver or the decoder is responsible for extracting/decoding meaning from the message.
The receiver is also responsible for providing feedback to the sender. In a word, it is his/her
job to INTERPRET.

5. FEEDBACK
This is important as it determines whether or not the decoder grasped the intended meaning
and whether communication was successful.

6. CONTEXT
Communication does not take place in a vacuum. The context of any communication act is
the environment surrounding it. This includes, among other things, place, time, event, and
attitudes of sender and receiver.

7. NOISE (also called interference)

This is any factor that inhibits the conveyance of a message. That is, anything that gets in the
way of the message being accurately received, interpreted and responded to. Noise may be
internal or external. A student worrying about an incomplete assignment may not be attentive
in class (internal noise/ psychological noise) or the sounds of heavy rain on a galvanized roof
may inhibit the reading of a storybook to second graders (external noise/physical noise).
The communication process is dynamic, continuous, irreversible, and contextual. It is not
possible to participate in any element of the process without acknowledging the existence and
functioning of the other elements.

Communication is defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning

(Pearson, & Nelson, 2000).
 Imagine you are alone in your kitchen, thinking to yourself. Someone you know (say, your
mother) enters the kitchen and you talk briefly. What has changed?
Now imagine that your mother is joined by someone else, someone you haven’t met before—
and that this stranger listens intently as you speak, almost as if you were giving a speech.
What has changed? Your perspective might change, and you might watch your words more
closely. The feedback or response from your mother and the stranger may cause you to re-
evaluate what you are saying. When we interact; all of these factors and many more influence
the process of communication.
The second key word is understanding. To understand is to perceive, to interpret, and to
relate our perception and interpretation to what we already know (McLean, (2003). If a
friend tells you a story about falling off a bike, what image comes to mind? Now your friend
points out the window and you see a motorcycle lying on the ground. Understanding the
words and the concepts or objects they refer to is an important part of the communication
process.
Next comes the word sharing. Sharing means doing something together with one or more
other people. You may share a joint activity, as when you share in compiling a report; or you
may benefit jointly from a resource, as when you and several co-workers share a pizza. In
communication, sharing occurs when you convey thoughts, feelings, ideas or insights to
others. You can also share with yourself—a process called intrapersonal communication—
when you bring ideas to consciousness, ponder how you feel about something, or figure out
the solution to a problem and have a classic “Aha!” moment where something becomes clear.
Finally, meaning is what we share through communication. The word “bike” represents both
a bicycle and a short name for a motorcycle. By looking at the context the word is used in,
and by asking questions, we can discover the shared meaning of the word and understand the
message.
At the centre of our study of communication is the relationship that involves interaction
between participants.

Communication has and will always play a crucial role in your personal and professional
lives and its mastery and competence will influence how effectively you live these lives
(DeVito 2000, 2). He defines communication as “the act, by one or more persons, of sending
and receiving messages that are distorted by noise, occur within a context, have some effect,
and provide some opportunity for feeding-back.

Cleary et al (2009, 2) defines communication as, “the process of creating meaning between
two or more people through the expression and interpretation of messages.”

DeFleur et al, (2013:8) echoes that “human communication is a process during which a
source(individual) initiates a message using verbal and nonverbal symbols and contextual
cues to express meaning by transmitting information in such a way that similar or parallel
understandings are constructed by the intended receiver(s). Communication occurs when one
organism (the source) encodes information into a signal that passes to another organism (the
receiver), who decodes the signal and is capable of responding appropriately”.
3 Communication as a process

3.1 Elements of communication

INTRODUCTION
Communication is one of the vital parts of the organizational structure. It is the two way
process, it is important to understand the various elements of communication, the
communication cycle, and the barriers that hinder communication.

3.2 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Since communication is one of the most important parts of any organizational structure, we
start our study of communication with an analysis of the communication process.
Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages - sometimes through
written words and sometimes through such nonverbal means as facial expressions, gestures,
and voice qualities.
The communication process involves understanding, sharing, and meaning, and it consists of
8 essential elements: source, (sender) message, channel, receiver, feedback, environment,
(setting) context, and interference.
Source
The source imagines, creates, and sends the message. In a public speaking situation, the
source is the person giving the speech. He or she conveys the message by sharing new
information with the audience. The speaker also conveys a message through his or her tone of
voice, body language, and choice of clothing. Taking a turn as a group member can
sometimes feel like a speech as all eyes are on you. The speaker begins by first determining
the message—what they want to say and how they want to say it. The next step involves
encoding the message by choosing just the right order or the perfect words to convey the
intended meaning. The third step is to present the information, sending the information to the
receiver, audience, or group members. Finally, by watching for the audience’s reaction, the
source perceives how well they received the message, and responds with clarification or
supporting information.
Message
The message is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or audience
(McLean, 2005, p. 10). When you plan to give a speech or write a report, your message may
seem to be only the words you choose that will convey your meaning.
But that is just the beginning. The words are brought together with grammar and
organization. You may choose to save your most important point for last. The message also
consists of the way you say it—in a speech, with your tone of voice, your body language, and
your appearance—and in a report, with your writing style, punctuation (!), and the headings
and formatting you choose. In addition, part of the message may be the environment or
context you present in and any noise which may make your message hard to hear or see.
Imagine, for example, that you are addressing a large audience of sales reps and are aware
there is a World Series game tonight. Your sales team members might have a hard time
settling down, but you may choose to open with, “I understand there is an important game
tonight.” In this way, by expressing verbally something that most people in your audience are
aware of and interested in, you might grasp and focus their attention.
Channel
The channel is the way in which a message or messages travel between source and receiver.
McLean, 2005, p. 10). For example, think of your television. How many channels do you
have on your television? Each channel takes up some space, even in a digital world, in the
cable or in the signal that brings the message of each channel to your
Similarly, when you speak or write, you are using a channel to convey your message. Spoken
channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, telephone conversations and voice
mail messages, radio, public address systems, and voiceover- internet protocol (VOIP).
Written channels include letters, memorandums, purchase orders, invoices, newspaper and
magazine articles, blogs, e-mail, text messages, tweets, and so forth.
Receiver
“The receiver receives the message from the source, analysing and interpreting the message
in ways both intended and unintended by the source” (McLean,
(2005, p.10). To better understand this component, think of a receiver on a football team. The
quarterback throws the message (football) to a receiver, who must see and interpret where to
catch the football. The quarterback may intend for the receiver to “catch” his message in one
way, but the receiver may see things differently and miss the football (the intended meaning)
altogether. When the quarterback and receiver, as well as the rest of the team, fail to
communicate, an interception—like a miscommunication—is bound to occur.
As a receiver you listen, see, touch, smell, and/or taste to receive a message. Your team
members “size you up,” much as you might check them out long before you open your
mouth. The nonverbal responses of your listeners can serve as clues on how to adjust your
opening. By imagining yourself in their place, you anticipate what you would look for if you
were them. Just as a quarterback plans where the receiver will be in order to place the ball
correctly, you too can recognize the interaction between source and receiver in a business
communication context. All of this happens at the same time, illustrating why and how
communication is always changing.
Feedback
When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally, you are giving feedback.
Feedback is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the source. Verbal or
nonverbal, all of these feedback signals allow the source to see how well, how accurately (or
how poorly and inaccurately) the message was received. Feedback also provides an
opportunity for the receiver or audience to ask for clarification, to agree or disagree, or to
indicate that the source could make the message more interesting. As the amount of feedback
increases, the accuracy of communication also increases (Leavitt, & Mueller, 1951).
For example, suppose you are a sales manager participating in a conference call with four
sales reps. As the source, you want to tell the reps to take advantage of the fact that it is
World Series season to close sales on baseball-related sports gear.
You state your message, but you hear no replies from your listeners. You might assume that
this means they understood and agreed with you—but later in the month you might be
disappointed to find that very few sales were made. If you followed up your message with a
request for feedback (“Does this make sense? Do any of you have any questions?”) you
might have an opportunity to clarify your message, and to find out whether any of the sales
reps believed your suggestion would not work with their customers.
Environment
“The environment is the atmosphere, physical and psychological, where you send and
receive messages” (McLean, 2005, p. 11). The environment can include the tables, chairs,
lighting, and sound equipment that are in the room. The room itself is an example of the
environment. The environment can also include factors like formal dress that may indicate
whether a discussion is open and caring or more professional and formal. People may be
more likely to have an intimate conversation when they are physically close to each other,
and less likely when they can only see each other from across the room. In that case, they
may text each other, itself an intimate form of communication. The choice to text is
influenced by the environment. As a speaker, your environment will impact and play a role in
your speech. It’s always a good idea to go check out where you’ll be speaking before the day
of the actual presentation.
Context
“The context of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and expectations
of the individuals involved” (McLean, 2005, p.11). A professional communication context
may involve business suits (environmental cues) that directly or indirectly influence
expectations of language and behaviour among the participants.
A meeting, presentation, or personal conversation does not take place as an isolated event.
When you came to class, you came from somewhere. So did the person seated next to you, as
did the instructor. The degree to which the environment is formal or informal depends on the
contextual expectations for communication held by the participants. The person sitting next
to you may be used to informal communication with instructors, but this particular instructor
may be used to verbal and nonverbal displays of respect in the academic environment. You
may be used to formal interactions with instructors as well, and find your classmate’s
question of “Hey Teacher, do we have homework today?” as rude and inconsiderate when
they see it as normal. The nonverbal response from the instructor will certainly give you a
clue about how they perceive the interaction, both the word choices and how they were said.
Context is all about what people expect from each other, and we often create those
expectations out of environmental cues. Traditional gatherings like weddings are often
formal events. There is a time for quiet social greetings, a time for silence as the bride walks
down the aisle, or the father may have the first dance with his daughter as she transforms
from a girl to womanhood in the eyes of her community. In either celebration there may
come a time for rambunctious celebration and dancing. You may be called upon to give a
toast, and the wedding context will influence your presentation, timing, and effectiveness.
In a business meeting, who speaks first? That probably has some relation to the position and
role each person has outside of the meeting. Context plays a very important role in
communication, particularly across cultures.
Interference
Interference, also called noise, can come from any source. “Interference is anything that
blocks or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message” (McLean, 2005, p. 11). For
example, if you drove a car to work or school, chances are you were surrounded by noise. Car
horns, billboards, or perhaps the radio in your own car interrupted your thoughts, or your
conversation with a passenger.
Psychological noise is what happens when your own thoughts occupy your attention while
you are hearing, or reading, a message. Imagine that it is 4:45 p.m. and your boss, who is at a
meeting in another city, e-mails you asking for last month’s sales figures, an analysis of
current sales projections, and the sales figures from the same month for the past five years.
You may open the email, start to read, and think “Great—no problem—I have those figures
and that analysis right here in my computer.” You fire off a reply with last month’s sales
figures and the current projections attached. Then, at 5 o’clock, you turn off your computer
and go home.
The next morning, your boss calls on the phone to tell you he was inconvenienced because
you neglected to include the sales figures from the previous years. What was the problem?
Interference: by thinking about how you wanted to respond to your boss’s message, you
prevented yourself from reading attentively enough to understand the whole message.
Interference can come from other sources, too. Perhaps you are hungry, and your attention to
your own situation interferes with your ability to listen. Maybe the office is hot and stuffy. If
you were a member of an audience listening to an executive speech, how could this impact
your ability to listen and participate?
Noise interferes with normal encoding and decoding of the message carried by the channel
between source and receiver. Not all noise is bad, but noise interferes with the
communication process. For example, your cell phone ringtone may be a welcome noise to
you, but it may interrupt the communication process in class and bother your classmates.
EXERCISES
1. Draw what you think communication looks like. Share your drawing with your classmates.
2. List three environmental cues and indicate how they influence your expectations for
communication. Please share your results with your classmates.
3. How does context influence your communication? If you could design the perfect date,
what activities, places, and/or environmental cues would you include setting the mood?
Please share your results with your classmates.

3.3 THE COMMUNICATION CYCLE

The communication cycle is fairly easy to understand.
Within any noisy universe, a sender encodes a verbal or nonverbal message, sends it through
any message channel to a receiver, who decodes the message. The message channel is the
medium through which the message passes. Communication rarely takes place over only one
channel; you may use two or more different channels simultaneously. E.G. in face-to-face
interactions you speak and listen (vocal and aural channels), but you also gesture and receive
these signals visually (visual channel). In addition, you emit and detect odours using the nose
(olfactory channel). Often you touch another person (tactile channel) or taste some food
(gustatory channel). The receiver then encodes a reply, which is returned through a feedback
channel to the sender, who decodes it, deals with it somehow, and perhaps sends another
message.
Without a full cycle, communication is incomplete. Our individual acts of communication are
how each of us makes sense of reality. Our "sense-making" communication habits form all
our relations.
The way individuals interact in families is reproduced within the formal and informal
organizations in their lives. These groups construct the institutions comprising the
communities composing the diverse cultures and societies constituting our nations and our
world. As the dominant species on earth, our habitual ways of interacting are imprinted on
the planetary systems, reflecting our choices.
Communication spins the web of life. All life is interactive.
How we communicate with ourselves and with others produce the nature of the society and
environment where we live and breathe and have our being. "Senders" and "receivers"
interacting generate life itself. Our interactions create our realities. Conflicts can stem from
encoding and decoding errors or assumptions. A filtering system has evolved to help us
humans deal with sensory overload. Every outgoing and incoming message gets filtered
through the cultural and genetic biases implanted in our minds for pattern recognition.
Unconscious barriers to intrapersonal and interpersonal communication tend to fragment our
awareness. We filter out data incongruent with our mindset. Divisions persist between our
perceptions and reality (if "reality" may be known).
We tend to evolve what I call split perceptions to hide from ourselves the truths about reality
that we wish to avoid. Our split perceptions enable us to believe that we live separate and
apart from others in our world that we can get away with any outrage to ourselves or to
others. We suffer from the delusion that we may escape the consequences of global
interactivity. We see what we want to see and hear what we want to hear. We pretend we are
not pretending. We are blind by choice. Ignorance is bondage. Understanding interactivity is
the key to healthy communication. We can transform ourselves and our world by changing
the way we communicate with others and ourselves. Every thought, word and deed sends out
ripples altering life for everyone. That's the nature of communication.
3.4 THE BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Considering the complex nature of the communication process your messages may not
always be received exactly as you intended. As a matter of fact, sometimes your messages
will not be received at all; at other times, they will be received incompletely or inaccurately.
Some of the obstacles to effective and efficient communication are verbal; others are
nonverbal. These barriers can create an impenetrable "brick wall" that makes effective
communication impossible.
Verbal Barriers
Verbal barriers are related to what you write or say. They include inadequate knowledge or
vocabulary, differences in interpretation, language differences, inappropriate use of
expressions, over abstraction and ambiguity, and polarization.
Yahoo confounders Jerry Yang and David Filo help Internet users overcome information
anxiety by locating and organizing the mass of data available on the Web.
You must know enough about both your topic and your audience to express yourself
precisely and appropriately.
Inadequate knowledge or Vocabulary: Before you can even begin to think about how you
will communicate an idea, you must, first of all, have the idea; that is, you must have
sufficient knowledge about the topic to know what you want to say.
Regardless of your level of technical expertise, this may not be as simple as it sounds.
Assume, for example, that you are Larry Haas, manager of the finance department at Anuro’s
Systems. Roy Mishra, president of the company, has asked you to evaluate an investment
opportunity. You've completed all the necessary research and are now ready to write your
report. Or are you?
Have you analyzed your audience? Do you know how much the president knows about the
investment so that you'll know how much background information to include? Do you know
how familiar Roy is with investment terminology? Can you safely use abbreviations Iike
NPV and RRR, or will you have to spell out and perhaps define net present value and
required rate of return? Do you know whether the president would prefer to have your
conclusions at the beginning of the report, followed by your analysis, or at the end? What
tone should the report take? The answers to such questions will be important if you are to
achieve your objective in writing the report.
Differences in Interpretation: Sometimes senders and receivers attribute different meanings
to the same word or attribute the same meaning to different words.
When this happens, miscommunication can occur.
A word's denotation defines its meaning; its connotation indicates our associations with the
word.
Every word has both a denotative and a connotative meaning. Denotation refers to the literal,
dictionary meaning of a word. Connotation refers to the subjective, emotional meaning that
you attach to a word. For example, the denotative meaning of the word plastic is "a synthetic
material that can be easily moulded into different forms."
For some people, the word also has a negative connotative meaning - "cheap or artificial
substitute."
Most of the interpretation problems occur because of the personal reactions engendered by
the connotative meaning of a word. Do you have a positive, neutral, or negative reaction to
the terms broad, bad, aggressive, hard-hitting, workaholic, corporate raider, head-hunter, gay,
golden parachute, or wasted? Are your reactions likely to be the same as everyone else's? The
problem with some terms is not only that people assign different meanings to the term but
also that the term itself might cause such an emotional reaction that the receiver is "turned off
to any further communication with the sender.
Language differences. In an ideal world, all managers would know the language of each
culture with which they deal. International business people often say that you can buy in your
native language anywhere in the world, but you can sell only in the language of the local
community.
Most of the correspondence between American or Canadian firms and foreign firms is in
English; in other cases, the services of a qualified interpreter (for oral communication) or
translator (for written communication) may be available. But even with such services,
problems can occur. Consider, for example, the following blunders:
• In China, Kentucky Fried Chicken's slogan "Finger - lickin' well" was translated "So good
you suck you fingers."
• In Puerto Rico, General Motors had difficulties advertising Chevrolet's Nova model because
the name sounds like the Spanish phrase Nova, which means, "It doesn't go."
• In Thailand, the slogan "Come alive with Pepsi" was translated "Bring your ancestors back
from the dead with Pepsi."
• When the ICA used a machine translation system to translate Russian, the Bible verse "The
spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak" became "The vodka is good, but the beef is rotten."
To ensure that the intended meaning is not lost during translation, legal, technical, and all
other important documents should first be translated into the second language and them
retranslated into English. Beware, however, that communication difficulties can arise even
among native English speakers. For example, a British advertisement for Electrolux vacuum
cleaners displayed the headline "Nothing Sucks like an Electrolux." Copywriters in the
United States and
Canada would never use this wording!
Inappropriate Use of Expressions : Expressions are groups of words whose intended
meanings are different from their literal interpretations. Examples include slang, jargon,
and euphemisms.
The use of slang, jargon, and euphemisms is sometimes appropriate and sometimes
inappropriate.
Slang is an expression, often short-lived, that is identified with a specific group of people.
Here, for example, are some slang terms (and their meanings) currently popular on college
campuses:
Barbie - A painstakingly dressed and groomed female
Brain burp - A random thought
Circle of death - A lousy pizza
Zoo a course - To fail
McPaper - A quickly or poorly written paper
Phat - Very cool
Posse - Group of friends
Rocks for Jocks - Easy introductory Geology course
Teenagers, construction workers, immigrants, computer technology professionals, and just
about every other subgroup you can imagine all have their own sets of slang. Using
appropriate slang in everyday speech presents no problem; it conveys precise information and
may indicate group membership. Problems arise, however, when the sender uses slang that
the receiver doesn't understand. Slang that sends a negative nonverbal message about the
sender can also be a source of problems.
• Jargon is the technical terminology sued within specialized groups; it has sometimes been
called "the pros' prose." As with slang, the problem is not in using jargon – jargon provides a
very precise and efficient way of communicating with those familiar with it. The problem
comes in suing jargon either with someone who doesn't understand it or in using jargon in an
effort to impress others.
• Euphemisms are inoffensive expressions used in place of words that may offend or suggest
something unpleasant. Sensitive writers and speakers use euphemisms occasionally,
especially to describe bodily functions. How many ways, for example, can you think of to say
that someone had died?
Slang, jargon, and euphemisms all have important role to play in business communication -
as long as they're used with appropriate people and in appropriate contexts. They can,
however, prove to be barriers to effective communication when used to impress, when used
too often, or when used in inappropriate settings.
The word transportation is abstract; the word automobile is concrete.
Over abstraction and Ambiguity: An abstract word identifies an idea or feeling instead of a
concrete object. For example, communication is an abstract word, whereas memorandum is a
concrete word, a word that identifies something that can be perceived by the senses. Abstract
words are necessary in order to communicate about things you cannot see or touch. However,
communication problems result when you use too many abstract words or when you sue too
high a level of abstraction. The higher the level of abstraction, the more difficult it is for the
receiver to visualize exactly what the sender has in mind. For example, which sentence
communicates more information: "I acquired an asset at the store" or "I purchased a laser
printer at Computer Land"?
Similar communication problems result from the overuse of ambiguous terms such as a few,
some, several, and far away, which have too broad a meaning for use in much business
communication. For example, a report contained the following sentence: "The shipping
department received a lot of complaints last month." Isn't it important to know exactly how
many complaints they received?
Polarization: At times, some people as though every situation is divided into two opposite
and distinct poles, with no allowance for a middle ground. Of course, there are some true
dichotomies. You are either male or female, and your company either will or will not make a
profit this year. But most aspects of life involve more than two alternatives.
For example, you might assume that a speaker either is telling the truth or is lying. In fact,
what the speaker actually says may be true, but by selectively omitting some important
information, he or she may be giving accurate information. Is the speaker telling the truth or
not? Most likely, the answer lies somewhere in between.
Likewise, you are not necessarily tall or short, rich or poor, smart or dumb. Competent
communicators avoid inappropriate either/or logic and instead make the effort to search for
middle-ground words when such language best describes a situation.

Nonverbal Barriers
Not all communication problems are related to what you write or say. Some are related to
how you act. Nonverbal barriers to communication include inappropriate or conflicting
signals, differences in perception, inappropriate emotions, and distractions.
Inappropriate or conflicting Signals Suppose a well-qualified applicant for a secretarial
position submits a resume with a typographical error or an accountant's personal office is in
such disorder that she could not find the papers she needed for a meeting with the president.
When verbal and nonverbal signals conflict, the receiver tends to put more faith in the
nonverbal signals because nonverbal messages are more difficult to manipulate than verbal
messages.
Many nonverbal signals vary from culture to culture. Remember also that the
United States itself is a multicultural country: a banker from Boston, an art shop owner from
San Francisco, and a farmer from North Dakota are likely to both use and interpret nonverbal
signals in quite different ways. What is appropriate in one context might not be appropriate in
another.
Communication competence requires that you communicate nonverbal messages that are
consistent with your verbal messages and that are appropriate for the context.
Differences in Perception: Even when they hear the same speech or read the same
document, people of different ages, socioeconomic backgrounds, cultures, and so forth often
form very difficult perceptions. We discussed earlier the mental filter by which each
communication source is interpreted. Because each person is unique, with unique
experiences, knowledge, and viewpoints, each person forms a different opinion about what he
or she reads and hears.
Some people tend automatically to believe certain people and to distrust other people. For
example, while reading a memo from the company president, one employee may be so
intimidated by the president that he or she accepts everything the president says, whereas
another employee may have such negative feelings about the president that he or she believes
nothing the president says.
It is generally more effective to depend on logic instead of emotions while communicating
Inappropriate Emotions: In most cases a moderate level of emotional involvement
intensifies the communication and makes it more personal. However, too much emotional
involvement can be an obstacle to communication. For example, excessive anger can create
such an emotionally charged environment that reasonable discussion is not possible.
Likewise, prejudice (automatically rejecting certain people or ideas), stereotyping (placing
individuals into categories), and boredom all hinder effective communication. Such emotions
tend to create a blocked mind that is closed to ideas, rejecting or ignoring information that is
contrary to one's prevailing belief.
Distractions: Any environmental or competing element that restricts one's ability to
concentrate on the communication task hinders effective communication.
Such distractions are called noise. Examples of environmental noise are poor acoustics,
extreme temperature, uncomfortable seating, body odour, poor telephone connections, and
illegible photocopies. Examples of competing noise are other important business to attend to,
too many meetings, and too many reports to read.
Competent communicators make the effort to write and speak clearly and consistently and try
to avoid or minimize any verbal or nonverbal barriers that might cause misunderstandings.
Check your progress
1) What are the parts of communication?
2) Mention verbal barriers
3) Mention non-verbal barriers
4) Define Slang
……………………………………………………………….………………………
CONCLUSION
Thus, in order to be able to communicate well we need to know the basic elements of
communication, working of the communication cycle, various barriers which may occur
during communicating with each other.
SUMMARY
In short, the communication model consists of five parts, the stimulus, filter, message,
medium and destination. The communication cycle consists of sender, receiver, message,
medium or channel through which message is encoded as well as decoded and finally the
feedback on the basis of which an organization decides its further policies and strategies. In
order to understand the process of communication learners should also understand the kinds
of barriers which may occur during the communication process.
Source : http://books.google.co.in
4. Forms of Communication
INTRODUCTION
Not all the communication that goes on in an organization is operational, however; in fact,
much of it is without purpose as far as the organization is concerned.
Such communication may be classified as personal.
Personal communication is all the incidental exchange of information and feelings in which
human beings engage whenever they come together. Human beings are social animals. They
have a need to communicate, and they will communicate even when they have little or
nothing to say.
Much of the time friends spend with one another is devoted to communication, for it is
simply the thing to do when people get together. Even total strangers are likely to
communicate when they are placed together, such as on a plane trip, in a waiting room, or at
a ball game. Such personal communication also takes place in the work situation, and it is
part of the communication activity of any business organization. Although not a component
of an organization's plan of operation, personal communication can have a significant effect
on its success. This effect stems from the influence personal communication can have on the
viewpoints (opinions, attitudes, and beliefs) of the organization's members. Workers'
viewpoints toward the organization, their fellow employees, and their assignments directly
affect their willingness to do assigned tasks. And the nature of conversation in a work
situation affects viewpoints. In a work situation in which heated words and flaring tempers
are frequent, the participants are unlikely to make their usual productive effort. A rollicking,
jovial work situation is likely to have an equally adverse effect on productivity. No doubt,
somewhere between these extremes lie the ideal productive viewpoints.

Also affecting organization members' work viewpoints is the extent of personal

communication permitted to them. Outright denial of the communication privilege can lead to
emotional upset, for people hold dear their right to communicate. On the other hand,
excessive personal communication can interfere directly with their work effort.
Probably somewhere in the middle ground lies the optimal policy towards personal
communication.
Personal communication can also help form viewpoints (opinions, attitudes, beliefs). As
illustrated in the account of Dan's workday at Typical, Dan and his car-pool friends spent
some of their conversation time discussing a proposed new promotion policy; and in so
doing, each helped crystallize the others' viewpoints. It is this process that determines much
of what organization members think about their organization, co-workers, and work situation
in general. What they think can affect their relationships with the organization—and have a
direct influence on their productivity.

There are three forms of communication

a. Oral
b. Written
c. Non Verbal

4.1 Verbal/ Oral Communication

In oral communication, both the parties to the process, i.e., sender and receiver, exchange
their ideas through oral words either in face-to-face communication or through any
mechanical or electrical device, such as telephone, etc. Oral communication is very helpful in
face-to-face two-way communication where persons can exchange their feelings fully and
clarity regarding any doubt or ambiguity may be sought. It has, as such, very high degree of
potentiality for speedy and complete interchange of information. Possibility of gestural
communication being used along with oral one increases the effectiveness of this type of
communication since actions speak louder than words. Important points may be emphasised
through actions. Rank and file employees as well as supervisors and even managers often
prefer oral communication. They enjoy the opportunity to ask questions and to participate.
Face-to-face oral communication is sometimes supplemented by public address systems that
permit managers to speak directly to workers in the workshop. Oral communication suffers
from the disadvantages of absence of any permanent record of communication. Sometimes, it
becomes time-consuming especially in meetings and conferences when after various
deliberations, nothing concrete comes out.
Sometimes, oral communication is not taken seriously by the receiver and basic objective of
communication in this case is not achieved. There is also a possibility that the spoken words
are not clearly heard or understood.
4.2 Written Communication
Communication in writing—written words, graphs, diagrams, pictures, etc. may take the form
of letters, circulars, notes, manuals, etc. Written communication possesses the capacity of
being stored for future reference. The communication efforts may be minimized by
simultaneous communication to various points such as through circulars, etc. It also enables
the communication to take place between distantly placed parties without much cost. Written
communication is more orderly and binding on subordinates and superiors to take suitable
actions in the organization. Written communication, however, suffers from major drawbacks.
It is very time-consuming both in terms of preparing the message and in terms of
understanding the message.
There is a greater chance of communication being misunderstood. Sometimes it is more
costly in comparison to oral communication.
Oral and Written Communication: A Comparison. Each of the different media of
communication has its strengths and weaknesses which determine its uses and suitability for
communication in any particular context. Thus, in some cases, oral communication might be
useful while in others, written communication may be necessary, as both of these have their
own relative merits and demerits, as discussed above. As such, one cannot depend upon a
particular medium of communication and both of these media are complementary to each
other. That is why, in practice, both these media are used. Oral communication, however, is
more useful where the subject-matter is complex and a final decision requires deliberations
from the persons concerned. Moreover, in day-to-day business and in routine types of
activities, oral communication may be relied upon. Where the messages are to be kept for
future reference, written communication is the only one possibility.
4.3 NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
As we have seen, the field of nonverbal communication is quite inclusive. To make its study
meaningful to us, therefore, we must break it down by category. Thus, we will explore the
various subparts of nonverbal communication: kinesics, proxemics, time language,
paralanguage, and physical context.
4.3.1 VISUAL SIGNS IN NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Kinesics
The most often studied sub area of nonverbal communication is kinesics, or body movements.
Some, in fact, believe that kinesics and nonverbal communication are the same. Because
kinesics is so widely known, we will examine it. First, we will define kinesics. Then we will
look at the various types of body movements to see how we can use them for better business
communication.
Definition: We can define kinesics as the study of the body's physical movements. In other
words, it is the way the body communicates without words, that is, through various
movements of its parts. When we study kinesics, we specifically look for inner states of
emotion as expressed through different parts of the body and their physical movements. As
Watzlawick and his associates indicate, "You can't communicate-" Thus, you communicate
just by being. By nodding your head, blinking your eyes, shrugging your shoulders, waving
your hands, and making other such physical movements, you send messages to others.
Watzlawick's statement applies especially to kinesics as we have defined it.
When we study body language, we are looking at symbols of meaning that the body's
physical movements are communicating. We are searching for attitudes, perceived status
relationships, moods, deception, warmth, needs for interaction, and the like as body symbols
and activities express them of course we must infer these meanings from symbols because we
do not see exactly what they stand for. But outward body movements reflect true inner
conditions of meaning. We look for expressions of these inner body states in the face and
eyes, gestures, posture, and physical appearance. We will examine each of these body parts
for more specific symbols of body language.
Face and Eyes: By far, the face is where we look for most expressions of what is going on
inside us. Within the facial area, the eyes tell us much more than other facial features. Thus,
we look to the face and eyes when we want to determine much of the meaning behind body
language and nonverbal communication.
For example, consider the facial expressions you associate with happiness, surprise, fear,
anger, and sadness. Do you look to the mouth, jaw, eyes, nose, cheeks, or forehead for your
decision? Is the mouth open wide or closed, the eyelids raised or lowered, the nose wrinkled
or relaxed, the cheeks drawn up or back, the forehead lowered or raised? All of the facial
parts combined tell you something about what is happening to create the expressions you see.
For evidence of these ideas, you might look at a magazine advertisement containing people to
determine the extent to which each part of their faces fits together to "depict" various
emotional states. Of you might study the faces of fellow students.
Better still, look in a mirror and see how your own face reflects what is going on within you
at the moment. Express to yourself different emotions and see how your jaw, mouth, nose,
eyes, cheeks, and forehead respond to each. If you can record your expressions on videotape,
you can study them in even more detail. The automatic ways in which the facial parts react
may surprise you.
As we noted, the facial feature to which we look most for meaning is the eyes.
The eyes, along with the eyebrows, upper and lower eyelids, and size of pupils, convey
certain inner body states. Eyebrows with upper and lower eyelids raised combined with
dilated pupils—a wide-eyed effect—tells us that the person is excited, surprised, or
frightened. The opposite effect, eyebrows with upper and lower eyelids closed (less white
space exposed) combined with constricted pupils—a beady-eyed look—tell us that the person
is angry, intense, or in pain. When these eye features are put together with other facial parts,
we infer about the person's inner goings on.
While eye patterns communicate to us, eye contact (gazing) and movements are also
meaningful. If we look at someone or something for a long period of time, we show our
intensity of interest. Brief eye contact generally reveals embarrassment, timidity, or
nervousness. Of course, eye contact and movement must be placed within the context of other
facial expressions and body movements to get a total meaning.
Yet eye contact and eye movements indeed help significantly in the filtering process.
Gestures: In addition to the face and eyes, other body parts move and convey meaning. We
refer to these movements as gestures—the physical movements of arms, legs, hands, torso,
and head. Because we have just examined the face and eyes, we will exclude the head for the
moment and concentrate on other body movements.
Researchers who study gestures generally believe that gestures are made relationally; that is,
they are used not individually but in relation to another person.
Thus, certain gestures have meaning at particular times in an interpersonal situation— at the
beginning, middle, and end of the interchange. To get the true meaning of the gestures used
in an interpersonal relationship, we must look at the specific situation of the relationship.
Also, speaking and gesturing appear to be linked, although the nature of the linkage is not
exactly known. Generally, intensity of speech appears to be directly associated with the size
of a gesture: the greater the gesture, the louder the speech, and vice versa. We appear to
continually attempt to coordinate our speaking with our gestures. Because speech and
gestures are both learned, we also learn how to coordinate them. When the two are
uncoordinated, we experience discomfort and confusion.
If you still doubt that gestures have meaning, you might consider the old game of charades.
The purpose is to convey a song title, book title, or saying to others in a group without using
words. To win, players must use gestures — physical movements of the hands, arms, legs,
and torso— to convey intended meanings. If you have not played the game before, try it. You
will find that all of the ideas we have mentioned about gestures are true—truer than words
can ever tell!
Body Shape and Posture: A third area of kinesics involves body shape and posture. Because
body shape and posture affect how we think about ourselves, how we relate to others, and
how others relate to us, this part of kinesics deserves our analysis. We need to analyse the
effects of body shape and posture to understand their role in nonverbal communication, even
though body shape is mostly hereditary and largely uncontrollable.
Holding your head straight, maintaining your upper body erect, standing on both feet, and
sitting intently listening, you are more aware of your posture in the more formal setting. But
posture is a part of any relationship, regardless of your degree of awareness. Whether you
lean forward or backward, stand or sit erectly, or slouch haphazardly, you tell another person
something; and the other's mental filter gives meaning to your posture.
Also, the physical shapes of our bodies communicate to others. Behaviourists have studied
the shapes of our bodies and have identified three types. The ectomorph is thin, youthful, and
tall; the mesomorph is strong, athletic, muscular, and bony; and the endomorph is fat, round,
and soft. Indeed, our physical structures communicate something about us, and we would do
well to be aware of it. Perhaps these body types lead to false stereotypes, but the point
remains that our physical structures do communicate.
Probably all of us would like to be mesomorphs, but that might be genetically or physically
impossible. What do we do? We need to use the best features of each body shape in relation
to other body movements. The endomorph with bad posture, superficial gestures, and an
unfriendly face will project an unfavourable image. Such a person will likely communicate a
negative message. So too can we associate negative features with the ectomorph and the
mesomorph. Thus, we want to avoid such negative combinations and associations.
Appearance: The final area of kinesics is appearance. By appearance, we mean clothing,
hair, and adornments such as jewellery, cosmetics, and the like. At first glance, it may seem
that appearance is unrelated to body movements. Closer inspection, however, reveals that
appearance relates to how the face, eyes, gestures, posture, and shapes—all those aspects of
body language we have discussed—are perceived. Thus, we will present some basic ideas
about appearance, although our coverage will not include etiquette or good grooming
techniques.
If you are like most people, you are not aware of the role appearance plays in your
perceptions. Most people indicate they are not influenced by another's physical appearance,
but apparently they are. Our own and others' appearances tell us much about how we (and
they) want to be seen by other people. They also reveal how we practice the "rules of the
game" in an organization.
By now you surely see that appearance affects the way we are seen and want to be seen by
others. Indeed, books on successful dressing and "image" consultants attest to the importance
of appearance. Although there are many aspects to appearance, the basic idea is this: You
should adapt your appearance specifically to the one occasion.
You should consider how others would view you in relation to how you want to be seen. Just
like other body features (face, eyes, hands, legs, arms, posture, and shape), appearance is an
inevitable part of the meaning derived from our bodies' movements. You should expect
appearance to be a part of the messages you communicate, and you should plan your
appearance so that it will effectively communicate to others.
Proxemics:
Another type of nonverbal communication is proxemics—the study of how we communicate
with the space around us. If you think about it carefully, you will conclude that the space
around you and its contents communicate. They create meaning in your mind and in others'
minds. We can define proxemics", then, as the study of the space around us— how we
arrange it and what we arrange in it. In other words, proxemics is "personal space language"
just as kinesics is "body language." To understand this concept, we will first look at an
example; then we will examine the example based on what scholars of this subject have
found.
To illustrate the idea of space meaning, consider the area that surrounds you at this moment
—the space from your body outward that forms a complete circle around you for about 1 1/2
feet. Remember that in this space you originate all of the body movements we discussed
previously. Also, note that you move this space with you wherever you go. Whom do you
allow to enter into this close proximity to you? Family? Close friends? Select others? Under
what circumstances do others come into such closeness with you? More than likely, you
permit only special people to enter this space; in general, no words or at most whispered
words are used here. Others may enter this space occasionally but only under special
circumstances. A handshake or a quick pat on the back is what you probably allow casual
acquaintances to do in this space. But they enter this space infrequently and briefly.
Next, consider the space that extends from 11/2 to 4 feet beyond the first space zone just
identified. In this second, concentric space circle, you permit other and different things to
happen. Conversations with close friends, colleagues, peers, and the like occur. Normal
talking is permitted in this area as opposed to whispered words or complete silence in the
more intimate space immediately surrounding you. Although personal in nature, it is a
relaxed and casual place for you most of the time and permits spontaneous, programmed
communications.
Extending beyond the second area is a third identifiable space zone. It begins at the 4-foot
mark and continues for 8 more feet. Think about this personal space and what happens in it
for a moment. More than likely, you use this space formally, meaning that the relationships in
it are more official. No doubt most of your "business" is done in this zone. It is conducted
with less emotion and more planning.
The last area to consider ranges from 12 feet around you to the farthest distance you can see.
Things that occur here are even more formal. Perhaps you might view happenings in this area
as an impartial observer. Such a perception indicates the degree of detachment you can
maintain about activities in this area. You might have to raise your voice to communicate to
others. This last area represents the most remote and formal space for you. In some cases, it
might be where you place the things that are least significant to you.
These four spaces are what Hall refers to as our informal space. Specifically,
Hall names four types of informal space:
1. Intimate relationship—physical contact 0 to 18 inches/45.72 cm.
2. Personal relationship—18 inches/ 45.72 cm to 4 feet/121.92cm
3. Social relationship—4 feet / 121.92cm to 12 feet/ 365.76 cm.
4. Public relationship—12 feet / 365.76 cm to range of eyesight and hearing.
Without question, the types and quality of our communication activities differ in each of
these four zones, as we have illustrated. But remember that we determine these areas
individually, and can change them by changing our physical location.
Thus, they are specific to us personally.
For another person these personal areas might be changed even more, particularly if he or she
has been conditioned by another culture. For instance, activities in the first zone may differ
dramatically between a person in North America and another in the Middle East. More subtle
differences may exist, however, among people raised in the same culture.
In addition to informal space, researchers have identified two other spaces: (I) fixed space
and (2) semi fixed space. As their names imply, they are less flexible and more formal for us
than our informal spaces. But the two fixed spaces do relate to our uses of space language as
we have defined it, and they help shape our communication activities.
In fixed space, the surroundings' physical features are permanent— walls, room sizes, total
building capacity, and the like. Such permanent structures affect who interrelates with whom
and for how long. They also determine how you may perceive and structure your informal
space.
In semi fixed space, the environment's physical features are partially changeable. For
example, furnishings can be rearranged for different effects. Such semi-permanent
arrangements permit a variety of spaces in which to conduct communication activities.
Combined, the fixed, semi fixed, and informal spaces create a total space structure for each of
us that communicate to us and determine the types of communication activities in which we
engage.
Most scholars in the field of proxemics also study how groups use space. The way people in
groups allocate their assigned spaces determines the group leader, favourite members, types
of interaction patterns, and such. For example, contrast five people seated in a straight row at
a table with the same five seated at a round table.
You will definitely find a different pattern of interaction between the two. Also, you will find
different immediate leaders and conversation topics.
People who begin conversations and people who are seated at the ends are usually considered
leaders, at least at first. Obviously, space patterns, can be rearranged to achieve different
results. If possible, you should use space to accomplish a particular purpose. This usage is
especially important if you are a manager and thus the one responsible for the outcome.
Physical Context
Rounding out our coverage of nonverbal communication is a look at the physical
environment of our communication efforts—the context of our surroundings.
Looked at in one way, this context is the most general and abstract of the nonverbal types.
Thus, we could select many of its parts for discussion. But such a task would be a mammoth
undertaking and likely overlap other coverage’s in this chapter. Thus, we will select two parts
of the physical context of our communication environment—colour and layout/design—to
complete our analysis of nonverbal communication. We will study the physical environment
as a part of nonverbal communication because we get meaning from our surroundings. The
surroundings provide cues in our sensory environment. We get messages from these cues
through the meaning we give to colour and to the layout/design of the parts of our physical
environment.
Colour: Most people who study the effects of colours conclude that different colours are
associated with different moods and behaviours. Artists, interior decorators, and "image"
consultants all contend that the right colour combinations can project appropriate feelings. It
would appear, then, that we have a ''colour language'' in addition to the other types of
languages we have mentioned. Technically, of course, we do not see colour; rather, we see
light waves, which create colour associations within us that we have learned. Nevertheless,
we will consider some basic ideas about colour as part of our physical context.
What colours do you equate with negative feelings? Black/Gray? What colours do you
associate with more pleasant circumstances? Blue? Yellow? That you can equate a feeling
and a colour demonstrates that colours can create meanings in our minds. One problem,
however, is that we have learned to associate colours with specific objects. For example,
what association does "green milk" convey to you?
Research on the effects of colours is far from complete. Yet we can confirm that the colours
of our clothing, office interiors, and the like do make an impression.
Moreover, we receive meanings from colours we perceive. Rather than giving any colour
Selection casual attention, we should devote more thought to colour coordination, particularly
when doing so will help us achieve a desired effect. In addition, we should consider lighting,
sound, and other contextual features with equal diligence.
Layout and Design: Another meaningful part of our physical context is the layout and
design of our surroundings. The space arrangements of an office, the presence or absence of
carpeting, the layout of the desk and chairs, and office size all tell someone something about
us. To test the reality of this component of context, try taking a part of the layout/design away
and see another person's reaction. Or rearrange parts of the environment without telling
another person and look for the negative reaction you will likely get.
The importance of layout and design is evident from the volumes written by architects,
industrial engineers, and production researchers on the subject. Obviously, we cannot present
all of their findings here. The point is that the layout and design of our surroundings
communicate things about us to others. Perhaps they convey our status in a group or perhaps
our needs for formality. In whatever nonverbal ways layout and design communicate, we
should be aware of them so that we can use this part of our surroundings to contribute
effectively to the success of our communication efforts.
4.3.2 AUDIO SIGNALS IN NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Paralanguage
Still another type of nonverbal communication is known as paralanguage, or paralinguistic.
Of all the nonverbal types, it is the closest to actual verbal communication. By paralanguage,
we mean how a person says something.
Paralanguage involves the "how" of a speaker's voice rather than the "what" of the words.
Para means "like"; thus, paralanguage literally means "like language." It involves those hints
and signals in a person's voices that give us meaning.
In paralanguage, we examine the sound of someone's speech. Is it fast or slow? Is it high
pitched or deep? Is it loud and forceful or barely audible? Is it smooth or disjointed? These
are the types of signals with which paralanguage is concerned.
The signals (as symbols) become a part of the total meaning one receives.
For example, read the following series of statements, emphasizing the italicized word in each:
I practice good business communication. I practice good business communication. I practice
good business communication. I practice good business communication. I practice good
business communication.
By concentrating on the italicized word, you give a different meaning to each statement even
though the same words are used. As still another example, try counting from 1 to 10 to
express various emotional states— say, nervousness, happiness, and anger. The way in which
you express each sequence will tell the receiver what you intend quite accurately. For any
remaining nonbelievers, you can try the same experiment with letters of the alphabet.
The preceding examples are designed to illustrate that the way in which one delivers a
message communicates. A person's voice tone and quality may or may not be consistent with
the meaning attached to the actual words. What you need for effective communication is
consistency. Also, you should realize that there are various things you can do to change the
meaning of your oral message. Many of the techniques mentioned are meant to bring what
you say consistently in line with the way you say it—in formal speaking, in informal
speaking, and in listening. Moreover, paralanguage includes pauses and insertions, such as
"oh," "uh," "you know," and the like, since these signal our meanings too.
Scholars in the area of paralanguage note that as senders and receivers we have certain
expectancies about how things should sound. Such stereotypes, whether real or imagined,
affect the type of meaning sent and received through voice patterns.
More specifically, people infer back ground factors (race, occupation, etc.), physical
appearance (e.g., age, height, gender), and personality (introversion, social orientation, etc.),
when they evaluate voice patterns. As a sender, you should consider strongly the implicit
expectancies of your receiver as you construct your message.
As a sender, you should particularly avoid sending "mixed signals"— saying one thing in one
way and using words that intend the opposite. As far as possible, you should make what and
the how of your message blends. As a receiver, you should concentrate on both how the
message is sent and the meaning of the words. Look for consistencies and inconsistencies.
Indeed, the spoken words can tell you much about the entire message's intended meaning if
you listen carefully between the lines.
Music
Music is synonymous with communication especially in the context of business
communication. Ad jingles identify certain brands instantly. Music also associates us with
various events like National Anthem for any event of national importance.
Alarms
Alarms are used from time immemorial. For example siren of an ambulance, alarm of a
clock, ringtone of a telephone all communicate certain things to us.
4.3.3 SILENCE
Silence is often used to communicate feelings such as disapproval; indifference or anger. The
English language itself has a number of idioms relating to silence which show how
expressive it can be viz. “ a stony silence” and “ a loaded silence”.
Orators often also pause before and/or after making an important point so as to emphasize it.
Such a pause before the point is made to convey a sense of anticipation. And a pause later on
gives the communicated time to reflect and think over what has just been said. Thus silence
itself can be used as an instrument in communication. However one drawback is that silence
can be misinterpreted very easily.
4.3.4 TIME
Another type of nonverbal communication, time language involves the meaning we give to
time, that is, how we communicate to others what time means to us. In order to give meaning
to time, we must perceive it, filter it, and symbolize about it. But out final symbolizing about
time is not always done with words.
Probably few of us would disagree that we have meanings for time. Time is particularly
important for people in North America. The history of the North American business society
reveals a time emphasis. Scientific managers of the late 1800s equated the worth of time with
money. As these managers studied work, they systematically analysed job activities and the
time required for doing them. They also derived techniques to help others manage in a
scientific way. This time-and-motion techniques are part of today's business heritage. In
addition, we see current topics such as "time management" covered in popular magazines and
offered by business consultants. Through such courses, we attempt to control time, trying to
become much more efficient in our use of it. If you think about it further, you will recognize
other examples of how time pervades our thinking.
Most of us look to our cultures to get meaning for time, For example, our North
American culture teaches that being on time is a virtue. Also, we are taught that the future is
important, particularly in light of insurance and pension planning. Thus, how we use our time
in our personal and professional schedules reflects how our culture has taught us to perceive
time. Try being late for an appointment and see how others respond. Generally, when
someone is late, we react negatively; when someone arrives early, we see him or her as eager
or aggressive. Agendas used at meetings are to keep us on time. Businesses generally pay
employees more for working overtime, weekends, and holidays. You can conclude from
these examples that we communicate our ideas about time with our nonverbal behaviours,
both personally and professionally.
As still another example of the meaning of time, compare our time orientations with those of
another culture, say, natives of Europe, South America, or the Far East.
Note how people from other cultures communicate their time orientations and how these
differ from ours. You may be surprised at how time is communicated subtly as well as
explicitly. Within each person, then, there appears to be a time language just as there is a
body language and a space language.
As a communicator, you should recognize the receiver's time language. You must remember
that not all time perspectives are the same. You should also be aware that you have a time
language uniquely your own. It projects your own meanings for time. Finally, you can and
should adapt time meanings to fit the receiver's mind just as you do your words in written or
spoken messages.
4.3.5 TOUCH
Touch or tactile methods are very effective modes of communication. No one can mistake the
meaning of a friendly pat on the back or of a warm, welcoming handshake. Such examples of
tactile communication are self-explanatory and are useful tools of communication as they
cannot be misinterpreted very easily.
Another important example of tactile communication is Braille. It is a system of writing and
printing using raised points on paper. It is interpreted entirely by touching the raised points
and deciphering which letter has been printed on the basis of the pattern of the raised points.
This system was devised by Louis Braille for the benefit of the blind.

4.4. THE FUNCTIONS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non-verbal communication is usually used in, tandem with verbal communication. In most
cases it is complementary to what is being said verbally. This is done using non-verbal
communication as a tool to:
1. restate the verbal communication
2. accentuate/ enhance the verbal communication
3. Substitute verbal communication (using a clenched fist, V sign, thumbs-up, etc.)
4. Regulate the flow of the communication process (by a nod or a shake of the person’s head.
Etc.)
However, in some cases, non-verbal communication may also be used to contradict the verbal
communication. For example, an offer to help made with a smile means exactly the opposite
of one made with a grimace or frown. In the first case, the communicator conveys his
willingness to help, whereas in the second case, the frown conveys that the communicator
does not really want to help.
According to Bridwhistell, in face-to-face communication, the spoken words account for less
than 35% of the message decoded by the communicated, while the non-verbal cues
transmitted by the communicated account for the remaining 65% or more. Due to this, it is
essential to keep track of the information being transmitted by one via non-verbal channels.
4.5 THE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
The primary merit of non-verbal communication is that it helps convey the true meaning of
the communication. In most cases, it reinforces verbal communication although this is not
always the case. Non-verbal communication is also easily visible and improves the
atmosphere by lending a personal touch to the communication.
The main demerit of non-verbal communication is that it can be easily misunderstood
particularly when people belonging to different cultures communicate. It is therefore
important not to place an inordinate amount of importance on non-verbal communication, as
it is not always entirely reliable.
CONCLUSION
Thus, we have seen that a great deal of the communication which we transmit has to do with
not only spoken or written words but also with a number of visual nonverbal cues which we
(often subconsciously) transmit. Thus, to communicate effectively we must keep an eye on
both the verbal and nonverbal cues that we transmit.
Check your progress
1) What is oral Communication?
2) What is written Communication?
3) What are the functions of Non-Verbal Communication?
4) What are the merits and demerits of Non-Verbal Communication?
 SUMMARY
There are many forms of communication which are equally important viz. oral, written,
verbal, non-verbal form of communication by performing various functions like restating the
verbal communication, regulate the flow of the communication process.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - ANSWERS
1) In oral communication both the parties that is sender and receiver exchange their ideas
through oral words either in face to face communication or through any mechanical or
electrical device etc.
2) Communication in writing is known as written communication
3) Functions of non-verbal communication are as follows
1) To restate the verbal communication
2) To accentuate the verbal communication
3) To substitute verbal communication
4) To regulate the flow of communication process
4) The primary merit of non-verbal communication is that it helps convey the true meaning of
the communication. It is easily visible and improves the atmosphere by lending a personal
touch to the communication. The main dement of nonverbal communication is that it can be
easily misunderstood particularly when people belonging to different cultures communicate.
Exercise
1) Define Kinesics
2) Define Proxemics
3) What is Paralanguage?

5. Types of Communication
Types of communication include intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass
communication.

Intrapersonal communication involves one person; it is often called “self talk.”

(Wood,1997, p.22).
Donna, (1994) on intrapersonal communication explains how, as we use language to reflect
on our own experiences, we talk ourselves through situations. For example, the voice within
you that tells you, “Keep on Going! I can DO IT!”
Your intrapersonal communication can be positive or negative, and directly influences how
you perceive and react to situations and communication with others.
What you perceive in communication with others is also influenced by your culture, native
language, and your world view. As the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas said, “Every
process of reaching understanding takes place against the background of a culturally
ingrained preunderstanding” (Habermas, 1984, p. 100).
For example, you may have certain expectations of time and punctuality. You weren’t born
with them, so where did you learn them? From those around you as you grew up. You
learned from your family, or the group of people who raised you.
What was normal for them became normal for you, but not everyone’s idea of normal, is the
same.
When your supervisor invites you to a meeting and says it will start at 7 p.m., does that mean
7:00 sharp, 7-ish, or even 7:30? In the business context, when a meeting is supposed to start
at 9 a.m., is it promptly a 9 a.m.? Variations in time expectations depend on regional and
national culture as well as individual corporate cultures. In some companies, everyone may
be expected to arrive 10-15 minutes before the announced start time to take their seats and be
ready to commence business at 9:00 sharp. In other companies, “meeting and greeting” from
about 9 to 9:05 or even 9:10 is the norm. When you are unfamiliar with the expectations for a
business event, it is always wise to err on the side of being punctual, regardless of what your
own internal assumptions about time and punctuality may be.

Interpersonal communication normally involves two people, and can range from intimate
and very personal to formal and impersonal. You may carry on a conversation with a loved
one, sharing a serious concern. Later, at work, you may have a brief conversation about plans
for the weekend with the security guard on your way home. What’s the difference? Both
scenarios involve interpersonal communication, but are different in levels of intimacy. The
first example implies a trusting relationship established over time between two caring
individuals. The second example level implies some previous familiarity, and is really more
about acknowledging each other than any actual exchange of Group Communication
Have you ever noticed how a small group of people in class sit near each other?
Perhaps they are members of the same sports program, or just friends, but no doubt they often
engage in group communication. “Group communication is a dynamic process where a
small number of people engage in a conversation” (McLean, 2005, p.14). Group
communication is generally defined as involving three to eight people. The larger the group,
the more likely it is to break down into smaller groups.
To take a page from marketing, does your audience have segments or any points of
convergence/divergence? We could consider factors like age, education, sex, and location to
learn more about groups and their general preferences as well as dislikes. You may find
several groups within the larger audience, such as specific areas of education, and use this
knowledge to increase your effectiveness as a communicator.

Public Communication
In public communication, one person speaks to a group of people; the same is true of public
written communication, where one person writes a message to be read by a small or large
group. The speaker or writer may ask questions, and engage the audience in a discussion (in
writing, examples are an email discussion or a
point-counter-point series of letters to the editor), but the dynamics of the conversation are
distinct from group communication, where different rules apply.
In a public speaking situation, the group normally defers to the speaker. For example, the
boss speaks to everyone, and the sales team quietly listens without interruption.
This generalization is changing as norms and expectations change, and many cultures have a
tradition of “call outs” or interjections that are not to be interpreted as interruptions or
competition for the floor, but instead as affirmations. The boss may say, as part of a charged-
up motivational speech, “Do you hear me?” and the sales team is expected to call back “Yes
Sir!” The boss, as a public speaker, recognizes that intrapersonal communication (thoughts of
the individual members) or interpersonal communication (communication between team
members) may interfere with this classic public speaking dynamic of all to one, or the
audience devoting all its attention to the speaker, and incorporate attention getting and
engagement strategies to keep the sales team focused on the message.
Mass Communication
How do you tell everyone on campus where and when all the classes are held?
Would a speech from the front steps work? Perhaps it might meet the need if your school is a
very small one. A written schedule that lists all classes would be a better alternative. How do
you let everyone know there is a sale on in your store, or that your new product will meet
their needs, or that your position on a political issue is the same as your constituents? You
send a message to as many people as you can through mass communication. Does everyone
receive mass communication the same way they might receive a personal phone call? Not
likely. Some people who receive mass mailings assume that they are “junk mail” (i.e., that
they do not meet the recipients’ needs) and throw them away unopened. People may tune out
a television advertisement with a click of the mute button, delete tweets or ignore friend
requests on Facebook by the hundreds, or send all unsolicited email straight to the spam
folder unread.
Mass media is a powerful force in modern society and our daily lives, and is adapting rapidly
to new technologies. Mass communication involves sending a single message to a group. It
allows us to communicate our message to a large number of people, but we are limited in our
ability to tailor our message to specific audiences, groups, or individuals. As a business
communicator, you can use multimedia as a visual aid or reference common programs, films
or other images that your audience finds familiar yet engaging. You can tweet a picture that is
worth far more than 140 characters, and are just as likely to elicit a significant response. By
choosing messages or references that many audience members will recognize or can identify
with, you can develop common ground and increase the appeal of your message.
ESSSSSSSSSSY TAKEAWAY
1. Please recall a time when you gave a speech in front of a group. How did you feel? What
was your experience? What did you learn from your experience? If given a second
opportunity, how would you approach the group differently?
2. If you were asked to get the attention of your peers, what image or word would you choose
and why?
3. If you were asked to get the attention of someone like yourself, what image or word would
you choose and why?
4. Make a list of mass communication messages you observe for a one hour period of time.
Share your list with classmates.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups

“It used to be argued that slavery was abolished simply because it had ceased to be
profitable, but all the evidence points the other way: in fact, it was abolished despite the fact
that it was still profitable. What we need to understand, then, is a collective change of heart.
Like all such great changes, it had small beginnings Niall Ferguson, (2002).
All human beings exist, spend time, and behave both individually and in groups.
When you’re a student, you spend a great deal of your time in groups. In the working world,
whether you’re already in it or not, you spend even more (O’Hair & Wiemann, 2004, p. 7).
Of course, many times you have no choice whether you’ll work alone or in a group.
You’re just told what to do. Still, you’re best apt to be prepared if you know what to expect
of each status.
Differences between Group and Interpersonal Communication
The mere fact that groups include multiple people leads to at least four consequences.
Whether these consequences prove to be advantageous or not depends on the skill level and
knowledge of a group’s members.
First, since not everyone in a group can talk at the same time (at least, not if they intend to
understand and be understood by each other), members have to seek permission to speak.
They need to decide how to take turns. In this respect, a group is inherently more formal than
a single individual or a dyad.
Second, members of a group have to share time together. The larger the group, the less
average time per person is available and the fewer opportunities each member will likely
have to contribute to discussions.
Third, communication in groups is generally less intimate than in interpersonal settings.
Because there are so many personalities and levels of relationship to consider, people in
groups are less inclined to share personal details or express controversial views.
Finally, group work is more time-consuming than individual or interpersonal effort.
Why? For one thing, group members usually try to let everyone share information and views.
Also, the more people are involved in a discussion, the more diverse opinions may need to be
considered and allowed to compete.
As we’ve noted earlier, groups apply themselves toward reaching aims and accomplishing
things. In addition to this task-oriented characteristic, however, they include and depend upon
relationships among their members. Although these two elements are usually intertwined
rather than discrete and separate, an overview of the pluses and minuses of each can help you
make the most of your experience in a group.
Relationship Advantages
The columnist David Brooks interpreted research as indicating that human beings are “wired
to cooperate and collaborate, just as much as we are to compete ”(Galanes & Adams, 2013, p.
5). What’s in it for you in terms of relationships, then, if you work in a group instead of
alone? Well, you may have a number of your most important human needs satisfied. Here are
some specifics:
• You may enjoy fellowship and companionship.
• You may receive moral and emotional support for your views and objectives.
• You may meet three important needs identified by William Schutz,
• You may have your impulsiveness curbed or your reticence challenged.
• You may cultivate ties that yield future personal or career advantages.
In the next chapter we’ll further explore the ideas William Schutz, who theorized about levels
of basic human needs and how they may vary from person to person and according to
people’s circumstances. We’ll also review Abraham Maslow’s model of human needs.
Relationship Disadvantages
Despite the advantages it offers, working in groups almost invariably presents challenges and
disadvantages in the realm of relationships. These are some of the chief dangers you may
encounter as part of a group:
• It will probably take a lot of time to create, maintain, and repair the human relationships
involved in a group.
• Your group may generate conflict which hurts people’s feelings and otherwise undermines
their relationships.
• You may misunderstand other group members’ intentions or messages.
• Some group members may attempt to deceive, manipulate, or betray the trust of other
members.
Task Advantages
Anthropologists have asserted that a major feature of mainstream culture in the
United States is a relentless pressure to do things—to accomplish things. Tom
Peters is credited with first calling this cultural feature “a bias for action.” One best-selling
business self-help book reinforced this national passion for dynamic
behavior Bruch & Ghoshal, (2004). Without doubt, accomplishing tasks constitutes a central
purpose of most human behaviour in the modern world.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups
When you’re trying to get something done, working in a group promises many positive
possibilities, among them being the following:
• The group will most likely have access to much more information than any member
possesses.
• The group can focus multiple attentions and diverse energy on a topic.
• The group may be more thorough in dealing with a topic than any individual might be. This
thoroughness may arise simply because of the number of perspectives represented in the
group, but it also owes to the fact that members often “propel each other’s thinking” (Wood,
1997, p. 270).
• The group may harness and exploit conflict to generate new and better ideas than an
individual could. When tension and disagreement are resolved constructively, chances of
achieving group goals increase.
• The group may attain deeper understanding of topics. One analysis of studies, for instance,
indicated that students in group-based learning environments learned more, and remembered
more of what they learned, than did counterparts exposed to more traditional method
(Johnson, & Smith, 1998, p. 31).
• Synergy—a combined effect greater than the simple sum total of individual contributions—
can arise. Sometimes synergy results through enhanced creativity as group members share
and build upon each other’s strengths and perspectives. You can probably think of examples
of an athletic squad or business group comprising members with modest individual strengths
that performed superlatively together.
• The group may spur needed social change. Margaret Mead wrote,
“Never doubt that a small group of committed people can change the world. Indeed, it is the
only thing that ever has.” It may be reasonable to question whether the world always works
the way Mead described, but many examples do exist of small groups which initiated changes
which spread to larger and large parts of society. All other things being equal, a group of
committed individuals will project more credibility and engender more support than will a
solitary person.
Task Disadvantages
Groups aren’t always successful at reaching their goals. You’ve probably
experienced many situations in which you became frustrated or angry because a group you
were part of seemed to be taking two steps backward for every step forward—or perhaps you
felt it was going only backward. Here are some features of group work which distinguish it in
a potentially negative way from what you might be able to accomplish by yourself or with a
single partner:
• In order to be successful, groups need broad, ongoing, time-consuming exchanges of
messages. They need to invest in coordinating and monitoring what they’re doing. With
people as busy as they are in the twenty-first century, “out of sight” is indeed often “out of
mind.” If they don’t keep in touch frequently, group members may forget what they’ve most
recently discussed or decided as a group. They also run the risk of losing track of the
structures and processes they’ve put in place to help them move toward their goals.
• Some group members may engage in “social loafing ” When one or two people are
assigned a task, they know they’re being watched and are apt to shoulder the burden. In a
larger group, however, any given member will feel less personally responsible for what takes
place in it.
If too many members follow the natural tendency to observe rather than act, a group may lose
its efficiency and thereby find it much more difficult to reach its aims.
• Groupthink may sap the creative potential of the members. Too much diversity in outlooks
and work styles may act as a barrier to a group, but too little diversity also represents a threat
to success. If they too easily adopt and hold onto one viewpoint or course of action, people
may fall prey to two dangers. First, they may overlook flaws in their thinking. Second, they
may fail to anticipate dangers that they might have been detected with closer scrutiny and
longer reflection.
KEY TAKEAWAY
To accomplish tasks and relate effectively in a group, it’s important to know the advantages
and disadvantages inherent in groups.
EXERCISES
1. Identify two groups of which you’re a member. Describe
a. how each group determined how to take turns in communicating—or, if you weren’t part
of determining this process, how people take turns now;
b. the most controversial view you can recall being expressed in each group; and
c. a task which feel each group performed better than any of its individuals might have done
alone.
2. Describe an experience in which you observed people cooperating or collaborating when
they might instead have competed. What do you believe motivated them to cooperate?
3. Identify two examples of your personal or vocational growth which you feel you owe to
participation in a group.
4. Identify a group you’ve been part of which contributed to positive social change. How did
it establish its credibility and influence with other people and groups?
6. Small Group Communication
DYADIC COMMUNICATION
Dyadic communication involves communication between two people, hence the term dyad.
Work in groups of two is common in a variety of organizational contexts. Sixty percent of all
managerial meetings consist of only two people meeting and 20-30% of managerial meetings
are handled through one-time contacts (Panko & Kinney, 1995).
Dyads have a more comprehensive prospective and offer a greater multiplicity of skills than
individuals working alone.
Each of us is a radar machine constantly scoping out our environment. Human beings are
sensitive to body language, facial expression, posture, movement, tone of voice and more. To
effectively communicate, these interpersonal communication dynamics must match your
words. Words are distantly useful for people who are scoping out the meaning of a
communication.
Without awareness of the whole person, who is doing the communicating, including the
factors in interpersonal communication dynamics, you miss much of what is being
communicated. At the same time, if you communicate without understanding all of the
interpersonal communication dynamics your listener sees and hears, you fail to use powerful
aspects of communication.
Your body language, facial expression, posture, movement, and tone of voice can help you
emphasize the truth, sincerity, and reliability of your communication.
They can also undermine your communication if the words you use are incongruent with the
message sent via the interpersonal communication dynamics.
Since communication is shared meaning, your words must send the same message as the
other interpersonal communication dynamics. The consistent message ensures effective
communication.
GROUP COMMUNICATIONS
In this section we move to organizational communication. Our focus here will be on the
grapevine used by organizations to facilitate communication.
The Grapevine
The formal system is not the only communication network in a group or organization.
There is also an informal one, which is called the grapevine. And although the grapevine may
be informal, this doesn't mean it's not an important source of information. For instance, a
survey found that 75 percent of employees hear about matters first through rumours on the
grapevine.
The grapevine has three main characteristics. First, it is not controlled by management.
Second, it is perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal
communiques issued by top management. And third, it is largely used to serve the self-
interests of the people within it.
One of the most famous studies of the grapevine investigated the communication pattern
among 67 managerial personnel in a small manufacturing firm. The basic approach used was
to learn from each communication recipient how he or she first received a given piece of
information and then trace it back to its source. It was found that, while the grapevine was an
important source of information, only 10 percent of the executives acted as liaison
individuals, that is, passed the information on to more than one other person. For example,
when one executive decided to resign to enter the insurance business, 81 percent of the
executives knew about it, but only
11 percent transmitted this information to others.
Two other conclusions from this study are also worth noting. Information on events of
general interest tended to flow between the major functional groups (production, sales) rather
than within them. Also, no evidence surfaced to suggest that any one group consistently acted
as liaisons; rather, different types of information passed through different liaison persons.
An attempt to replicate this study among employees in a small state government office also
found that only 10 percent act as liaison individuals. This finding is interesting, because the
replication contained a wider spectrum of employees, including operative as well as
managerial personnel. But the flow of information in the government office took place
within, rather than between, functional groups. It was proposed that this discrepancy might be
due to comparing an executive only sample against one that also included operative workers.
Managers, for example, might feel greater pressure to stay informed and thus cultivate others
outside their immediate functional group. Also, in contrast to the findings of the original
study, the replication found that a consistent group of individuals acted as liaisons by
transmitting information in the government office.
Is the information that flows along the grapevine accurate? The evidence indicates that about
75 percent of what is carried is accurate. But what conditions foster an active grapevine?
What gets the rumour mill rolling?
It is frequently assumed that rumours start because they make titillating gossip.
This is rarely the case. Rumours emerge as a response to situations that are important to us,
when there is ambiguity, and under conditions that arouse anxiety. The fact that work
situations frequently contain these three elements explains why rumours flourish in
organizations. The secrecy and competition that typically prevail in large organizations—
around issues such as the appointment of new bosses, the relocation of offices, downsizing
decisions, and the realignment of work assignments—create conditions that encourage and
sustain rumours on the grapevine. A rumour will persist either until the wants and
expectations creating the uncertainty underlying the rumour are fulfilled or until the anxiety
is reduced.
What can we conclude from the preceding discussion? Certainly the grapevine is an
important part of any group or organization's communication network and is well worth
understanding. It identifies for managers the confusing issues that employees consider
important and that create anxiety. It acts, therefore, as both a filter and a feedback
mechanism, picking up the issues that employees consider relevant. For employees, the
grapevine is particularly valuable for translating formal communications into their group's
own jargon. Maybe more important, again from a managerial perspective, it seems possible to
analyse grapevine information and to predict its flow, given that only a small set of
individuals (approximately 10 percent) actively pass on information to more than one person.
By assessing which liaison individuals will consider a given piece of information to be
relevant, we can improve our ability to explain and predict the pattern of the grapevine.
Can management entirely eliminate rumours? No. What management should do, however, is
to minimize the negative consequences of rumours by limiting their range and impact.
Formal Small - Group Networks
Formal organizational networks can be very complicated. They can, for instance, include
hundreds of people and a half-dozen or more hierarchical levels. To simplify our discussion,
we've condensed these networks into three common small groups of five people each. These
three networks are the chain, wheel, and all-channel.This network approximates the
communication channels you might find in a rigid three-level organization. The wheel relies
on a central figure to act as the conduit for the entire group's communication. It simulates the
communication network you would find on a team with a strong leader. The all-channel
network permits all group members to actively communicate with each other. The all-channel
network is most often characterized in practice by self-managed teams, in which all group
members are free to contribute and no one person takes on a leadership role. The
effectiveness of each network depends on the dependent variable you're concerned about. For
instance, the structure of the wheel facilitates the emergence of a leader, the all-channel
network is best if you are concerned with having high member satisfaction, and the chain is
best if accuracy is.
Exercise
1) Define dyadic communication.
2) Define Grapevine

7. Public Communication

THE TECHNIQUES OF DELIVERY

The most difficult kind of oral communication for most people is a formal speech. Most of us
feel uncomfortable speaking before others and generally do a poor job of it. But it need not be
this way. With effort, we can improve our speaking. We can do this by first learning good
speaking techniques. Then we put these techniques into practice.
Selection of the Topic
Your first step in formal speech making is to determine the topic of your presentation. In
some cases, you will be assigned a topic, usually one within your area of specialization. In
fact, when you are asked to make a speech on a specified topic, it is likely to be because of
your knowledge of it.
If you are not assigned a topic, you must find one on your own. In your search for a suitable
topic, you will do well to be guided by three basic factors. The first is your own background
and knowledge. Any topic you select should be one with which you are comfortable—one
within your areas of proficiency. The second is the interest of your audience. Selecting
something your audience can appreciate and understand is vital to the success of your speech.
The third is the occasion of the speech. Is the occasion a commemoration of a historic event?
Is it a monthly meeting of an executive club, or an annual meeting of an association of
beauticians? Whatever you select should fit the occasion. A speech about Japanese
management practices might be quite appropriate for the executive club members but not for
the beauticians. Your selection should be justified by all three factors.
After you have determined what to talk about, you should gather the information that will
form the basis of your speech. In some cases, this involves searching through your mind for
supporting experience or perhaps for idea development. Sometimes you will need to conduct
primary research in a library or in company files. With some topics, you may need to consult
colleagues or people from other companies. In short, you do whatever is necessary to get the
information that will form the basis of your presentation.
When you have all the information you need, you are ready to begin organizing your
speech/although variations are sometimes appropriate, usually you should follow the time-
honoured order of a speech: introduction, body, and conclusion— the same indirect order
used in some reports. It is described in following paragraphs.
Although not really a part of the speech, the first words usually spoken are the greeting. Your
greeting of course should fit the audience. "Ladies and Gentlemen" is appropriate for a mixed
audience; "Gentlemen" fits all-male audience; and "My Fellow Rotarians" fits an audience of
Rotary Club members. Some speakers eliminate the greeting and begin directly with the
speech, especially in more informal and technical presentations.
The introduction of a speech has much the same goal as the introduction of a written report:
to prepare the listener (or reader) to receive the message. But the introduction of a speech
usually has the additional requirement of arousing interest.
Unless you can arouse interest at the beginning, your presentation is likely to fail. The
situation is somewhat like that of the sales letter. At least some of the people with whom you
want to communicate are unlikely to be interested in receiving your message. As you will see
when you review the material on listening, it is very easy to lose the listener's attention in a
speech situation. To prove the point, ask yourself how many times your mind has drifted
from a speaker's words. There is no question about it; you, the speaker, must work to gain
and hold your audience's interest.
The techniques of attracting interest are limited only by the imagination. In some cases,
beginning with a human-interest story may be successful, for story telling has strong appeal.
Humour is another possibility and is probably the most widely used technique. Yet another
technique is the startling statement—presenting facts and ideas that awaken the mind.
Whatever you choose should meet one additional requirement: It should lead to, or set up, the
theme of the speech. In other words, there should be a close tie-in between the opening
interest-gaining remarks and the subject of the speech.
Following the interest-gaining opening, it is appropriate to state the subject (theme) of your
speech. In fact, when your audience already is interested in what you have to say, you can
begin here and skip the attention-gaining opening. Presentations of technical topics to
technical audiences typically begin this way. Whether you lead to a statement of your topic or
begin with it, your statement should be clear and complete.
Sometimes you may find it undesirable to reveal a position early because of the nature of
your subject. In these cases, you may prefer to move into your subject indirectly—to build up
your case before revealing your position. You should use this inductive pattern especially
when your goal is to persuade—when you need to move your audience's views from one
position to another. But in most business-related presentations, a direct statement of your
theme early in the speech is desirable
Organizing the body of your speech is much like organizing the body of a report. You take
the whole and divide it into comparable parts. Then you take these parts and divide them.
You continue to divide as far as it is practical to do so. In speeches, however, you are more
likely to use factors as the basis of division than time, place, or quantity. The reason is that in
most speeches your presentation is likely to build" around issues and questions that are
subtopics of the subject,
These issues and questions, of course are factors. Even so, time, place, and quantity
subdivisions are possibilities.
Like most reports, the speech usually ends with a conclusion. Here you bring all that you
have presented to a head. You achieve the speech's goal. In doing this, you should consider
including these three elements in your close: (1) a restatement of your subject, (2) a summary
of the key points developed in the presentation, and (3) a statement of the conclusion (or
main message). Usually it is effective to bring the speech to a climactic close—that is, make
it the high point of the speech. You can do this by presenting the concluding message in
strong language, in words that will gain attention and be remembered. The following close of
a speech, comparing Japanese and American management techniques illustrate this point:

These facts make my conclusion crystal clear. We are not Japanese. We do not have the
Japanese culture. Japanese management methods have not worked-cannot work—will not
work in our society.
Determination of Presentation Method
With your speech organized, you are ready to begin preparation for presenting it. At this time,
you will need to decide on your method of presentation—whether to present it
extemporaneously, by reading it, or by memorizing it.
Extemporaneous presentation is by far the most popular and effective method.
Using this method, you first thoroughly prepare your speech, as outlined above. Then you
prepare notes and present the speech from them. Usually you rehearse, making sure that all
parts are clear in mind, but you make no attempt to memorize. The extemporaneous method
usually sounds natural to the listeners, even though it is (or should be) the product of careful
planning and practice.
Memorized presentation is the most difficult method, at least for most of us.
Probably few speakers actually memorize an entire speech. Instead, they memorize key parts
and use notes to help them through the presentation. Such deliveries actually are a cross
between extemporaneous and memorized presentation.
A third method of presentation is by reading. Unfortunately, most of us do not read aloud
well. We tend to read in a dull monotone, producing a most uninteresting effect. We fumble
over words, lose our place, miss punctuation marks, and such. Of course, many speakers
overcome this problem and, with effort, you can too. But you would be wise not to attempt to
read a speech until you have become a proficient reader.
Consideration of Personal Aspects
A preliminary step to make your speech good is to analyse yourself as a speaker. In oral
presentations you, the speaker, are essentially a part of the message.
Your audience takes in not only the words you communicate but what they see in you.
And what they see in you can significantly affect the meanings that develop in their minds.
Thus, you should carefully evaluate your personal effect on the message you present'. You
should do whatever you can to detect and overcome shortcomings and to sharpen any
strength.
Although the following summary of such characteristics may prove useful, you probably
know them from experience. The chances are you can easily recognize the good and bad
qualities. To some extent, the problem is recognizing these characteristics, or lack of them, in
yourself. To a greater extent, it is doing something about improving your bad characteristics
when you recognize them. The following review should help you pinpoint these problem
areas and give you some practical suggestions on how to overcome them.
Confidence A primary characteristic of effective oral reporting is confidence.
This includes your confidence in yourself and your audience's confidence in you.
Actually, the two are complementary, for your confidence in yourself tends to produce an
image that gives your audience confidence in you. Similarly, your audience's confidence in
you can give you a sense of security, thereby making you more confident of your ability.
Typically, you earn your audience's confidence over periods of association. But there are
things you can do to project an image that invites confidence. For example, you can prepare
your presentation diligently and practice it thoroughly. Such careful preliminary work will
give you confidence in yourself. Having confidence leads to more effective communication,
which in turn builds confidence in your listener's mind. An other thing you can do to gain
confidence is check your physical appearance carefully. Unfair and illogical as it may be,
certain styles of dress and hair create strong images in people's minds. Thus, if you want to
communicate effectively, you should analyse the audience you seek to reach. You should
work to develop the physical appearance that will project an image in which your audience
can have confidence. Yet another suggestion is simply to talk in strong, clear tones. Such
tones do much to project an image of confidence. Although most people can do little to
change their natural voices, they can try to add sufficient volume.
Sincerity Your listeners will be quick to detect insincerity in you. When they do, they are
likely to give little weight to what you say. On the other hand, sincerity is a valuable aid to
conviction, especially if the audience has confidence in your ability.
What you can do to project an image of sincerity is clear: You must be sincere. Pretence of
sincerity rarely succeeds.
Thoroughness: Thoroughness in your presentation generally will make your message better
received than scanty or hurried coverage. Thorough coverage gives the impression that you
have taken time and care, and such an impression tends to the message believable. But you
can overdo thoroughness. If you present the information in too much detail, your listeners
may become lost in a sea of information.
The secret is to select the important information and leave out the unimportant.
Selecting the important information, of course, requires that you use good judgment.
You must place yourself in your listeners' shoes and ask yourself just what they do and do not
need to know.
Friendliness
A speaker who projects an image of friendliness has a significant advantage in
communicating. People simply like people who are friendly and are more receptive to what
they say. Like sincerity, friendliness is difficult to pretend. It must be honest if it is to be
effective. But with most people friendliness is honest, for most people they want to be
friendly. Some just are unable to project the desired friendly image. With a little self-analysis
and some mirror watching or videotaping as you practice speaking, you can find ways to
improve the friendliness of your image. These are but some of the characteristics that should
aid you as a speaker. There are others, such as interest, enthusiasm, originality, and
flexibility. But those mentioned here are the most significant and the ones most speakers need
to work on. Through self-analysis and dedicated effort to improve, you can enhance your
speaking image.
Audience Analysis
One requirement of good speech making is to know your audience. You should study your
audience before and during the presentation.
Preliminary Analysis: In analysing your audience before the speech, you should search for
any audience characteristics that will affect your presentation. For example, size of audience
is likely to influence how formal or informal you make your speech. (As a rule, large
audiences require more formality.). The audience's personal characteristics also can affect
how you make your speech. Characteristics such as age, sex, education, experience, and
knowledge of subject matter can determine how you present your message—choice of words,
need for illustration, and level of detail required. Just as in writing, you should adapt your
speeches to your audiences; and knowing your audience is a first step in adaptation
Analysis during Presentation: Your audience analysis should continue as you make the
speech. Called feedback, this phase of audience analysis gives you information about how
your listeners are receiving your words. With this information, you can adjust your
presentation to improve the communication result.
Your eyes and ears will give feedback information. For example, facial expressions will tell
you how your listeners are reacting to your message.
From smiles, blank stares, and movements, you will get an indication of whether they
understand or agree with your message. You can detect from their sounds (or silence)
whether they are listening. If questions are in order, you can learn directly how your message
is coming across. In general, by being alert you can learn much from your audience. And
what you learn can help you make a better speech.
Appearance and Bodily Actions
As your listeners hear your words, they are looking at you. What they see is part of the
message, and it can have a very real effect on the success of your speech.
What your audience sees, of course, are you. They also see what surrounds you.
Thus, in your efforts to improve the effects of your oral presentations, you should thoroughly
understand the communication effects of what your listeners see.
The Communication Environment: Much of what your audience sees is all that surrounds
you as you speak—everything that tends to add to a general impression. This includes the
physical things—the stage, lighting, background, and such. Although not visual, a related
influence here would be outside noises. For the best communication results, the factors in
your communication environment should not detract from your message; rather, they should
contribute to good communication.
Your own experience as a listener will tell you what is important.
Personal Appearance: Your personal appearance is part of the message your audience
receives. Of course, you must accept your physical attributes, but few of us need be at a
disadvantage with respect to appearance. All that is necessary is that you use what you have
appropriately. Specifically, you should dress appropriately for the audience and the occasion.
You should be clean and well groomed. You should use facial expressions and bodily
movements to your advantage, as described in following paragraphs.
Posture: Posture is likely to be the most obvious thing your audience sees in you. Even if
listeners cannot be close enough to detect facial expressions and eye movements, they can see
the general form the body takes.
You probably think no one need to tell you what good posture is. You know it when you see
it. The trouble is that you are unlikely to see it in yourself. One solution is to have others tell
you whether your posture needs improvement. Another is to practice speaking before a mirror
or with videotape equipment. In your efforts; to improve your posture, keep in mind what
must go on within your body in order to form good posture. Your body weight must be
distributed in a comfortable and poised way consistent with the impression you want to make.
You should keep your body erect without appearing stiff and comfortable without seeming
limp. Your bearing should be poised, alert, and communicative. You should do all this
naturally. The great danger with posture is appearing artificial.
Walking: The way you walk before your audience also makes an impression on your
listeners. A strong, sure walk to the speaker's position gives an impression of confidence.
Hesitant, awkward steps give the opposite impression. Walking about during the presentation
can be good or bad, depending on how you do it. Some speakers use steps forward and to the
side as a form of bodily gesture, especially to emphasize points. Too much walking, however,
attracts attention to your self and detracts from the message. You should hold you walking to
a minimum, using it only when you are reasonably sure of its effect.
Facial Expressions: Probably the most apparent and communicative bodily movements are
facial expressions. The problem is that you may unconsciously use facial expressions that
convey unintended meanings. For example, a frightened speaker may tighten the jaw
unconsciously and begin to grin. The effect may be an ambiguous image that detracts from
the entire communication effort. A smile, grimace, or puzzled frown conveys a clear
message. Without question, they are effective communication devices, and you should use
them.
Equally important is eye contact. The eyes have long been considered "mirrors of the soul"
and inform most observers about your sincerity, goodwill, and flexibility.
Some listeners tend to shun speakers who refuse to look at them. On the other hand, moderate
eye contact tends to show that you have a genuine interest in your audience.
Gestures: Like posture, gestures add to the message you communicate. Just what they add,
however, is hard to say. They have no definite or clear-cut meanings. A clenched fist, for
example, certainly adds emphasis to a strong point. But it can also show defiance, make a
threat, or signify support for a cause. And so it is with other gestures. They register vague
meanings.
Although they have vague meanings, gestures are strong. They are natural aids to speaking. It
appears natural, for example, to emphasize a plea with palms up and to show disagreement
with palms down. Raising first one hand and then the other reinforces a division of points.
Slicing the air with the hand shows several divisions.
Although such gestures generally are clear, we do not all use them in the same manner.
In summary, it should be clear that you can use bodily movements to help your speaking.
Which movements you should use, however, is hard to say. They are related to personality,
physical makeup, and the size and nature of the audience. A speaker appearing before a
formal group generally should use relatively few bodily actions. A speaker appearing before
an informal audience should use more. What you should use on a given occasion is a matter
for your best judgment.
Use of Voice
Good voice is an obvious requirement of good speaking. Like bodily movements, the voice
should not hinder the listener's concentration on the message.
More specifically, the voice should not detract attention from the message. Voices that cause
such difficulties generally fall into four areas of fault: (1) lack of pitch variation,
(2) lack of variety in speaking speed, (3) lack of emphasis by variation in volume, and
(4) unpleasant voice quality.
Verbal skill
Lack of Pitch Variation: Speakers who talk in monotones are unlikely to hold their listeners'
interest for long. Because most voices are capable of wide variations and pitches, the problem
usually can be corrected. Most often the failure to vary pitch is a matter of habit—of voice
patterns developed over years of talking without being aware of effect.
Lack of Variation in Speaking Speed: Determining how fast to talk is a major problem. As
a general rule, you should present the easy parts of the message at a fairly brisk rate and hard-
to-understand information at a slower pace. The reason for varying the speed of presentation
should be apparent: Easy information presented slowly is irritating; hard information
presented rapidly may be difficult to understand.
A problem related to speaking pace is the incorrect use of pauses. Of course, pauses used at
the appropriate time and place are effective. When properly used, they emphasize the
upcoming subject matter and are effective in gaining attention. But frequent, arbitrary pauses
are irritating and break the listener's concentration. The error is compounded when the
speaker fills in the pauses with uh's and meaningless you know's and OK's.
Lack of Vocal Emphasis: A secret of good speaking is to give words their due emphasis by
varying the manner of speaking. You can do this by (1) varying the pitch of your voice, (2)
varying the pace of your presentation, and (3) varying the volume of your voice. Because the
first two techniques have been discussed, only the last requires comment.
You must talk loudly enough for all of your audience to hear, but not too loudly.
(Thus, the loudness—voice force—for a large group should be greater than that for a small
group.) Regardless of group size, however, variety in force is good for interest and emphasis.
It produces contrast, which is one way to emphasize the subject matter.
Some speakers incorrectly believe that the only way to gain emphasis is to get louder and
louder. But you can also show emphasis by going from loud to soft; the contrast provides the
emphasis. Again, variety is the key to making your voice more effective.
Unpleasant Voice Quality: It is a hard fact of communication that some voices are more
pleasing than others. Fortunately, most voices are reasonably pleasant. But some are raspy,
nasal, or in some other way unpleasant. Although therapy often can improve such voices,
some speakers must live with what they have.
But by concentrating on variations in pitch, speed of delivery, and volume, one can make
even the most unpleasant voice effective.
Improvement through Self-Analysis: You can overcome most of the foregoing voice
problems through self-analysis. With today's recording technology, it is easy to hear yourself
talk. Since you know good speaking when you hear it, you should be able to improve your
own presentation.
Use of Visual Aids
The spoken word is severely limited in communicating. Sound exists for a brief moment and
is gone. If the listener misses the message, there may be no chance to hear it again. Because
of this limitation, speeches often need strong visual support— charts, tables, chalkboards,
film, and such. Visual aids may be as vital to a speech's success as the words.
Proper Use of Design: Effective visual aids draw from the message. They should fit the one
speech and the one audience .In selecting visual aids, you should search through the
presentation for topics that appear vague or confusing. Whenever a picture or other form of
visual aid will help clear up vagueness, you should use one.
Visual aids are truly a part of your message, and you should look upon them as such.
After you have decided that a topic deserves visual help, you determine the form the help
should take—that is, should it be a chart, a diagram, a picture, or what?
You should base your decision primarily on the question of which form communicates best.
As simple and obvious as this point may appear, people violate it all too often.
They select visual aids more for appearance and drama than for communication effect.
Forms to Consider: Because no one form is best for all occasions, you should have a
flexible attitude toward visual aids. You should know the good and bad qualities of each and
how to use each effectively.
In selecting visual aids, you should keep in mind the types available. Primarily, you will
consider the various forms of photographed or drawn illustrations—charts, graphs, tables,
diagrams, and pictures. Each of these forms has its special strengths and weaknesses, as
described in each may be displayed in various ways—by slide, overhead, or opaque
projector; by flip chart; by display; on a chalkboard; on a flannel board; and so on- Each of
these display forms has it strengths and weaknesses.
Visual aids may also take the form of motion pictures, models, samples, demonstrations, and
the like.
Techniques for Using Visual Aids: Visual aids usually carry key parts of the message. Thus,
they are points of emphasis in your presentation. You blend them in with your words to
communicate the message. How you do this is to some extent an individual matter, for
techniques vary— so much, in fact, that it would be hard to present them meaningfully.
However, here is a list of do's and don’ts:
1. Make certain everyone in the audience can see the visual aid. Too many or too light lines
on a chart, for example, can be hard to see. Too small an illustration will be meaningless to
those in the back of the audience.
2. Explain the visual aid if there is any likelihood that it will be misunderstood.
3. Organize the visual aids as a part of the presentation. Fit them into the plan.
4. Emphasize the visual aids. Point to them with bodily action and with words.
5. Talk to the audience, not to the visual aids. Look at the visual aids only when the audience
should look at them.
6. Avoid blocking the listeners' view of the visual aids. Make certain that lecterns, pillars,
charts, and such do not block anyone's view. Take care not to stand in anyone's line of vision.
CONCLUSION
Speaking takes many different forms, ranging from the formal - addresses, discourses,
orations, lectures, homilies, sermons, presentations - to the less formal. The six principles
apply to them all: govern the art or power of communicating or expressing thought through
the spoken word. Apply them and you will become an effective speaker.
· BE CLEAR makes your communication unclouded or transparent. A clear sky is one free
of clouds, mists and haze. With reference to speech it means free from any confusion and
hence easy to understand. Being clear is not primarily a matter of sentences and words. The
value of clarity is an inner one: it should act as a principle, purifying thought at its source, in
the mind.
 BE PREPARED means active, conscious deliberation and effort before action. To be
unprepared, by contrast, means that you have not thought or made any attempt at preparing
yourself for what you know you mayor will have to face. You are like' a soccer team that
never trains or plans before its matches.
 BE SIMPLE, so that your hearers are not put off by the unnecessarily complicated or
intricate speech. But don't oversimplify or talk down to your audience-even if they are
children.
 BE VIVID - make it come alive! This graphic or colour quality springs from the interest
and enthusiasm in the mind and heart of the communicator. But it has to.
Become visible in your language.
 BE NATURAL or, if you prefer it, be yourself. What you say and how you say it should
reflect your own innate character. For good communication is truth through personality.
 Last but not least, BE CONCISE. Confine what you have to say in a relatively short space,
cutting out all unnecessary wordiness. Use words sparingly like bullets, for one accurate shot
is worth a hundred misses.
Speak properly, and in as few words as you can, but always plainly; for the end of speech is
not ostentation, but to be understood.
Check your Progress
1) What is Audience oriented communication?
2) Mention seven C’s of oral communication.
3) Define Modifier
4) Define voice Culture
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - ANSWERS
1) An audience oriented oral communication is a communication which is delivered keeping
the specific requirements and expectations of the communicated which is delivered keeping
the specific requirements and expectations of the communicated in mind.
2) Seven C’s of oral communication are
1) Complete 2) Clear 3) concrete 4) Correct 5) Concise
6) Courteous 7) Candid
3) A modifier is constituent in an endocentric construction that imparts information relating
to the head of the construction.
4) The process of bringing the voice under control is known as voice culture which includes
traditional & scientific methods to improve the quality of voice.
QUESTIONS FOR SELF - STUDY
1) What are the techniques of Delivery of Speech?
2) Write a note on audience oriented communication.