IT 120 & IT 120L

Geographic Information
System
Module 1

ENGR. DENNIS S. TIBE, MIT, PCpE

IT FACULTY

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING

• At no other time in the history of the world has

it been easier to create or to acquire a map of
nearly anything.

• Maps and mapping technology are literally

and virtually everywhere.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING

• Though the modes and means of making and

distributing maps have been revolutionized with
recent advances in computing like the Internet.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING

 Mental Map

• Mental or cognitive maps are psychological tools

that we all use every day.

• Mental maps are maps of our environment that are

stored in our brain. We rely on our mental maps to
get from one place to another

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 INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING

 Mental Map

• Your simple map is a

rough approximation of
your local geographic
knowledge and mental
map.

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 INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING

Figure 1.1 Mental Map of Los

Angeles A

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 INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING

Figure 1.2 Mental Map

of Los Angeles B

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 INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING

Figure 1.3 Mental

Map of Los

Angeles C

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Take a moment to look at each
map and compare the maps.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Asking Geographic Questions
• Filling in the gaps in our mental maps and, more
generally, the gaps in our geographic knowledge
requires us to ask questions about the world where
we live and how we relate to it.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Asking Geographic Questions
• Such questions can be simple with a local focus
(e.g., “Which way is the nearest hospital?”) or more
complex with a more global perspective (e.g.,
“How is urbanization impacting biodiversity hotspots
around the world?”).

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Asking Geographic Questions
• The thread that unifies such questions is geography.

• For instance, the question of “where?” is an essential

part of the questions “Where is the nearest hospital?”
and “Where are the biodiversity hotspots in relation to
cities?”.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Asking Geographic Questions
• Being able to articulate questions clearly and to break
them into manageable pieces are very valuable skills
when using and applying a geographic information
system (GIS).

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Asking Geographic Questions
• Questions about Geographic Location:

• Where is it?

• Why is it here or there?

• How much of it is here or there?

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Asking Geographic Questions
• Questions about Geographic Distribution:

• Is it distributed locally or globally?

• Is it spatially clustered or dispersed?

• Where are the boundaries?

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Asking Geographic Questions
• Questions about Geographic Association:

• What else is near it?

• What else occurs with it?

• What is absent in its presence?

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Asking Geographic Questions
• Questions about Geographic Interaction:

• Is it linked to something else?

• What is the nature of this association?

• How much interaction occurs between the

locations?

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Asking Geographic Questions
• Questions about Geographic Change:

• Has it always been here?

• How has it changed over time and space?

• What causes its diffusion or contraction?

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Key Takeaways
 Mental maps are psychological tools that we
use to understand, relate to, and navigate
through the environment in which we live, work,
and play.

 Mental maps are unique to the individual.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. SPATIAL THINKING
 Key Takeaways
 Learning how to ask geographic questions is
important to using and applying GISs.

 Geographic questions are concerned with

location, distributions, associations, interactions,
and change.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Location
 The concept that distinguishes geography from
other fields, which is central to a GIS.

 Is simply a position on the surface of the earth.

 Nearly everything can be assigned a geographic

location.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Location
• For example;
• city names such as New York, Tokyo, or London
refer to nominal locations. Toponymy, or the study
of place names and their respective history and
meanings, is concerned with such nominal
locations (Monmonier 1996, 006).

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Location
• Contrasting, nominal locations are absolute
locations that use some type of reference system
to define positions on the earth’s surface.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Location
• For instance, defining a location on the surface of
the earth using latitude and longitude is an
example of absolute location.

11° N 14' 15.0072“

(Map coordinate)

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Location
Lattitude: 11.237502

Longitude:125.001783

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Location
• Postal codes and street addresses are other
examples of absolute location that usually follow
some form of a logic.

Leyte Normal University, Paterno St.,

Barangay 66A, Tacloban, Eastern
Visayas, 6500, Philippines
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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Location

NOTE: There is no global standard when it

comes to street addresses.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Location
• Global Positioning System is a navigation system
using satellites, a receiver and algorithms to
synchronize location, velocity and time data for
air, sea and land travel.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Location
• The satellite system consists of a constellation of 24
satellites in six Earth-centered orbital planes, each
with four satellites, orbiting at 13,000 miles (20,000
km) above Earth and traveling at a speed of 8,700
mph (14,000 km/h).

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. Geographic
Concepts

• Figure 1.4
Constellation of
Global
Positioning
System (GPS)
Satellites
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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Location
• To determine a position, earth-based GPS units
(e.g., handheld devices, car navigation systems,
mobile phones) receive the signals from at least
three of these satellites and use this information to
triangulate a location.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Location
• All GPS units use the geographic coordinate
system (GCS) to report location.

• Originally developed by the United States

Department of Defense for military purposes, there
are now a wide range of commercial and
scientific uses of a GPS.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Direction
• Like location, the concept of direction is
central to geography and GISs.

• Direction refers to the position of

something relative to something else
usually along a line.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Direction
• In order to determine direction, a reference point
or benchmark from which direction will be
measured needs to be established.

• One of the most common benchmarks used to

determine direction is ourselves.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Direction
• Egocentric direction refers to when we use
ourselves as a directional benchmark.

• Describing something as “to my left,” “behind me,”

or “next to me” are examples of egocentric
direction.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Direction
• In geography and GISs, there are three more
standard benchmarks that are used to define the
directions of true north, magnetic north, and grid
north.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Direction
• True north is based on the point at which the axis
of the earth’s rotation intersects the earth’s
surface.

• In this respect the North and South Poles serve as

the geographic benchmarks for determining
direction.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Direction
• Magnetic north (and south) refers to the point on
the surface of the earth where the earth’s
magnetic fields converge.

• This is also the point to which magnetic compasses

point.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Direction
• Grid north simply refers to the northward direction
that the grid lines of latitude and longitude on a
map, called a graticule, point to.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. Geographic
Concepts

• Figure 1.5 The

Three Norths:
True, Magnetic,
and Grid

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Distance
• Distance refers to the degree or amount of
separation between locations and can be
measured in nominal or absolute terms with various
units.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Distance
• Distances can be described between locations
nominally as “large” or “small,” or we can describe
two or more locations as “near” or “far apart.”

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Distance
• Absolute distance is measured or calculated using
a standard metric.

• The formula for the distance between two points

on a planar (i.e., flat) surface is the following:

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Distance
• Calculating the distance between two locations
on the surface of the earth, however, is a bit more
involved because we are dealing with a three-
dimensional object.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Distance
• Moving from the three-dimensional earth to two-
dimensional maps on paper, computer screens,
and mobile devices is not a trivial matter.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Distance
• The use of absolute distance metrics, such as that
derived from the distance formula, provide a
standardized method to measure how far away or
how near locations are from each other.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Space
• Where distance suggests a measurable quantity in
terms of how far apart locations are situated,
space is a more abstract concept that is more
commonly described rather than measured.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Space
• Space is a somewhat ambiguous and generic
term that is used to denote the general
geographic area of interest.

• One kind of space that is of particular relevance

to a GIS is topological space

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Space
• Topological Space is concerned with the nature of
relationships and the connectivity of locations
within a given space.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Space
• What is important within topological space are

• (1) how locations are (or are not) related or

connected to each other

• (2) the rules that govern such geographic

relationships.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. Space
• Figure 1.6 Metro Map from London

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. Space

• Figure
1.7
Metro
Map
from
Mosco
w

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Navigation
• Transportation maps like those discussed previously
illustrate how we move through the environments
where we live, work, and play. This movement
and, in particular, destination-oriented travel are
generally referred to as navigation.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Navigation
• Our geographical knowledge and spatial
awareness is continuously updated and changed
as we move from one location to another.

• The acquisition of geographic knowledge is a

lifelong endeavor.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Navigation
• Three following types of geographic knowledge
when navigating through space:

1. Landmark knowledge refers to our ability to locate

and identify unique points, patterns, or features
(e.g., landmarks) in space.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Navigation
• Three following types of geographic knowledge
when navigating through space:

2. Route knowledge permits us to connect and travel

between landmarks by moving through space.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Navigation
• Three following types of geographic knowledge
when navigating through space:

3. Survey knowledge enables us to understand

where landmarks are in relation to each other and
to take shortcuts.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Key Takeaways
 Location refers to the position of an object on the
surface of the earth and is commonly expressed in
terms of latitude and longitude.

 Direction is always determined relative to a

benchmark.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
 Key Takeaways
 Distance refers to the separation between
locations.

 Navigation is the destination-oriented movement

through space.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

• Up to this point, the primary concern of this lesson

was to introduce concepts essential to geography
that are also relevant to geographic information
systems (GISs).

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

• Furthermore, the introduction of these concepts

was prefaced by an overview of how we think
spatially and the nature of geographic inquiry. This
final section is concerned with defining a GIS,
describing its use, and exploring its future.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 GIS Defined
• So what exactly is a GIS? Is it computer
software? Is it a collection of computer
hardware? Is it a service that is distributed and
accessed via the Internet? Is it a tool? Is it a
system? Is it a science? The answer to all these
questions is, “GIS is all of the above—and
more.”

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 GIS Defined
• From a software perspective, a GIS consists of a
special type of computer program capable of
storing, editing, processing, and presenting
geographic data and information as maps.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND
 Spatial Data
• Spatial data refer to the real-world geographic
objects of interest, such as streets, buildings, lakes,
and countries, and their respective locations. In
addition to location, each of these objects also
possesses certain traits of interest, or attributes, such
as a name, number of stories, depth, or population

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND
 Spatial Data
• GIS software keeps track of both the spatial and
attribute data and permits us to link the two types of
data together to create information and facilitate
analysis.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND
 Spatial Data
• One popular way to describe and to visualize a GIS
is picturing it as a cake with many layers.

• Each layer of the cake represents a different

geographic theme, such as water features,
buildings, and roads, and each layer is stacked one
on top of another.
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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM

• Figure 1.8 A GIS as a

Layered Cake

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 GIS Defined
• As hardware, a GIS consists of a computer,
memory, storage devices, scanners, printers, global
positioning system (GPS) units, and other physical
components.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 GIS Defined
• If the computer is situated on a network, the
network can also be considered an integral
component of the GIS because it enables us to
share data and information that the GIS uses as
inputs and creates as outputs.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 GIS Defined
• As a tool, a GIS permits us to maintain, analyze, and
share a wealth of data and information. From the
relatively simple task of mapping the path of a
hurricane to the more complex task of determining
the most efficient garbage collection routes in a
city.
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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 GIS Defined
• A GIS is used across the public and private sectors.
Online and mobile mapping, navigation, and
location-based services are also personalizing and
democratizing GISs by bringing maps and mapping
to the masses.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 Three Approaches to GISs

• It is constructive to identify three general and
overlapping approaches to understanding GISs -
the application approach, the developer
approach, and the science approach.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 Three Approaches to GISs

• The application approach to GISs considers a GIS
primarily to be a tool. This is also perhaps the most
common view of a GIS.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 Three Approaches to GISs

• From this perspective, a GIS is used to answer
questions, support decision making, maintain an
inventory of geographic data and information, and,
of course, make maps.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 Three Approaches to GISs

• The developer approach to GISs is concerned with
the development of the GIS as a software or
technology platform.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 Three Approaches to GISs

• Rather than focusing on how a GIS is used and
applied, the developer approach is concerned
with improving, refining, and extending the tool and
technology itself and is largely in the realm of
computer programmers and software developers.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 Three Approaches to GISs

• It is the developer approach to GISs that drives
and introduces innovation and is informed and
guided by the existing needs and future demands
of the application approach.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
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 Three Approaches to GISs

• As such, it is indeed on the cutting edge, it is
dynamic, and it represents an area for
considerable growth in the future.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND
 Three Approaches to GISs
• The science approach to GISs not only dovetails
with the applications and developer approaches
but also is more concerned with broader questions
and how geography, cognition, map
interpretation, and other geospatial issues such as
accuracy and errors are relevant to GISs and vice
versa 79
INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 Three Approaches to GISs

• This particular approach is often referred to as
geographic information science (GIScience),
and it is also interested in the social
consequences and implications of the use and
diffusion of GIS technology.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
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 Three Approaches to GISs

• From exploring the propagation of error to
examining how privacy is being redefined by GISs
and related technology, GIScience is at the same
time an agent of change as well as one of
understanding.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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 GIS Future
• The definitions and approaches to GISs described
previously illustrate the scope and breadth of this
special type of information technology.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
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 GIS Future
• As GISs become more accessible and widely
distributed, there will always be new questions to
be answered, new applications to be developed,
and innovative technologies to integrate.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
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 GIS Future
• One notable development is the emergence of
what is called the geospatial web. The geospatial
web or geoweb refers to the integration of the vast
amounts of content available on the Internet with
geographic information, such as location.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 GIS Future
• Mapping mashups, or web-based applications that
combine data and information from one source
and map it with online mapping applications, are
an example of the geoweb at work.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
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 GIS Future
• Though the geoweb may not necessarily be
considered a GIS, it certainly draws upon the same
concepts and ideas of geography and may
someday encompass GISs.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC
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3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR
TODAY AND BEYOND

 Key Takeaways
• There is no single or universal definition of a GIS;
it is defined and used in many different ways.

• One of the key features of a GIS is that it

integrates spatial data with attribute data.

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