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Minerals
• Definition: Naturally occurring inorganic substances with a definite chemical composition and
crystalline structure. Basic source of all minerals is the hot magma in the interior of the earth.
• Importance: Used in industries, construction, and daily life (e.g., iron, coal, gypsum).

Physical Properties of Minerals

1. External Crystal Form: Shape in which a mineral grows naturally (e.g., cubic, hexagonal).
2. Cleavage and Fracture:
o Cleavage: The tendency to break along smooth surfaces.
o Fracture: The tendency to break irregularly.
3. Lustre: The way a mineral reflects light (e.g., metallic, vitreous/glass like, resinous/oil like,
adamantine/diamond like, pearly).
4. Colour: The external appearance of a mineral (not always reliable for identification). Impurities present
in minerals provides shades of colour.
5. Streak: The colour of the mineral in powdered form when rubbed across a white porcelain plate.
6. Transparency: The ability to transmit light (transparent, translucent, opaque).
7. Structure: Internal arrangement of atoms.
8. Hardness: Measured by Mohs Scale (1 = Talc, 2= gypsum, 10 = Diamond). It is the ability to resist being
scratched. It determines how easily a mineral is worn away.
9. Specific Gravity: The ratio of the mineral’s density to the density of water at 4 degrees Celsius.

Diamond is the hardest mineral and Graphite is soft, black and feels greasy.

Major Minerals and Their Characteristics

About 80% of the earth’s crust are silicates.
Mineral Characteristics Uses
Feldspar Most abundant, forms 60% of Earth’s crust, silicate mineral Used in ceramics & glass
making.
Quartz Second most abundant, hard, resistant to weathering Used in glass, electronics,
Has 2 elements- silicon and oxygen which unite to form radio and radar.
carbonate of lime.
It is the most important component of sand and granite and is
very hard. It is virtually insoluble in water. It is white and
colourless
Pyroxene Contains calcium, aluminium, iron, magnesium and silica, Found in meteorite
forms basalt & gabbro
Amphibole Dark coloured, found in igneous & metamorphic rocks Used in asbestos industry. Its
other form is hornblende.
Mica Splits into thin sheets, good electrical insulator Used in electrical industry
Olivine Greenish, rich in iron & magnesium Found in basaltic rocks and is
used in jewellery

Metallic and Non-Metallic Minerals

Metallic Minerals Non-Metallic Minerals
Characteristics Contain metal, good conductors of heat Do not contain metal, used in industries &
& electricity construction
Examples Iron, Copper, Gold, lead etc Mica, Limestone, Graphite, gypsum etc.

Rocks
• Definition: A natural solid substance composed of minerals. All those materials which form the crust of
the earth, whether hard like granite or soft like clay, gravel or sandstone.
Classification of Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks (Primary/Parent Rocks)
o Formation: From solidified magma/lava.
o Types Based on Chemical Composition:
▪ Felsic (contains Feldspar, Silica-rich, light-coloured, e.g., Granite).
 ▪ Mafic (Rich in Magnesium & Iron, dark-coloured, e.g., Basalt).
o Types Based on Texture: texture= size and patterns of mineral crystals present in them. Size
depends largely upon the rate of cooling of magma. Rapid cooling → small crystals; slow
cooling→large crystals. & extremely sudden cooling → natural glass which is non-crystalline.
▪ Intrusive (Plutonic) – Slow cooling inside Earth (e.g., Granite).
▪ Extrusive (Volcanic) – Fast cooling on the surface (e.g., Basalt).
2. Sedimentary Rocks (Secondary Rocks): 3/4th of earth’s surface is covered in sedimentary rocks but
they make up only 5% of the volume of the earth’s crust.
o The sediments, derived from various agents of sedimentation, are deposited layer by layer or
in the form of strata hence they are known as stratified rocks.
o Lithification: the process of turning sediments into hard rock layers by pressure.
o Formation: Deposition & compaction of sediments.
o Types:
▪ Clastic – particles removed individually from the parent rock (e.g., Sandstone, Shale).
▪ Non-Clastic – Formed from
1. chemical precipitation: solid mineral matters precipitated from aqeous solution
in which the components have been transported eg rock salt, zypsum.
2. Organically derived sediments: consists of remains of plants and animals eg
coal and limestone.
3. Metamorphic Rocks (Changed Rocks)
o Formation: Transformation of existing rocks due to heat & pressure.
o Types:
▪ Cataclastic – Formed due to mechanical stress i.e. breaking and crushing without
appreciable chemical change (e.g., Mylonite).
1. As a result of pressure, granite is converted into gneiss, clay and shale are
transformed into schist at great depths of the earth’s crust.
▪ Recrystallized – Formed due to mineral reorganization (e.g., Marble from Limestone,
Quartzite from Sandstone). They are of 2 types:
1. Contact metamorphic rocks: formed by recrystallisation under high
temperature caused by intruding magma. They are not subject to bending and
breaking but new minerals emanating from magma are added to the rock.
2. Regional Metamorphic rocks: they undergo re-crystallization during the
process of being deformed by shearing, often under conditions of high pressure
or high temperature or both.
Original Igneous Rock Metamorphic Rock
1. Mica 1. Schist
2. Granite 2. Gneiss
3. Bituminous coal 3. Anthracite coal
4. Gabro 4. Serpentine
Original Sedimentary Rock Metamorphic Rock
1. Limestone 1. Marble
2. Sandstone 2. Quartzite
3. Shale 3. Slate
4. Coal 4. Diamond

Key Geological Terms associate with Metamorphism:

• Foliation: plate like shape, assembled in parallel orientation in the rock. Layered appearance in
metamorphic rocks due to pressure (e.g., Schist).
• Porphyroblasts: In schists, crystal of certain minerals grow in size. These large crystals are called
porphyroblasts. Large mineral grains surrounded by a fine-grained matrix.
• Lineation: mineral grains drawn out into long, thin, pencil like object all in parallel alignment. Linear
features on rock surfaces due to deformation.
• Banding: Minerals of different varieties or groups are segregated into alternate layers usually alternating
light & dark mineral layers in metamorphic rocks (e.g., Gneiss).
Rock Cycle
• Continuous transformation of rocks from one type to another due to geological processes.
Process:
1. Magma cools → Igneous Rock
2. Igneous Rock weathers → Sediments → Sedimentary Rock
3. Sedimentary Rock undergoes heat & pressure → Metamorphic Rock
4. Metamorphic Rock melts → Magma (Cycle repeats)
Factors Affecting Landforms
The shaping of Earth's landforms is influenced by Exogenic (external) and Endogenic (internal) forces.
1. Exogenic Forces (External)
• Driven by solar energy and gravity.
• Includes weathering, erosion, deposition, and mass wasting.
Types of Exogenic Processes
1. Erosional – Wearing away of land by wind, water, glaciers, and waves.
2. Depositional – Accumulation of sediments carried by natural agents.
3. Mass Wasting – Movement of rock and soil due to gravity (e.g., landslides, rockfalls).

2. Endogenic Forces (Internal)

• Originate from within the Earth due to radioactive decay, heat, and pressure.
• Leads to mountain building, earthquakes, and volcanic activity.
Types of Endogenic Forces
1. Diastrophic Forces (Slow movements)
o Epeirogenic Movements – Large-scale uplifting or subsidence of continents.
▪ Upward movement (uplift) – Creation of plateaus (e.g., Deccan Plateau).
▪ Downward movement (subsidence) – Formation of ocean basins.
o Orogenic Movements – Formation of mountains due to tectonic forces.
▪ Tensional forces – Create rift valleys (e.g., East African Rift).
▪ Compressional forces – Form fold mountains (e.g., Himalayas, Alps).
2. Sudden Forces
o Earthquakes – Vibrations in the Earth's crust due to faulting or plate movements.
o Volcanoes – Magma eruption from Earth's interior, forming mountains and islands (e.g.,
Hawaiian Islands, Mount Fuji).

Denudation
• The wearing away of the Earth’s surface by weathering, mass movement, erosion, and
transportation.
• Leads to the gradual lowering of landforms.

Weathering: The breakdown of rocks into smaller particles without transportation.

Physical Weathering Chemical Weathering Biological Weathering
(Disintegration) (Decomposition)
• Breakdown of rocks due to • Breakdown of rocks due to • Breakdown of rocks due to
temperature changes, water, chemical reactions. living organisms.
and pressure release. • Types: • Causes:
• Types: 1. Oxidation – Reaction 1. Animals and Insects –
1. Insolation with oxygen forms rust Burrowing loosens soil
Weathering – in iron-rich rocks. and rock.
Expansion and 2. Carbonation – CO₂ 2. Vegetation – Tree
contraction of rocks dissolves in water to roots grow into cracks,
due to temperature form carbonic acid, breaking rocks apart.
changes (common in dissolving limestone. 3. Human Activity –
deserts). 3. Hydration – Minerals Mining, deforestation,
2. Frost Weathering – absorb water and and agriculture
Water enters cracks, expand, causing accelerate weathering.
freezes, expands, and disintegration. Significance of Weathering
breaks the rock. • Forms soil and landscapes
3. Pressure Release – (e.g., caves, limestone
Removal of overlying formations).
material causes rocks • Releases minerals for plant
to crack (exfoliation). growth.
• Affects construction and
agriculture.
Significance of Weathering
• Forms soil and landscapes (e.g., caves, limestone formations).
• Releases minerals for plant growth.
• Affects construction and agriculture.

Mass Movement (Mass Wasting)

• The downslope movement of rock and soil under gravity.
• Two types: Slow movement and Rapid movement.
Slow Movement Rapid Movement
1. Soil Creep – Gradual downhill 1. Earthflow – Slow movement of saturated soil downhill.
movement of soil, indicated by 2. Landslide – Sudden movement of rock and soil.
tilted trees and poles. o Rockslide – Large rock slabs slide downhill.
2. Rock Creep – Similar to soil o Slumping – Curved movement of loose soil.
creep but affects large rock o Rock Fall – Free-falling rock due to gravity.
masses. o Debris Slide – Loose debris moving downslope
3. Scree/Talus – Accumulation of rapidly.
broken rock at the base of a 3. Earth Slide – Large masses of soil sliding due to heavy
cliff. rainfall.
4. Solifluction – Slow movement 4. Mudflow – Water-saturated soil and debris moving like a
of water-saturated soil river (common in hilly areas).
(common in permafrost
regions).

Soil and Factors of Soil Formation

Definition of Soil
• A natural body of minerals, organic matter, water, and air supporting plant life.
Factors Affecting Soil Formation
Parent Material • The rock from which soil develops (e.g., Basalt → Black soil, Granite → Sandy soil).
Climate • Temperature and rainfall determine soil composition and weathering rate.
• Heavy rainfall → Leaching of minerals → Laterite soil.
• Dry climate → Accumulation of salts → Arid soil.
Biological • Vegetation – Decaying plants add humus, improving fertility.
Activity • Bacteria and Microorganisms – Break down organic matter.
• Animals – Burrowing animals mix soil layers.
Topography • Steep slopes → Thin, less fertile soil due to erosion.
• Flat areas → Thicker, more fertile soil.
Time • Older soils are more mature with well-developed layers.
• Young soils may lack nutrients and structure.

1. Running Water (Rivers) and Landforms

Stages of River Development
Stage Characteristics Erosional Landforms Depositional Landforms
Youthful Stage Steep slope, fast flow, V-shaped valleys, Gorges, Minimal deposition
(Upper Course) vertical erosion Canyons, Waterfalls, Rapids,
Potholes
Mature Stage Moderate slope, lateral Incised Meanders, River Meanders, Oxbow Lakes,
(Middle Course) erosion starts Terraces Alluvial Fans, Floodplains
Old Stage Gentle slope, slow flow, River Terraces (from Deltas, Natural Levees,
(Lower Course) deposition dominates rejuvenation) Braided Streams, Point
Bars

Erosional Landforms by Rivers

Erosional Landforms by Rivers Depositional Landforms by Rivers
Gorge Alluvial Fans & Cones
Cone-shaped deposits at mountain exits
 Deep, narrow valley with steep walls due to vertical Meandering Rivers & Oxbow Lakes
erosion Loops in rivers that later separate into oxbow lakes
Canyon Braided Streams
Wider and deeper than a gorge (e.g., Grand Canyon) River splits into multiple channels due to sediment
V-shaped Valley load
Formed due to vertical erosion in the youthful stage Natural Levees
Waterfalls & Plunge Pools Elevated riverbanks due to flood deposition
Sudden river drop forming vertical falls Floodplains
Rapids Flat areas formed by recurrent river flooding
Fast-flowing, turbulent river sections Point Bars
Potholes Sandbars inside river bends
Circular holes in river beds caused by water Delta
turbulence Landform at river mouths due to sediment
Incised Meanders deposition
Meanders that are deeply cut due to uplift of land
River Terraces
Stepped formations along riverbanks due to
rejuvenation

2. Groundwater and Karst Landforms

Erosional Features Depositional Features
Lapies Stalactites
Grooved limestone surfaces Mineral deposits hanging from cave ceilings
Sinkholes & Swallow Holes Stalagmites
Depressions caused by collapsed caves Mineral deposits rising from cave floors
Dolines Cavern Pillars (Columns)
Large depressions from underground collapse When stalactites and stalagmites join
Uvalas
Merged dolines forming large depressions
Ponor
Sinkhole where water disappears underground
Caves & Caverns
Underground chambers formed by water erosion
Natural Bridges
Rock bridges left after cave roof collapses

3. Glaciers and Ice Landforms

Erosional Features Depositional Features
Crevasses Moraines
Deep cracks in glacier surfaces Glacial debris accumulation
Bergschrund Drumlins
Large crevasse at glacier heads Oval-shaped hills of glacial deposits
Cirque Kettle Holes
Bowl-shaped depression where glacier originates Depressions from melted ice blocks
Horn Esker
Sharp mountain peak (e.g., Matterhorn) Long winding ridges from glacial rivers
Col (Pass) Kame
Low gap between two horns Small, irregular hills of sand and gravel
Arête Outwash Plain
Narrow ridge between cirques Flat area formed by meltwater deposition
U-shaped Valley (Glacial Troughs)
Valleys widened by glacier erosion
Hanging Valleys
Small valleys left above main U-shaped valleys
Fiords
Drowned glacial valleys due to sea level rise
4. Coastal Landforms (Waves, Currents, and Coastal Erosion)
Erosional Features Depositional Features
Sea Cliffs Beaches
Steep coastal slopes due to wave erosion Sand and pebbles deposited along shorelines
Wave-cut Platform Sand Dunes
Flat rocky surface left behind after cliff retreat Wind-formed sand accumulations
Sea Caves Spits
Cavities in rock caused by wave action Narrow sand extensions into the sea
Marine Arches (Natural Bridges) Bars
Arches formed due to headland erosion Ridges of sand running parallel to the shore
Stacks Lagoons
Isolated rock pillars from collapsed arches Water bodies enclosed by coastal bars
Blowholes (Spouting Horns) Haffs
Holes where water shoots up due to wave pressure Long, narrow lagoons behind coastal bars

5. Wind Erosion and Deposition in Deserts

Erosional Landforms Depositional Landforms
Pediments Sand Dunes
Gently sloping areas at the foot of hills Wind-blown sand accumulations
Pediplains Barchans (Barkhans)
Large flat desert areas formed by erosion Crescent-shaped dunes
Playas Parabolic Dunes
Seasonal lakes that dry up U-shaped dunes with open end facing wind
Deflation Basins Seif Dunes
Depressions formed by wind erosion Long narrow dunes parallel to wind direction
Blowouts Longitudinal Dunes
Wind-formed hollows in deserts Elongated dunes parallel to wind
Mushroom Rocks Transverse Dunes
Rocks shaped like mushrooms due to wind abrasion Dunes perpendicular to wind
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into two broad layers:
1. Homosphere – Consists of:
o Troposphere o Mesosphere
o Stratosphere o Ionosphere
2. Heterosphere – The upper region where gases separate based on their molecular weight.
Troposphere • Formed due to convection currents.
• Height Variation:
o Equator: 16 km (higher due to strong convection currents).
o Poles: 10 km (lower due to weak convection currents).
o Seasonal Variation: Higher in summers, lower in winters.
• Temperature Gradient: Temperature decreases with height (lapse rate: ~6.5°C per
km).
o Due to greater height, upper equatorial regions are colder (-80°C) than polar
upper regions (-45°C).
o This is contrary to the common assumption that polar regions should be colder.
• Moisture Content: 90% of atmospheric water vapour is present here.
• Tropopause: The region where the temperature drop stops.
• Weather Phenomena: All weather activities (clouds, rainfall, storms, etc.) occur in this
layer.
• Aviation:
o Passenger planes fly in the tropopause and lower stratosphere.
o Private, commercial, and jet planes operate in the lower stratosphere.
Stratosphere • Temperature Increase: temperature rises with altitude.
• Ozone Layer: Present in the stratosphere.
o The oxygen-ozone cycle absorbs UV rays, increasing the temperature.
• Stable Atmosphere:
o No clouds, convection currents, thunderstorms, or dust particles.
o Horizontal air currents make it ideal for aircraft flights.
Mesosphere • Temperature Decrease: Temperature drops as altitude increases.
• Meteorological Dust & Clouds:
o Thin, wispy clouds form around meteorological dust particles acting as
hygroscopic nuclei.
o These clouds are noctilucent clouds visible during twilight.
Ionosphere • Temperature Increase: Due to absorption of solar radiation.
• Presence of Electrically Charged Particles (Ions):
o These ions reflect radio waves back to Earth, aiding in long-distance
communication.
o Plays a crucial role in radio signal transmission and GPS functioning.
Solar Radiation, Heat Balance, and Temperature
Solar Insolation: Solar insolation refers to the amount of sunlight received at the Earth's surface per unit area.
• It consists of shortwave radiation that passes through the atmosphere and influences climatic
conditions.
Distribution of Insolation
• Equator & Tropics: High insolation, with minimal variation throughout the year.
• Temperate Regions: Lower insolation than the tropics, with significant seasonal variation.
• Polar Regions: Receive the least insolation due to high latitude and extreme seasonal variations.
Factors Affecting Insolation
Factor Impact on Insolation
1. Inclination of Direct rays concentrate energy on a smaller area, increasing insolation. Slanted rays
Sun Rays spread over a larger area, reducing insolation. More atmospheric interference leads to
scattering and reflection.
2. Latitude The tropics receive direct sunlight at least twice a year, increasing insolation. Higher
latitudes receive slanted sunlight, reducing insolation.
3. Length of Day Longer days in summer lead to higher insolation. Shorter days in winter result in lower
and Night insolation.
 4. Atmospheric Dust particles scatter and reflect sunlight. Clouds act as mirrors, reflecting sunlight.
Conditions Water vapor traps heat like a blanket. High clouds allow sunlight but trap heat,
warming the atmosphere. Low clouds reflect sunlight but allow heat radiation, cooling
the atmosphere.
5. Nature of the Land heats up and cools down quickly, while water takes time to absorb and lose heat.
Surface Ice has high albedo, reflecting more sunlight. Soil absorbs more heat.
6. Slope of Land In the Northern Hemisphere, south-facing slopes receive more insolation. In the
Southern Hemisphere, north-facing slopes receive more insolation.
7. Distance of Perihelion (Jan 3) - Earth is closest to the Sun, receiving more insolation. Aphelion
Earth from the Sun (July 3-6) - Earth is farthest from the Sun, receiving less insolation.
Additional Notes
• Maximum insolation is received over subtropical deserts due to minimal cloud cover.
• The equator receives less insolation than the tropics due to cloud cover and atmospheric conditions.
• At the same latitude, continents receive more insolation than oceans due to differences in heat
absorption.
• Middle and higher latitudes receive less radiation in winter due to shorter days and lower sun
angles.

Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere

The sun is the ultimate source of atmospheric heat and energy. The heating and cooling of the atmosphere
occur through different processes:
1. Terrestrial Radiation
• All objects emit radiant energy continuously, whether hot or cold.
• Hotter objects emit more energy per unit area than colder objects.
• Temperature and wavelength are inversely proportional: the hotter the object, the shorter the
wavelength of radiation.
 • The Earth's surface is heated by insolation (short-wave radiation) from the sun and re-emits energy as
long-wave radiation.
• The Earth's atmosphere absorbs this long-wave terrestrial radiation, mainly through greenhouse
gases like CO2 and water vapor, leading to atmospheric heating.
• The atmosphere radiates heat back to space, maintaining a balance.
• The atmosphere is transparent to short-wave radiation but opaque to long-wave radiation, which
leads to the greenhouse effect.
2. Conduction (Transfer of Heat by Contact)
• Conduction occurs when heat transfers from a warmer object to a cooler object through direct
contact.
• In the atmosphere, conduction happens at the interface between the Earth's surface and the lower
atmosphere.
• It plays a crucial role in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere.
3. Convection (Vertical Transfer of Heat)
• Convection involves the vertical movement of heat energy.
• Heated air expands, becomes less dense, and rises, creating a vacuum that cooler air moves in to fill.
• This continuous vertical movement leads to heat transfer from lower to upper atmospheric layers.
• The convection process is primarily confined to the troposphere.
4. Advection (Horizontal Transfer of Heat)
• Advection refers to the horizontal movement of air, transferring heat across regions.
• Winds carry heat from warmer to colder regions.
• In middle latitudes, most daily weather changes result from advection.
• In tropical regions, local winds like the 'Loo' in northern India during summer are examples of
advection.
Terrestrial Solar Radiation
• The Earth receives sunlight in short waves, heating its surface.
• The Earth then radiates this heat as long waves, warming the atmosphere from below.
• Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide absorb this radiation, contributing to atmospheric warming.
Heat Budget of the Earth
• The heat budget is the balance between the heat received from the sun (insolation) and the heat lost
through terrestrial radiation.
• If this balance is disturbed, the Earth would either overheat or cool excessively.
• The Earth's temperature remains stable because the incoming and outgoing radiation are balanced.

• The total outgoing radiation matches the total incoming radiation, ensuring a balanced heat budget.
Temperature and Its Role in the Atmosphere
• Temperature is the measure of heat generated by the interaction of insolation (solar radiation) with the
atmosphere and Earth's surface.
• It quantifies how hot or cold an object or environment is, expressed in degrees (Celsius, Fahrenheit, or
Kelvin).
• Heat vs. Temperature:
o Heat refers to the total energy of molecular motion within a substance.
o Temperature measures the intensity of this motion.
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution
Factor Effect on Temperature Examples
Latitude - Equatorial regions receive direct sunlight, - Delhi (28° N) is warmer than London (51°
leading to high temperatures. N).
- Polar regions receive oblique sunlight, - The Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold
resulting in lower temperatures. due to less solar energy received.
Altitude - Temperature decreases with height due to - Shimla (2,276 m) is cooler than Ludhiana
the normal lapse rate (1°C per 165m). (244 m).
- Higher altitudes have lower temperatures - La Paz (3,650 m) is colder than Lima (sea
due to reduced air pressure and heat level), despite similar latitudes.
retention.
Distance from - Coastal areas experience moderate - Mumbai has a moderate climate due to
the Sea temperatures due to the influence of land the Arabian Sea.
(Continentality and sea breezes. - Delhi experiences extreme summers and
vs. Maritime - Inland areas have extreme temperature winters as it is inland.
Effect) variations.
Ocean - Warm currents raise temperatures in - North Atlantic Drift keeps Western
Currents coastal regions. Europe warmer.
- Cold currents lower coastal temperatures. - California Current cools San Francisco.
Local Winds - Hot winds increase temperatures. - Loo winds raise summer temperatures in
- Cold winds lower temperatures. North India.
- Mistral winds cool parts of France in
winter.
Slope Aspect - Sun-facing slopes are warmer than those in - South-facing slopes in the Himalayas are
the shade. more habitable.
Nature of the - Dark surfaces absorb more heat, increasing - Urban heat islands (concrete areas) are
Land Surface temperatures. warmer than rural areas.
- Light surfaces reflect heat, keeping - Ice and sand reflect heat, keeping
temperatures lower. deserts and polar regions cooler.
Cloud Cover - Clouds trap heat at night, keeping - Equatorial regions remain warm at night
temperatures high. due to cloud cover.
- During the day, clouds block sunlight, - Deserts experience extreme day-night
reducing temperature. variations due to lack of clouds.
Rainfall - High rainfall leads to cooling due to latent - Mumbai’s heavy rainfall moderates its
heat absorption. summer heat.
- Low rainfall leads to high temperatures. - Rajasthan remains hot due to arid
conditions.
Temperature Inversion
1. Temperature inversion (thermal inversion) refers to an anomaly in the troposphere where temperature
increases with height, instead of decreasing.
Conditions for Temperature Inversion
1. Long nights: Insolation is received during day time and it is radiated during night. The earth’s surface
cools down at night due to radiation. The air of lower layer touching the earth’s surface is sufficiently
cooled while the air of upper layer is still warm. Thus, long nights are helpful for inversion of
temperature.
2. Clear sky: it is essential for reflection of heat radiations by earth’s surface thereby cooling it. Cloud
obstructs this reflection and hamper concurrence of inversion of temperature.
3. Stable weather: continuous radiation of heat is possible in a stable weather. This condition leads to
temperature inversion. Change in weather disturbs the temperature inversion.
4. Dry air: mois air has greater capacity to absorb heat radiation and obstructs the temperature inversion.
But dry air does not absorb much radiation and promotes temperature inversion.
5. Ice cover: areas covered with ice reflects most of the heat radiation and the layer of air touching it
becomes cold while the upper air remains warm. This leads to temperature inversion.
6. Air drainage: during long winter nights, the air on higher slope cools down quickly and becomes dense.
It moves down the slope and settles down on the valley bottom by pushing up the comparatively
warmer air. Sometimes, the temperature of the air at the valley bottom falls below freezing point,
 whereas the air at higher altitude remains comparatively warm. This is known as ‘Air Drainage
Temperature Inversion’.
Effects of Temperature Inversion
• In the valleys, the trees are frost-bitten along the lower slopes, whereas those at higher levels are free
from it.
• Air pollutants such as dust particles and smoke do not disperse in the valley bottoms.
o It is because of these reasons, houses and farms in intermontane valleys are generally situated
along the upper slopes, avoiding the cold and foggy valley bottoms. Eg mulberry planters in
the Suwa Basin of Japan and apple growers in the mountain states of Himalayas avoid lower
slopes.
o Hotels in the Himalayas are built on the upper slope
Effects Impact
Traps Pollutants Leads to smog formation in urban areas.
Affects Weather Reduces cloud formation and rainfall.
Influences Agriculture Protects crops from frost in valleys.
Disrupts Radio Waves Causes abnormal radio wave propagation.

Pressure and Winds

Atmospheric pressure: weight of column of air at any given place and time. It is measured with barometer. At
sea level, the atmospheric pressure is 1013.25kPa.
Isobar= an imaginary line drawn through places having equal atmospheric pressure.

Importance of atmospheric pressure

Change in temperature causes change in air density which results in the change in atmospheric pressure. Air
expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variation in the atmospheric pressure.
Variations in the atmospheric pressure are responsible for horizontal movement of air called WINDS. Winds
transport heat and moisture from place to place. Thus, atmospheric pressure is considered a significant factor
in weather forecasting.

Distribution of atmospheric pressure

1. Vertical Distribution: atmospheric pressure is maximum at the sea-level under normal conditions and it
decreases with altitude at the rate of 1 milibar per every 10 metres of height. It reduces to half at a
height of 5kms.
2. Horizontal Distribution: It is the distribution of atmospheric pressure across the latitudes. Its main
feature is zonal character termed as ‘Pressure Belts’. There are 7 pressure belts over the globe along
certain specific latitudes.
1. Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt: extends upto 10° N and S of equator.
• Reasons for low pressure:
▪ Due to intense heating air gets warm and rises over the equatorial region and produces
low pressure.
▪ There is high water vapour content in the air which reduces the density of the air leading
to low pressure.
▪ Density of moist air is less than that of dry air.
▪ Earth’s rate of rotation is maximum at the equator resulting in maximum centrifugal
force at the equator which pushes the air away from earth’s surface and causes low
pressure condition.
• There is extremely low pressure with calm conditions in this belt. Surface winds are generally
absent since winds approaching this belt begins to rise near its margin. Thus, only vertical
currents are found. This belt is also called doldrums because of the extremely calm air
movement.
2. Sub-tropical High-Pressure Belts: extend from near the tropics to about 35° N and 35° S.
• Reasons for high pressure:
▪ The warm air of the equatorial belt gradually cools down when it goes up and turns
towards the north and south in the northern and southern hemisphere respectively due
to rotation of the earth. They are completely turned on reaching the tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn and start descending there. Thus, descent of cold air causes high
pressure conditions in a belt extending from the tropics to 35°N and 35° S.
▪ Large air masses drift from the polar areas to the sub-tropics due to earth’s rotation and
descends in this belt, causing high pressure there.
• The descending air creates a calm condition with variable and feeble winds in these belts. They
are, therefore, called ‘Belts of Calm or Horse Latitude’.
3. Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt: located between 45° N to Arctic Circle (66 1/2°N) and between 45° S to
Antarctic Circle (66 1/2° S).
• Reasons for Low Pressure:
▪ Due to axial rotation of the earth, the air is blown away from the poles and should cause
low pressure at the poles. But the poles are very cold and the effect of axial rotation is
displacing air is felt near the arctic and Antarctic circles and the low pressure belts are
formed in the sub-polar areas.
▪ Warm ocean currents from the tropical and sub-tropical areas carry lot of heat to the
sub-polar areas and create high temperature and low pressure conditions there.
4. Polar High Pressure Belts: from 80° N and S to North and South Pole respectively.
• Reasons for High Pressure:
 ▪ The high pressure is caused by extremely low temperature at the poles which remain
below freezing point even during the summer season. The air remains cold and dense
and result in high pressure there.

Wind= wind is caused by the horizontal differences in atmospheric pressure. Wind represents nature’s attempt
to correct pressure inequalities. Wind moves from high pressure area to low pressure area.
Air Current= the vertical or nearly vertical movement of air.

Wind and Air Currents together comprise a system of circulation.

Types of Winds:

1. Planetary Winds: also known as Permanent of Prevailing winds.

• Blow over vast areas of continents and oceans through-out the year in a particular direction.
They blow from high pressure belts to low pressure belts.
• They are further divided into 3 categories:
The Trade Winds The Westerlies The Polar Winds
• Winds blowing from sub-tropical high • Winds blowing from the sub- • Winds blowing from
pressure areas (30° N and 30° S) tropical high pressure belts to the polar high
towards the equatorial low pressure wards the sub-polar low pressure belts
belt. pressure belts. towards the sub-
• Extremely steady winds- blowing in the • Normally prevalent from 30°-40° polar low pressure
same direction and in a constant to 60°-65° latitudes. belts.
course. Characteristics: Characteristics:
Characteristics: • Because of Coriolis force, they • From from North-
• Winds should have blown from north blow from south-west to north- East to South West
to south in northern hemisphere and east in the northern hemisphere direction in the
from north to south in southern and from north-west to south- northern
hemisphere but because of Coriolis east in the southern hemisphere and
effect, these winds are deflected to hemisphere. Hence they are from south East to
the right in the northern hemisphere called ‘Westerlies’ because they North-West
and to the left in the southern originate from the western direction in the
hemisphere. Thus they flow as north direction. southern
eastern trades in the northern • They blow from warm areas to hemisphere.
hemisphere and the south-eastern cold areas, hence cause • Since they originate
trades in the southern hemisphere. considerable rainfall especially from the poles, they
Hence they are known as ‘Easterlies’. on the western margins of the are extremely cold.
• They travel from 30° N towards equator continents. • They blow from cold
and from 30° S towards equator and • Their flow is irregular and areas to
gradually become hot and dry. As such uncertain in the temperate lands comparatively warm
they do not cause much rainfall. But due to occurrence of cyclones areas and do not
when they cross ocean and reach and anti-cyclones there. cause much rainfall.
land, they cause rainfall on the eastern • Their westerly flow is obscured Their capacity to
margins of the continents while their due to the presence of vast land absorb moisture is
western margins remain practically masses and irregular relief in the also very little due
dry. northern hemisphere. to low temperature.
• On the eastern margins of the oceans, • Due to presence of vast expense • These winds give
the trade winds meet cool ocean of oceans in the southern birth to cyclones
currents and do not cause much hemisphere the westerlies are when they come in
rainfall there. comparatively stronger and contact with
• The north-eastern and the south- more consistent in direction. The westerlies. This
eastern trade winds converge near the westerlies are best developed brings about
equator called ITCZ(Inter Continental between 40° and 65° S latitudes. frequent change in
Convergence Zone), they rise and Here they are known as BRAVE weather and heavy
cause heavy rainfall. WEST WINDS. rainfall.
• Trade winds follow a specific path with • According to the sound created
a speed of 15 to 25 KM/Hour. by westerlies, these latitudes are
• The speed in more in winter than in often called roaring 40s, furious
summer. 50s and shrieking 60s.
• They are more pronounced on the sea • The poleward boundary of the
as compared to land. westerlies is highly fluctuating.
• They are converted into monsoon • These winds produce spells and
winds in the Indian Ocean. variabilities in weather.
2. Seasonal or Periodic winds: these winds change their direction with the change in season.
• monsoon winds: the word is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ which means season.
▪ It is a system of wind in which there is complete reversal fo direction with the change of
season.
▪ These winds blow from sea to land during the summer and from land to sea during the
winter season. Thus, the monsoon wind system override the expected pattern of primary
atmospheric circulation.
Monsoon Winds During Winter (October Monsoon Winds During Summer (June - September)
- February)

1. Formation of High Pressure Over • Formation of Low Pressure Over the Tibetan
Siberia and Tibetan Plateau Plateau
• During winter, the Siberian • During summer, the Tibetan Plateau (which
region and Tibetan Plateau is elevated at over 4,500 meters) heats up
cool down significantly due to rapidly due to intense solar radiation.
the absence of solar heating,
forming a high-pressure
system.
 •This high-pressure system • This creates a low-pressure zone over the
leads to the outward flow of region, attracting moist air from surrounding
dry, cold winds. areas.
2. Southward Shift of the ITCZ • Shift of the ITCZ
• As the Sun moves towards the • The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
Tropic of Capricorn, the ITCZ (ITCZ) is an equatorial low-pressure belt
shifts southward, away from where the Trade Winds of both
the Indian subcontinent. hemispheres converge.
• This weakens the low-pressure ▪ In summer, due to the northward
zone over India, reducing the shift of the Sun (towards the Tropic
monsoon activity. of Cancer), the ITCZ moves
3. Reversal of Winds – Onset of northward into the Indian
Northeast Monsoon subcontinent, intensifying the
• With the dominance of the monsoon system.
Siberian High, cold Northeast • The ITCZ acts as a monsoon trough, guiding
Trade Winds (Easterlies) the monsoon winds towards India.
resume their original direction. • Reversal of Easterlies – Onset of Southwest
• These winds, being dry, result Monsoon
in cold and dry conditions • Normally, the Northeast Trade Winds
over northern India. (Easterlies) blow from the northeast
• However, when they cross the towards the equator.
Bay of Bengal, they pick up • However, during summer, due to the
moisture and bring rainfall to formation of low pressure over India and the
Tamil Nadu and parts of northward movement of ITCZ, these winds
southern India, marking the are deflected southwestward, forming the
Northeast Monsoon season. Southwest Monsoon Winds.
• These winds, originating from the
Mascarene High (near Madagascar in the
Indian Ocean), bring heavy rainfall to India.

Mascarene High and Its Role in the Monsoon

• The Mascarene High is a semi-permanent high-pressure system located near Madagascar
and the Mascarene Islands (southern Indian Ocean).
• It plays a crucial role in driving the Southwest Monsoon Winds towards India.
• During summer, this high-pressure system strengthens, pushing moist-laden southwesterly
winds towards the Indian subcontinent.
• If the Mascarene High is strong, it results in intense monsoon rainfall in India. If it is weak, the
monsoon may be delayed or weakened.

Season Pressure Systems ITCZ Position Wind Direction Rainfall Impact

Summer Low over Tibetan Moves Southwest Heavy rainfall in India
(June - Plateau northward into Monsoon Winds (except Tamil Nadu)
September) High over Mascarene India from the Indian
Islands Ocean
Winter High over Siberia & Moves Northeast Trade Dry conditions in most of
(October - Tibetan Plateau southward Winds (Easterlies) India, but Tamil Nadu
February) away from receives rainfall from the
India Northeast Monsoon

Impact of El Niño, La Niña, and Indian Ocean Dipole on Indian Monsoon

The Indian monsoon is influenced by various climatic phenomena, including El Niño, La Niña, and the Indian
Ocean Dipole (IOD). These affect wind patterns, sea surface temperatures (SSTs), and pressure systems,
impacting rainfall in India.
1. El Niño and Its Impact on Indian Monsoon
What is El Niño?
 • El Niño refers to the warming of sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean, near Peru and Ecuador.
• This occurs when trade winds weaken, disrupting normal oceanic circulation.
Pressure Changes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans During El Niño
• Normally, the western Pacific (near Indonesia) has low pressure, while the eastern Pacific (near South
America) has high pressure.
• During El Niño:
o The eastern Pacific experiences low pressure due to warming.
o The western Pacific and Indian Ocean experience high pressure due to cooler waters.
Effect on Indian Monsoon
• The weakening of trade winds reduces moisture transport towards the Indian subcontinent.
• The Walker Circulation weakens, and the monsoon winds become weaker.
• This results in weaker monsoon rains, leading to droughts in India.
• Example: The El Niño of 2009 caused a deficient monsoon, leading to drought conditions.
2. La Niña and Its Impact on Indian Monsoon
What is La Niña?
• La Niña is the opposite of El Niño. It refers to the cooling of SSTs in the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean.
• Trade winds strengthen, intensifying normal oceanic circulation.
Pressure Changes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans During La Niña
• Stronger trade winds push warm waters towards the western Pacific and Indian Ocean.
• This leads to:
o Stronger low pressure in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific.
o Stronger high pressure in the eastern Pacific (South America).
Effect on Indian Monsoon
• Stronger trade winds bring more moisture to India, enhancing monsoon rains.
• The monsoon winds strengthen, leading to above-normal rainfall.
• This can result in floods in India.
• Example: The La Niña of 2010-11 brought excess rainfall, leading to floods in India and Pakistan.
3. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and Its Impact on Indian Monsoon
What is the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)?
• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) refers to the difference in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) between
the western and eastern Indian Ocean.
• It has two phases:
o Positive IOD: Warmer SSTs in the western Indian Ocean (near Africa) and cooler SSTs in the
eastern Indian Ocean (near Indonesia).
o Negative IOD: Cooler SSTs in the western Indian Ocean and warmer SSTs in the eastern
Indian Ocean.
Effect of IOD on Indian Monsoon
Positive IOD (Favorable for Monsoon)
• Warmer waters near Africa create low pressure, pulling monsoon winds towards India.
• This enhances monsoon rainfall in India.
• Example: The positive IOD of 2019 strengthened the monsoon, leading to above-normal rainfall in
India.
Negative IOD (Unfavorable for Monsoon)
• Warmer waters near Indonesia create low pressure, pulling moisture away from India.
• This weakens the monsoon, leading to drought-like conditions.
• Example: The negative IOD of 2016 led to below-normal rainfall and drought in India.

Summary
Phenomenon Sea Surface Temperature Pressure Changes Effect on Impact on
(SST) Changes Monsoon Winds Indian
Monsoon
El Niño Warmer SSTs in eastern High pressure in Weaker Deficient
Pacific, cooler SSTs in Indian Indian Ocean, low monsoon winds rainfall, drought
Ocean pressure in Pacific
La Niña Cooler SSTs in eastern Low pressure in Indian Stronger Above-normal
Pacific, warmer SSTs in Ocean, high pressure monsoon winds rainfall, floods
Indian Ocean in Pacific
Positive IOD Warmer SSTs in western Low pressure in Strengthens Above-normal
Indian Ocean, cooler SSTs western Indian Ocean monsoon winds rainfall
near Indonesia
Negative IOD Cooler SSTs in western Low pressure in Weakens Below-normal
Indian Ocean, warmer SSTs eastern Indian Ocean monsoon winds rainfall, drought
near Indonesia
3. Local Winds: caused by differential heating and cooling of earth’s surface and affect local areas.
Land and Sea Breeze (Diurnal Winds)
Sea Breeze (Daytime) Land Breeze (Nighttime)
• During the day, the land heats up faster than • At night, land cools down faster than the sea.
the sea due to its lower heat capacity. • This creates a high-pressure area over land
• This creates a low-pressure area over land and a low-pressure area over the sea.
and a high-pressure area over the sea. • Air from land flows towards the sea, forming
• Cool, moist air from the sea flows towards the land breeze.
the land, creating the sea breeze. • Effect: It can help in cooling coastal areas
• Effect: It moderates coastal temperatures, during the night.
making afternoons cooler. • Example: Fishermen in Tamil Nadu rely on
• Example: Mumbai experiences strong sea land breezes for sailing.
breezes in summer.
 Mountain and Valley Breeze (Diurnal Winds)
These winds occur in hilly or mountainous regions due to temperature differences between the valley and
surrounding mountains.
Valley Breeze (Daytime) Mountain Breeze (Nighttime)
• During the day, mountain slopes heat up • At night, mountain slopes cool down faster
faster than the valley floor. than valleys.
• Warm air rises along the slopes, creating a • This creates a high-pressure area at higher
low-pressure area at higher altitudes. altitudes, and cold air flows down into the
• Cooler air from the valley flows upwards, valley.
forming the valley breeze. • This is called the mountain breeze.
• Effect: This breeze contributes to afternoon • Effect: It leads to frost formation in valleys,
cloud formation and occasional rainfall in affecting crops.
mountainous areas. • Example: Mountain breezes are observed in
• Example: Valley breezes are common in the the Alps and Rocky Mountains.
Himalayas and Western Ghats.
Local Winds
Hot Local Winds Cold Local Winds
These winds originate from hot and dry regions, increasing These winds originate from cold regions
temperatures in surrounding areas. and significantly lower temperatures in
the areas they affect.
Loo (India) Mistral (France)
• A hot, dry wind that blows across North India and • A cold, dry wind that flows from
Pakistan during summer afternoons. the Alps into the Mediterranean
• It raises temperatures above 45°C, causing heatwaves region.
and dehydration. • It brings a sudden drop in
• Effect: Leads to severe heatstroke (Loo effect). temperature, affecting
• Example: Common in Delhi, Rajasthan, Punjab. agriculture.
Chinook (USA & Canada) • Example: It affects southern
• A warm, dry wind that descends from the Rocky France, particularly Provence.
Mountains. Bora (Balkans)
• It results from adiabatic heating as air compresses while • A cold wind from the northeast
descending. that blows over the Adriatic Sea.
• Effect: Melts snow rapidly in winter, earning the name • It brings freezing temperatures
"Snow Eater". and rough sea conditions.
• Example: Common in Alberta, Canada, and the Great • Example: Found in Croatia and
Plains, USA. Slovenia.
Foehn (Europe) Harmattan (West Africa)
• Similar to Chinook, but occurs in the Alps region of • A dry, dusty wind that originates
Europe. from the Sahara Desert.
• A warm, dry wind that descends on the leeward side of • It brings cold and dry conditions
mountains. to West African countries.
• Effect: Increases temperatures suddenly, aiding • Example: Common in Nigeria,
agriculture but sometimes causing avalanches. Ghana, and Senegal.
 • Example: Switzerland and Austria experience Foehn
winds.
Summary
Wind Name Region Type Effect
Sea Breeze Coastal areas Cool wind from sea Lowers daytime temperatures
Land Breeze Coastal areas Cool wind from land Cools the sea at night
Valley Breeze Mountainous areas Warm air rising upslope Cloud formation, rainfall
Mountain Mountainous areas Cold air sinking Causes frost in valleys
Breeze downslope
Loo North India, Pakistan Hot & dry Heatwaves in summer
Chinook Rocky Mountains (USA, Warm & dry Rapid snowmelt ("Snow Eater")
Canada)
Foehn Alps (Europe) Warm & dry Causes avalanches, aids
agriculture
Mistral France Cold & dry Lowers temperature suddenly
Bora Balkans (Croatia, Slovenia) Cold & dry Freezing winds, rough seas
Harmattan West Africa Cold & dry Dusty, dry conditions

Water in the Atmosphere

Water is a crucial component of the atmosphere, existing in all three states—solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas
(water vapor). It plays a significant role in weather patterns, heat regulation, and precipitation.

Sources of Water Vapor in the Atmosphere

Water vapor enters the atmosphere through various processes:
Source Description
Evaporation from The largest source of atmospheric water vapor. The Sun’s heat causes seawater
Oceans to turn into vapor.
Evaporation of Water from rivers, lakes, and soil evaporates into the air.
Groundwater
Transpiration by Plants Plants release water vapor through small pores (stomata) in their leaves.
Respiration by Animals Animals release moisture through breathing and sweating.

Role of Water Vapor in the Atmosphere

Water vapor affects weather and climate through various mechanisms:
Effect Explanation
Precipitation Water vapor condenses into clouds and falls as rain, snow, or hail.
Latent Heat Water vapor stores heat when it evaporates and releases heat when it condenses,
Storage influencing storms and monsoons.
Controls Heat Acts like a blanket, trapping heat near the Earth's surface.
Loss
Reduces Clouds formed by water vapor reflect sunlight, reducing surface heating.
Insolation

Factors Affecting Evaporation

Factor Effect on Evaporation
Temperature Higher temperatures → More evaporation
Air Dryness Drier air absorbs more water vapor → Increases evaporation
Cloud Cover More clouds → Less sunlight → Less evaporation
Water Availability More surface water → Higher evaporation
Wind Speed Faster wind → More evaporation as humid air is replaced by dry air

Humidity: Measurement of Water Vapor in Air

Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere.
Type of Humidity Formula / Definition
Absolute Humidity Water vapor per unit volume of air (g/m³)
 Specific Humidity Water vapor per unit weight of air (g/kg)
Relative Humidity (Actual humidity / Maximum water vapor air can hold) × 100%
Example: If air contains 10g of water vapor but can hold 20g at a given temperature, relative humidity =
(10/20) × 100 = 50%.
What is a Saturated Air Mass?
Saturated air is air that cannot hold more water vapor at a given temperature and pressure.
• When relative humidity reaches 100%, the air is fully saturated.
• Any extra moisture condenses into dew, fog, or clouds.
• Dew Point: The temperature at which air becomes saturated and condensation begins.

Condensation & Forms of Precipitation

Condensation is a key process in the hydrological cycle, leading to the formation of clouds, precipitation, and
various weather phenomena.

What is Condensation?
Condensation is the conversion of water vapor into liquid or solid form when the air is saturated (relative
humidity = 100%).
Role of Dust Particles (Hygroscopic Nuclei)
• Water vapor in the atmosphere condenses around tiny dust, salt, or smoke particles.
• These hygroscopic nuclei help in the formation of clouds, fog, and precipitation.
Dew Point
• The dew point is the temperature at which air becomes saturated and condensation begins.
• At this point, excess moisture condenses into dew, fog, or clouds.

Forms of Condensation
Form Description Conditions Required
Dew Tiny water droplets form on cool surfaces like grass, - Long nights
leaves, and metal. - Clear sky (radiational cooling)
- Calm air (less wind)
- High humidity
Frost When temperature falls below dew point and freezing - Freezing temperatures
point (0°C), water vapor directly forms ice crystals. - Clear sky
- High humidity
Fog Tiny water droplets suspended near the ground, reducing - High humidity
visibility. - Temperature close to dew point
- Calm air
Mist A type of fog with more moisture and lighter density. - Slightly warmer conditions than
fog
Clouds Large-scale condensation in the upper atmosphere, - Rising warm, moist air
leading to precipitation. - Cooling and condensation

Forms of Precipitation
Type Description Conditions Required
Rain Water droplets merge and fall when clouds - Strong upward air currents (convection)
cannot hold more moisture. - Moisture-laden clouds
- Condensation at high altitudes
Snowfall Water vapor condenses directly into ice crystals - Freezing temperatures
and falls as snow. - High moisture in the air
Sleet A mix of rain and frozen pellets that occurs when - Temperature near freezing point
rain falls through a cold air layer, partially freezing - Warm air above, cold air near the
it. ground
Hailstorm Ice pellets (hailstones) formed in cumulonimbus - Strong updrafts in thunderstorms
clouds, falling due to gravity. - Layers of ice forming in supercooled
clouds

How Does a Hailstorm Occur?

1. Strong upward winds (updrafts) in cumulonimbus clouds carry raindrops high into the atmosphere.
2. The raindrops freeze due to sub-zero temperatures.
3. The frozen pellet falls and rises multiple times, collecting layers of ice.
4. When the hailstone becomes too heavy for the updraft to hold, it falls to the ground as hail.
Example: Hailstorms in northern India during pre-monsoon season (March–May).
Water on Earth & Oceanography
1 Composition of Water on Earth’s Surface
The Earth's surface is 71% covered with water, but its distribution is uneven.
Water Source % of Total Water
Oceans 97.3%
Ice Caps & Glaciers 2.0%
Groundwater 0.68%
Lakes 0.009%
Soil Moisture 0.005%
Atmosphere (Water Vapor) 0.001%
Streams & Rivers 0.0001%
Biosphere (Living Beings) 0.00004%
Key Takeaways:
Oceans dominate Earth's water composition.
Freshwater is only 2.7%, and most of it is in glaciers & groundwater.
Only 0.01% of total water is available for human use (rivers, lakes, groundwater).

2 Volume of Major Oceans

Ocean Volume (Million km³) % of Total Ocean Volume
Pacific Ocean 710.36 50.1%
Atlantic Ocean 323.6 23.4%
Indian Ocean 264 19%
Southern Ocean 71.8 5.1%
Arctic Ocean 18.7 1.4%
Key Takeaways:
Pacific Ocean is the largest, covering more than 50% of total ocean volume.
Atlantic & Indian Oceans together make up about 42%.
Arctic Ocean is the smallest, containing only 1.4% of total ocean water.
3 Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)

The hydrological cycle explains the continuous movement of water on Earth.

Key Processes:
1 Evaporation: Water from oceans, lakes, and rivers converts into vapor.
2 Transpiration: Plants release water vapor into the air.
3 Condensation: Water vapor cools and forms clouds.
4 Precipitation: Water falls as rain, snow, or hail.
5 Infiltration: Water seeps into the ground, replenishing groundwater.
6 Runoff: Excess water flows into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Significance:
Maintains Earth's water balance.
Regulates climate by heat exchange.
Supports agriculture & freshwater availability.

4 Relief of the Ocean Floor

The ocean floor is not uniform; it consists of various major and minor relief features.
Major Oceanic Relief Features
1 Continental Shelf
• Shallowest part of the ocean (0-200m deep).
• Rich in marine life, oil, & gas deposits.
• Example: North Sea Shelf (Europe), Sunda Shelf (Southeast Asia).
2 Shelf Break
• Edge of the continental shelf, where the depth suddenly increases.
3 Continental Slope
• Steep descent from the continental shelf to the deep ocean.
• Boundary between continental & oceanic crust.
• Example: Bay of Bengal Continental Slope.
4 Abyssal Plain (Deep-Sea Plain)
 • Flat ocean floor at a depth of 3,000-6,000m.
• Covered by sediments from rivers, dust, and marine organisms.
• Example: Sohm Abyssal Plain (Atlantic Ocean).
5 Oceanic Deeps / Trenches
• Deepest parts of the ocean (over 6,000m deep).
• Formed due to subduction of tectonic plates.
• Example: Mariana Trench (Deepest, 11,022m), Java Trench, Peru-Chile Trench.

5 Minor Oceanic Relief Features

1 Mid-Oceanic Ridges
• Underwater mountain ranges formed by volcanic activity.
• Divergent boundary (plates move apart).
• Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East Pacific Rise.
2 Abyssal Hills
• Small underwater hills on the abyssal plain.
3 Submarine Canyons
• Deep valleys cut into continental slopes by river activity.
• Example: Hudson Canyon (Atlantic Ocean).
4 Atolls & Coral Reefs
• Circular coral reefs formed around submerged volcanic islands.
• Example: Maldives Atolls, Great Barrier Reef (Australia).

Ocean Waves
• Definition: Waves are oscillatory movements of ocean water caused by external forces, mainly wind.
• Causes of Ocean Waves:
1. Wind Action:
▪ Winds exert friction and pressure on the sea surface, creating waves.
▪ Stronger winds generate larger waves.
2. Gravity:
▪ Gravity pulls the crests of waves downward while water in troughs moves upward.
3. Circular Motion of Water:
▪ Beneath the wave, water moves in a circular motion.
▪ Objects on the water surface move up and forward as the wave approaches and down
and backward as it passes.
4. Other Causes:
▪ Seismic Activity (Tsunamis): Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or underwater
landslides can generate large waves.
▪ Tides and Currents: Ocean waves are influenced by tidal and ocean current
movements.
Tides
• Definition: Tides are the periodic rise and fall of sea levels caused by the gravitational forces of the
Moon and Sun and the Earth's rotation.
Origin of Tides
• Tide-Generating Force:
o The difference between the gravitational pull of the Moon and centrifugal force of the Earth
leads to the formation of tides.
o The Moon’s gravity pulls ocean water towards it, creating a bulge (high tide) on the side facing
the Moon.
o A second bulge occurs on the opposite side due to centrifugal force, creating another high tide.
o Areas between the bulges experience low tides.
Types of Tides
1. Based on Frequency:
o Semi-Diurnal Tides: Two high tides and two low tides in 24 hours (e.g., Atlantic Coast of the
USA).
o Diurnal Tides: One high tide and one low tide in 24 hours (e.g., Gulf of Mexico).
o Mixed Tides: Unequal high and low tides (e.g., Pacific Coast of North America).
2. Based on Height:
o Spring Tide:
▪ Occurs when the Sun, Moon, and Earth are in a straight line (New Moon & Full Moon).
▪ Higher high tides and lower low tides due to the combined gravitational pull of the Moon
and Sun.
o Neap Tide:
▪ Occurs when the Sun, Earth, and Moon form a right angle (First and Third Quarter Moon).
▪ Lower high tides and higher low tides as the gravitational forces partially cancel each
other.

Tidal Currents
• Definition: The horizontal movement of ocean water caused by tides.
• Types:
o Flood Current: Movement of water towards the shore during high tide.
o Ebb Current: Movement of water away from the shore during low tide.

Tidal Bore
• Definition: A high-speed wave caused by the sudden rise of tidal water in narrow coastal inlets,
estuaries, and river mouths.
• Examples:
o The Hooghly River (India)
o Amazon River (Brazil)
o Qiantang River (China)

Importance of Tides
1. Navigation: Tides help ships enter and leave ports by increasing water depth.
2. Fishing: Many fish species migrate during tides, aiding the fishing industry.
3. Tidal Energy: Used for generating renewable electricity (e.g., La Rance Tidal Power Station, France).
4. Coastal Erosion and Deposition: Tides shape coastlines by eroding and depositing sediments.
5. Saltwater Intrusion: High tides push seawater into river mouths, affecting freshwater availability.
6. Weather and Climate: Influence ocean currents, which impact global weather patterns.

Ocean Currents
What are Ocean Currents?
Ocean currents are large-scale movements of water in the oceans driven by wind, Earth's rotation,
temperature, salinity differences, and gravitational forces.
Key Features:
Direction – Currents can be warm or cold
 Depth – Can be surface currents or deep-water currents
Speed – Measured in knots (1 knot ≈ 1.85 km/h)
Influence – Climate, marine life, shipping routes, and weather patterns

Causes of Ocean Currents

(A) Primary Forces (Cause Motion)
1. Wind – Major driver, especially for surface currents (e.g., Trade Winds, Westerlies).
2. Coriolis Force – Due to Earth's rotation, deflects currents right in the Northern Hemisphere and left
in the Southern Hemisphere.
3. Density Differences – Variations in temperature & salinity cause deep-water currents.
4. Gravity & Tides – Affects water movement, especially in coastal areas.
(B) Secondary Forces (Modify Motion)
1. Continental Barriers – Landmasses block & redirect currents.
2. Ocean Bottom Topography – Ridges, trenches, and underwater mountains influence currents.
3. Temperature Differences – Warm water rises, cold water sinks, affecting circulation.

Types of Ocean Currents

(A) Surface Currents (~10% of Ocean Water)
• Driven by winds and the Coriolis effect
• Move horizontally
• Influence weather & climate
(B) Deep Ocean Currents (~90% of Ocean Water)
• Driven by thermohaline circulation (temperature + salinity differences)
• Move vertically & horizontally
• Form the Global Conveyor Belt

Major Ocean Currents by Ocean

(A) Pacific Ocean Currents
Current Name Type Nature Hemisphere
North Equatorial Current Surface Warm Northern
South Equatorial Current Surface Warm Southern
Kuroshio Current Surface Warm Northern
Oyashio Current Surface Cold Northern
 California Current Surface Cold Northern
Peru (Humboldt) Current Surface Cold Southern
East Australian Current Surface Warm Southern
(B) Atlantic Ocean Currents
Current Name Type Nature Hemisphere
North Equatorial Current Surface Warm Northern
South Equatorial Current Surface Warm Southern
Gulf Stream Surface Warm Northern
Labrador Current Surface Cold Northern
Canary Current Surface Cold Northern
Brazil Current Surface Warm Southern
Benguela Current Surface Cold Southern
(C) Indian Ocean Currents
Current Name Type Nature Hemisphere
North Equatorial Current Surface Warm Northern
South Equatorial Current Surface Warm Southern
Agulhas Current Surface Warm Southern
West Australian Current Surface Cold Southern
Somali Current Surface Warm/Cold (Seasonal) Northern
(D) Southern Ocean Currents
Current Name Type Nature
Antarctic Circumpolar Current (West Wind Drift) Surface Cold
East Wind Drift Surface Cold
(E) Arctic Ocean Currents
Current Name Type Nature
Beaufort Gyre Surface Cold
Norwegian Current Surface Warm

Vertical Movement of Ocean Water

(A) Upwelling (Brings Nutrients Up)
Cold, nutrient-rich water rises from deep ocean to surface.
Happens where winds push surface water away (e.g., Peru & California coasts).
Supports rich fisheries (Peru, Namibia, West Africa).
(B) Downwelling (Carries Oxygen Down)
Surface water sinks due to higher density (cold & salty water).
Helps deep-sea marine life by bringing oxygen.
Occurs near polar regions.
(C) Thermohaline Circulation (Global Conveyor Belt)
Driven by temperature & salinity.
Cold, salty water sinks at poles, warm water rises in tropics.
Takes 1,000 years to complete one cycle!
Example:
• Gulf Stream carries warm water to Europe.
• Cold water sinks near Greenland.
• Flows to Antarctica, then upwells near Indian & Pacific Oceans.

Effects of Ocean Currents

(A) Influence on Climate
Warm currents → Increase coastal temperatures (e.g., Gulf Stream warms Europe).
Cold currents → Cool coastal temperatures (e.g., California Current).
(B) Influence on Monsoon (Indian Ocean)
Warm currents strengthen monsoons (e.g., Agulhas Current).
Cold currents weaken monsoons (e.g., West Australian Current).
(C) Effects on Marine Life
 Upwelling zones = Best fishing areas (e.g., Peru, Benguela, Canary Currents).
Warm currents can cause coral bleaching.
(D) Impact on Trade & Navigation
Ships use ocean currents to reduce fuel consumption.
Dangerous areas (e.g., Labrador Current causes icebergs in the North Atlantic).

7⃣ El Niño, La Niña & Ocean Currents

Event Effect on Currents Impact on Weather
El Niño Weakens Peru Current, warm water Droughts in India, heavy rainfall in South
accumulates America
La Strengthens Peru Current, more cold water Strong monsoons in India, droughts in
Niña Americas

Why Ocean Currents Matter?

Regulate global climate
Drive weather patterns & monsoons
Support marine biodiversity & fishing
Impact global trade & shipping
Affect coastal economies & disasters

Temperature & Salinity of Ocean Water

1 Factors Affecting the Temperature of Ocean Water
Ocean water temperature is influenced by several factors, which vary across different regions.
1. Latitude
• Temperature decreases from the equator to the poles due to variation in solar radiation.
• Examples:
o Equatorial regions (0°-10° latitude): Warmest waters (~27-30°C).
o Tropics (10°-23.5° latitude): High temperature (~25°C).
o Mid-latitudes (23.5°-66.5° latitude): Moderate temperature (~10-20°C).
o Polar regions (>66.5° latitude): Cold waters (<0°C).
2. Prevailing Winds
• Winds transfer heat between the ocean and atmosphere.
• Trade winds & Westerlies push warm/cold water to different regions.
• Examples:
o Westerlies bring warm waters to Europe, making London warmer than Canada at the same
latitude.
o Cold winds over Labrador Current cause freezing conditions in Newfoundland.
3. Ocean Currents
• Warm currents (e.g., Gulf Stream, Kuroshio Current) increase temperature.
• Cold currents (e.g., Peru Current, Labrador Current) decrease temperature.
• Examples:
o North Atlantic Drift keeps Western Europe warmer than expected.
o Peru Current (Humboldt Current) cools Chile & Peru’s coast.
4. Effect of Adjacent Land Masses
• Land-water contrast affects temperature.
• Continents block currents, causing differences in heat distribution.
• Examples:
o Gulf of Mexico retains warm water due to enclosed geography.
o Benguela Current is cooled by the Namib Desert's dry winds.
5. Salinity
• Higher salinity increases density, reducing heat absorption.
• Lower salinity allows faster heating and cooling.
• Examples:
o Dead Sea (high salinity) heats slowly but retains heat longer.
6. Ice Floes & Icebergs
 • Ice reflects sunlight, reducing temperature in polar waters.
• Melting icebergs add fresh water, lowering salinity & reducing heat retention.
• Examples:
o Arctic Ocean & Antarctic Waters have very low temperatures due to floating icebergs.

2 Salinity of Ocean Water

Salinity refers to the amount of dissolved salts in seawater, measured in parts per thousand (‰ or ppt).
Global Average Ocean Salinity = 35‰ (3.5% salt content).
Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity
Factor Effect on Salinity Examples
Freshwater Decreases salinity Low salinity in Bay of Bengal due to Ganga &
Inflow Brahmaputra rivers.
Evaporation Increases salinity Red Sea & Persian Gulf have high evaporation,
making them more saline.
Precipitation Decreases salinity Equatorial regions have low salinity due to heavy
rainfall.
Ocean Warm currents increase Gulf Stream (warm current) increases salinity, while
Currents evaporation → Higher salinity Labrador Current (cold current) lowers salinity.
Cold currents reduce
evaporation → Lower salinity

3 Horizontal Distribution of Salinity

Salinity of Open Seas
Highest salinity is found near the Tropic of Cancer & Tropic of Capricorn due to:
Clear skies → Higher solar radiation → More evaporation.
Trade winds keep the skies dry, reducing rainfall.
Fewer rivers bring freshwater.
Salinity Decreases Toward:
Equator (0° latitude) – due to heavy rainfall & river inflow (e.g., Amazon, Zaire).
Polar Regions (>66° latitude) – due to low evaporation & ice melting.
Example:
• Indian Ocean → Average salinity 35‰.
• Bay of Bengal → Low salinity due to Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy rivers.

Salinity of Partially Closed Seas

Sea Salinity Level Reason
Mediterranean Sea High (~39‰) High evaporation, low river inflow
Red Sea & Persian Gulf Very high (~40-42‰) Very high evaporation, little freshwater input
Black Sea Low (~18-22‰) Major river inflow (Don, Dnepr, Danube)
Baltic Sea Very low (~5-15‰) Low evaporation, freshwater from melting snow & rivers

Salinity of Enclosed Seas & Lakes

Water Body Salinity Level Reason
Great Salt Lake (USA) Extremely high (~280‰) High evaporation, no outlet for salts
Dead Sea (Jordan-Israel) Very high (~340‰) No outlet, high evaporation
Lake Van (Turkey) High (~200‰) Continuous salt inflow from rivers
Caspian Sea Moderate (~13-15‰) Receives freshwater from Volga & Ural rivers

4 Vertical Distribution of Salinity

Salinity varies with depth due to density & temperature differences.
Salinity Zones
1 Surface Layer (0-200m):
• Most variable salinity due to rainfall, evaporation, river inflow.
• High salinity in tropics, low at poles & equator.
2 Thermocline Layer (200-1000m):
• Rapid change in salinity due to temperature variations.
 • Halocline (salinity gradient zone) exists.
3 Deep Ocean (>1000m):
• Salinity is uniform due to low evaporation & river inflow influence.