Data Structures & Algorithms

13. Stack

A stack is an Abstract Data Type (ADT), commonly used in most programming languages.
It is named stack as it behaves like a real-world stack, for example – a deck of cards or a
pile of plates, etc.

A real-world stack allows operations at one end only. For example, we can place or remove
a card or plate from the top of the stack only. Likewise, Stack ADT allows all data
operations at one end only. At any given time, we can only access the top element of a
stack.

This feature makes it LIFO data structure. LIFO stands for Last-in-first-out. Here, the
element which is placed (inserted or added) last, is accessed first. In stack terminology,
insertion operation is called PUSH operation and removal operation is called POP
operation.

Stack Representation

The following diagram depicts a stack and its operations −

A stack can be implemented by means of Array, Structure, Pointer, and Linked List. Stack
can either be a fixed size one or it may have a sense of dynamic resizing. Here, we are
going to implement stack using arrays, which makes it a fixed size stack implementation.
 Data Structures & Algorithms

Basic Operations

Stack operations may involve initializing the stack, using it and then de-initializing it. Apart
from these basic stuffs, a stack is used for the following two primary operations −

• push() − Pushing (storing) an element on the stack.

• pop() − Removing (accessing) an element from the stack.

When data is PUSHed onto stack.

To use a stack efficiently, we need to check the status of stack as well. For the same
purpose, the following functionality is added to stacks −

• peek() − get the top data element of the stack, without removing it.

• isFull() − check if stack is full.

• isEmpty() − check if stack is empty.

At all times, we maintain a pointer to the last PUSHed data on the stack. As this pointer
always represents the top of the stack, hence named top. The top pointer provides top
value of the stack without actually removing it.

First we should learn about procedures to support stack functions − peek()

Algorithm of peek() function −

begin procedure peek

return stack[top]
end
procedure
Implementation of peek() function in C programming language −
int peek() {
return stack[top];

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

isfull()

Algorithm of isfull() function −

begin procedure isfull

if top equals to MAXSIZE

return true else

return false
endif end
procedure
Implementation of isfull() function in C programming language −
bool isfull() {
if(top == MAXSIZE)
return true; else

return false;
}
isempty()

Algorithm of isempty() function −

begin procedure isempty

if top less than 1

return true else

return false
endif end
procedure

Implementation of isempty() function in C programming language is slightly different. We

initialize top at -1, as the index in array starts from 0. So we check if the top is below zero
or -1 to determine if the stack is empty. Here's the code −
bool isempty() {
if(top == -1)
return true; else

return false;
}

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

Push Operation

The process of putting a new data element onto stack is known as a Push Operation. Push
operation involves a series of steps − Step 1 − Checks if the stack is full.

• Step 2 − If the stack is full, produces an error and exit.

• Step 3 − If the stack is not full, increments top to point next empty space.

• Step 4 − Adds data element to the stack location, where top is pointing.

• Step 5 − Returns success.

If the linked list is used to implement the stack, then in step 3, we need to allocate space
dynamically.

Algorithm for PUSH Operation

A simple algorithm for Push operation can be derived as follows −
begin procedure push: stack, data

if stack is full
return null endif

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

top ← top + 1

stack[top] ← data

end procedure
Implementation of this algorithm in C, is very easy. See the following code −
void push(int data) {
if(!isFull()) { top
= top + 1;
stack[top] = data;

}else {
printf("Could not insert data, Stack is full.\n");
}
}
Pop Operation

Accessing the content while removing it from the stack, is known as a Pop Operation. In
an array implementation of pop() operation, the data element is not actually removed,
instead top is decremented to a lower position in the stack to point to the next value. But
in linked-list implementation, pop() actually removes data element and deallocates
memory space.

A Pop operation may involve the following steps −

• Step 1 − Checks if the stack is empty.

• Step 2 − If the stack is empty, produces an error and exit.

• Step 3 − If the stack is not empty, accesses the data element at which top is
pointing.

• Step 4 − Decreases the value of top by 1.

• Step 5 − Returns success.

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

Algorithm for Pop Operation

A simple algorithm for Pop operation can be derived as follows −
begin procedure pop: stack

if stack is empty
return null endif

data ← stack[top]

top ← top - 1

return data

end procedure

Implementation of this algorithm in C, is as follows −

int pop(int data) {

if(!isempty()) {
data = stack[top];

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

top = top - 1;
return data;

}else {
printf("Could not retrieve data, Stack is empty.\n");
}
}
Stack Program in C

We shall see the stack implementation in C programming language here. You can try the
program by clicking on the Try-it button. To learn the theory aspect of stacks, click on visit
previous page.

Implementation in C
#include <stdio.h>

int MAXSIZE = 8;
int stack[8]; int
top = -1;

int isempty() {

if(top == -1)
return 1;
else
return 0;

int isfull() {

if(top == MAXSIZE)
return 1; else
return 0;

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

int peek() {
return stack[top];

int pop() {
int data;

if(!isempty()) {
data = stack[top];
top = top - 1;
return data;

}else {
printf("Could not retrieve data, Stack is empty.\n");
}
}

int push(int data) {

if(!isfull()) {
top = top + 1;
stack[top] = data;

}else {
printf("Could not insert data, Stack is full.\n");
}
}

int main() {
// push items on to the stack
push(3); push(5); push(9);
push(1); push(12); push(15);

printf("Element at top of the stack: %d\n" ,peek());

printf("Elements: \n");

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

// print stack data

while(!isempty()) {
int data = pop();
printf("%d\n",data);

printf("Stack full: %s\n" , isfull()?"true":"false");

printf("Stack empty: %s\n" , isempty()?"true":"false");

return 0;

If we compile and run the above program, it will produce the following result −
Element at top of the stack: 15
Elements:

15
12
1
9
5
3
Stack full: false
Stack empty: true

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 Data
Data Structures
Structures & Algorithms
& Algorithms
14. Expression Parsing

The way to write arithmetic expression is known as a notation. An arithmetic expression can
be written in three different but equivalent notations, i.e., without changing the essence or
output of an expression. These notations are −

• Infix Notation

• Prefix (Polish) Notation

• Postfix (Reverse-Polish) Notation

These notations are named as how they use operator in expression. We shall learn the same
here in this chapter.

Infix Notation

We write expression in infix notation, e.g. a-b+c, where operators are used in-between
operands. It is easy for us humans to read, write, and speak in infix notation but the same
does not go well with computing devices. An algorithm to process infix notation could be
difficult and costly in terms of time and space consumption.

Prefix Notation

In this notation, operator is prefixed to operands, i.e. operator is written ahead of operands.
For example, +ab. This is equivalent to its infix notation a+b. Prefix notation is also known
as Polish Notation.

Postfix Notation

This notation style is known as Reversed Polish Notation. In this notation style, the
operator is postfixed to the operands i.e., the operator is written after the operands. For
example, ab+. This is equivalent to its infix notation a+b.

The following table briefly tries to show the difference in all three notations −

Sr. Infix Notation Prefix Notation Postfix Notation

No.

1 a+b +ab ab+

 Data Structures & Algorithms

2 (a + b) * c *+abc ab+c*

3 a * (b + c) *a+bc abc+*

4 a/b+c/d +/ab/cd ab/cd/+

5 (a + b) * (c + d) *+ab+cd ab+cd+*

6 ((a + b) * c) - d -*+abcd ab+c*d-

Parsing Expressions

As we have discussed, it is not a very efficient way to design an algorithm or program to parse
infix notations. Instead, these infix notations are first converted into either postfix or prefix
notations and then computed.

To parse any arithmetic expression, we need to take care of operator precedence and
associativity also.

Precedence
When an operand is in between two different operators, which operator will take the operand
first, is decided by the precedence of an operator over others. For example −

As multiplication operation has precedence over addition, b * c will be evaluated first. A table
of operator precedence is provided later.

Associativity
Associativity describes the rule where operators with the same precedence appear in an
expression. For example, in expression a+b−c, both + and – have the same precedence, then
which part of the expression will be evaluated first, is determined by associativity of those
operators. Here, both + and − are left associative, so the expression will be evaluated as
(a+b)−c.

Precedence and associativity determines the order of evaluation of an expression. Following

is an operator precedence and associativity table (highest to lowest) −

Sr. Operator Precedence Associativity

No.
 Data Structures & Algorithms

1 Exponentiation ^ Highest Right Associative

2 Multiplication ( * ) & Division ( / ) Second Highest Left Associative

3 Addition ( + ) & Subtraction ( − ) Lowest Left Associative

The above table shows the default behavior of operators. At any point of time in expression
evaluation, the order can be altered by using parenthesis. For example −
In a+b*c, the expression part b*c will be evaluated first, with multiplication as precedence
over addition. We here use parenthesis for a+b to be evaluated first, like (a+b)*c.

Postfix Evaluation Algorithm

We shall now look at the algorithm on how to evaluate postfix notation −

Step 1 − scan the expression from left to right

Step 2 − if it is an operand push it to stack
Step 3 − if it is an operator pull operand from stack and perform operation
Step 4 − store the output of step 3, back to stack
Step 5 − scan the expression until all operands are consumed Step 6 − pop the stack
and perform operation

Expression Parsing Using Stack

Infix notation is easier for humans to read and understand whereas for electronic machines
like computers, postfix is the best form of expression to parse.
Data Structures & Algorithms