K. Hewitt and F. K.

Hare first used the term of 'environmental geography' in

Man and Environment. The term environment has been derived from a French
word “Environ” means to surround. It refers to both abiotic (physical or non-
living) and biotic (living) environment. Environment regulates the life of the
organisms including human beings. Human beings interact with the
environment more vigorously than other living beings. Ordinarily environment
refers to the materials and forces that surrounds the living organism.
Environmental geography is the study of systematic description of
different. components. of environment and interactions of man with these
components. It is the basically the study of total environment of the earth as a
living planet having. both physical and biotic components.

Environmental geography is the study of characteristic features of various

components of the Environment, the interactions between and among the
components in a geo-ecosystem in terms of ecosystem of varying spatial and
temporal scales.
Savindra Singh defined Environmental Geography in 1989 as follows:
“Environmental geography may be defined as the study of spatial attributes of
interrelationships between living organisms and natural environment in general
and between technologically advanced ‘economic man’ and his natural
environment in particular in temporal and spatial framework”.

Environmental geography is a branch of geography that studies the

characteristics, composition, and functions of natural environmental systems,
including humans as biological organisms. It focuses on man-environment
relationships, interactions, causes, and responses, while also considering
spatial and temporal aspects. It is crucial in managing environmental problems
resulting from interactions between abiotic and biotic components.

Scope of environmental geography:

The scope of the study o f environmental geography may be grouped into 9 major subfileds

(1) Geoecosystem (ecosystem) : Ecosystem is the basic ecological unit for the study of various aspects
of environmental geography. This group includes the study of the following aspects of ecosystem : >-
meaning and components of ecosystems, >- ecosystem characteristics, >■ ecosystem types, and >■
ecological principles,

(2) Ecosystem functioning : The ecosystem functions through the input of solar energy and biotic and
abiotic matter. The following are included in the study of ecosystem function : >- sources and pattern
of energy, >* circulation of energy in the ecosystem , > ecological productivity and production, >-
circulation of matter in the ecosystem, > biogeochemical cycles, and > ecosystem stability and
instability.

(3) Temporal ecological changes : include the consideration of the following aspects of plant and
animal communities : > evolution of plants and animals, >• evolutionary history of world plant cover,
> successional development of plant communities and ecosystem, > extinction of species, and >•
climax vegetation.

(4) Ecological changes in space : refers primarily to spatial changes in the distribution o f plants and
animals in the world wherein the following aspects are of primary concern : >• dispersal o f plants
and animals, > world distribution of plants and animals, > ecological variatins at global level, >
ecological variations at regional and local scales; > man-induced ecological changes, and >
environmental controls of ecological variations and changes

■> (5) Global environmental problems : include those problems which are caused mainly by
anthropogenic processes. Such problems are related to the changes in the atmospheric chemistry as
follows : ► global radiation balance, ► anthropogenic changes in global radiation/ heat balance, ►
indicators o f global warming, ► process o f global warming : ozone depletion and green house
effect. ► global wanning and clim ate changes, > global wanning and ecological changes, > global
changes in atmospheric chemistry, and ► international cooperations for taming global warming.

(6) Environmental hazards and disasters : include both natural and anthropogenic hazards and
disasters. This aspect lays more em phasis on the study o f the follow ing :>• identification and listing
of hazards and disasters, ► classification of hazards and disasters, > causes and consequences of
hazards and disasters, and > disasters reduction and management.

(7) Man and environmental processes : are significant aspects of environmental geography because
increased human economic activities have enormously modified different environmental processes
which have upset the natural ecosystem. This aspect includes the consideration of the following : ►
man and hydrological processes, >■ man and weathering and mass movement, >■ man and coastal
processes, ► man and river process, ► man and periglacial processes, ► man and subsurface
processes, >• man and pedological processes, and >• man induced soil erosion and sedimentation.

(8) Environmental degradation and pollution : includes the consideration of the following aspects
within environmental geography : > processes and causes of environmental degradation, >
agricultural development and environmental degradation, > deforestation and environmental
degradation, >• population growth and environmental degradation, >• urbanization and
environmental degradation, »* industrialization and environmental degradation >- modern
productive technology and environmental degradation, >• air pollution, water pollution, solid waste
pollution, soil pollution, and noise pollution, and ► controls o f environmental degradation and
pollution.

(9) Environmental management : is the most significant aspect o f environmental geography which
includes the following :

► processes of environmental management, >■ methods of evaluation of ecological resources, ►

ecological basis of environmental management, ► ecological resources, >■ preservation and
conservation of ecological resources, >■ biosphere reserve, and ► environmental impact
assessment.
1.3 basic concepts of ecology, environmental geography and related science:

Geography and ecology:

Geography is a spatial science that studies the spatial attributes of various
phenomena on Earth's surface over time. It encompasses areal distribution of
phenomena, spatial patterns, locational analysis, human ecology, man-land
relationships, and spatial organization. Peter Haggett identifies three modes of
analysis: spatial analysis, ecological analysis, and regional complex analysis.
Geography has always had an ecological aspect, with W.M. Davis observing that
it primarily focuses on the relationships between inorganic control and organic
response.
Ecological studies in geography are increasingly important due to increasing
interest in environmental problems, the growth of environmental science as a
link between geography and ecology, and the orientation of applied geography
to study complex interrelationships between man and the physical environment
and between nature and society. Ecological perspectives in geography enhance
the prestige of geographers, help assess cultural factors in land use changes,
and identify the processes and mechanisms of manipulations of ecological
systems by humans. Ecological studies traditionally fall within biogeography,
which studies the distribution of plants and animals and patterns of life on
Earth's surface. However, different disciplines have different meanings, with
biologists focusing on the distribution of biological materials and biologists
studying individual organisms and their functions.
Biogeoraphy and ecology are closely related but can be differentiated based on
scale of study and emphasis on specific themes. Ecological studies in
environmental geography/biogeography focus on large spatial units like regional,
continental, oceanic, or global ecosystems, while local ecosystems of small
spatial dimensions are studied in ecology. Geographical approaches emphasize
functional linkages between living and non-living components of ecosystems.
Geographers excel in this field due to their superior knowledge of abiotic
components and ability to observe and evaluate the alteration of environmental
processes by human activities. Geographical studies with ecological perspectives
can study man-environment relationships, identify environmental problems, and
formulate economically and socially sound environmental planning and
management for the conservation of natural and ecological resources.

What is Ecology?
Ecology is a branch of science, including human science, population,
community, ecosystem and biosphere. Ecology is the study of organisms,
the environment and how the organisms interact with each other and
their environment. It is studied at various levels, such as organism,
population, community, biosphere and ecosystem.

An ecologist’s primary goal is to improve their understanding of life

processes, adaptations and habitats, interactions and biodiversity of
organisms.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors

The main aim of ecology is to understand the distribution of biotic and
abiotic factors of living things in the environment. The biotic and abiotic
factors include the living and non-living factors and their interaction with
the environment.

Biotic components

Biotic components are living factors of an ecosystem. A few examples of

biotic components include bacteria, animals, birds, fungi, plants, etc.

Abiotic components

Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors of an

ecosystem. These components could be acquired from the atmosphere,
lithosphere and hydrosphere. A few examples of abiotic components
include sunlight, soil, air, moisture minerals and more.
Living organisms are grouped into biotic components, whereas non-living
components like sunlight, water, topography are listed under abiotic
components.

Types of Ecology

The diagram showing different Types of Ecology

Ecology can be classified into different types. The different types of

ecology are given below:

Global Ecology
It deals with interactions among earth’s ecosystems, land, atmosphere
and oceans. It helps to understand the large-scale interactions and their
influence on the planet.

Landscape Ecology
It deals with the exchange of energy, materials, organisms and other
products of ecosystems. Landscape ecology throws light on the role of
human impacts on the landscape structures and functions.

Ecosystem Ecology
It deals with the entire ecosystem, including the study of living and non-
living components and their relationship with the environment. This
science researches how ecosystems work, their interactions, etc.

Community Ecology
It deals with how community structure is modified by interactions among
living organisms. Ecology community is made up of two or more
populations of different species living in a particular geographic area.

Population Ecology
It deals with factors that alter and impact the genetic composition and the
size of the population of organisms. Ecologists are interested in
fluctuations in the size of a population, the growth of a population and any
other interactions with the population.

In biology, a population can be defined as a set of individuals of the same

species living in a given place at a given time. Births and immigration are
the main factors that increase the population and death and emigration
are the main factors that decrease the population.

Population ecology examines the population distribution and density.

Population density is the number of individuals in a given volume or area.
This helps in determining whether a particular species is in endanger or its
number is to be controlled and resources to be replenished.

Organismal Ecology
Organismal ecology is the study of an individual organism’s behaviour,
morphology, physiology, etc. in response to environmental challenges. It
looks at how individual organisms interact with biotic and
abiotic components. Ecologists research how organisms are adapted to
these non-living and living components of their surroundings.

Individual species are related to various adaptations like physiological

adaptation, morphological adaptation, and behavioural adaptation.

Molecular Ecology
The study of ecology focuses on the production of proteins and how these
proteins affect the organisms and their environment. This happens at the
molecular level.

DNA forms the proteins that interact with each other and the
environment. These interactions give rise to some complex organisms.

Importance of Ecology
The following reasons explain the importance of ecology:

Conservation of Environment
Ecology helps us to understand how our actions affect the environment. It
shows the individuals the extent of damage we cause to the environment.

Lack of understanding of ecology has led to the degradation of land and

the environment. It has also led to the extinction and endangerment of
certain species. For eg., dinosaurs, white shark, mammoths, etc. Thus, the
study of the environment and organisms helps us to protect them from
any damage and danger.

Resource Allocation
With the knowledge of ecology, we are able to know which resources are
necessary for the survival of different organisms. Lack of ecological
knowledge has led to scarcity and deprivation of these resources, leading
to competition.

Energy Conservation
All organisms require energy for their growth and development. Lack of
ecological understanding leads to the over-exploitation of energy
resources such as light, nutrition and radiation, leading to its depletion.

Proper knowledge of ecological requirements prevents the unnecessary

wastage of energy resources, thereby, conserving energy for future
purposes.

Eco-Friendliness
Ecology encourages harmonious living within the species and the adoption
of a lifestyle that protects the ecology of life.

Examples of Ecology
Following are a few examples of ecology:

Human Ecology
It focuses on the relationship between humans and the environment. It
emphasizes the impact human beings have on the environment and gives
knowledge on how we can improve ourselves for the betterment of
humans and the environment.

Niche Construction
It deals with the study of how organisms alter the environment for the
benefit of themselves and other living beings. For eg, termites create a 6
feet tall mound and at the same time feed and protect their entire
population.

Environmental geography and related sciences:

Interdisciplinary Nature: Geography is unique in studying the spatial attributes
of phenomena, emphasizing the complex relationship between humans and
the environment across different time-space dimensions. It integrates elements
from both social and natural sciences, synthesizing the components of the
Earth into one cohesive body.

Spatial Organization and Synthesis: Geography emphasizes the synthesis of

various Earth components and their interrelations within the biosphere. It
underscores the interconnectedness of abiotic and biotic factors (air, land,
water, plants, animals, including humans) and their relationships within a
spatial framework.

Comprehensive Understanding of Physical Systems: Geographers excel in

understanding various physical aspects such as geomaterial structures,
geomorphic processes, climate, vegetation, and soils. Unlike other scientific
disciplines that focus on singular aspects, geography comprehensively covers
these elements.

Mapping and Spatial Analysis: Geographers are not just limited to identifying
complex relationships between humans and the environment but also possess
the skill to locate, map, and explore the spatial distribution of these
relationships, aiming to understand the causes of variations across different
regions.

Quality of Life and Environmental Regions: Recognizing the variation in the

quality of life from place to place, geographers can identify environmental
regions, their spatial distribution, and effectively present them on maps. This
includes not only the physical characteristics but also the socio-economic
aspects and human activities that impact the environment.

Interconnectedness of Abiotic and Biotic Components: The discipline

acknowledges the interdependence between abiotic and biotic elements of the
biosphere, leading to the study of different ecosystems. While biology focuses
on biosystems, environmental geography is concerned with geobiosystems. The
latter explores the interactions between abiotic and biotic components within
the biosphere and is a key focus area of environmental geography.
In summary, environmental geography integrates the study of both natural and
social sciences, focusing on spatial analysis, interconnectedness of various
Earth elements, and their impact on human life and the environment. It
uniquely emphasizes the synthesis of different components and their
relationships within a spatial context.
2.1 major approaches, environment and human: follow another pdf
2.2 man’s interaction with environment:
Man-Environment Relationship:
Environment is the ‘Surroundings of the Self.’ It is the totality of the biotic and
a-biotic factor. The study of man-environment relationships has evolved over
time due to human society's development. Initially, humans were primarily
physical beings relying on nature for basic needs. As humans became social,
economic, and technological, they expanded their environment by creating their
own built environment for better living conditions. These relationships can be
perceived and evaluated in various ways.

Approaches to the study:

1. Environmental Determinism
2. Possibilism
3. Neo-determinism
4. Economic Approach
5. Sustainable Approach
6. Other thoughts
1. Environmental Deterministic Approach
Deterministic man-environment relationships, rooted in 19th-century ideas like
Charles Darwin's 'The Origin of Species' and Friedrich Leplay's dictom, emphasize
the control of the physical environment on human activities. This approach was
further developed by American geographers like W.M. Davis, E.C. Semple, and E.
Huntington. This approach dominated geographic thought until 1920, with
influences from Darwinian concepts, deductive approaches, and Newtonian
cause-effect relationships influencing human relationships with their
environment.

Environmental Determinism - Origin of the

Concept
 The concept of environmental determinism dates back to the 15th
century, when Greek and Arabic thinkers thought that the
environment shaped human growth in various areas.
 Plato and Aristotle believed that the climate affected and created
Greek civilisations, and that climatic variables were accountable for
human growth.
 Greek geographers expanded on this idea, proposing that the
differences in skin tone are also caused by environmental factors.
 The idea acquired popularity in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. With his discipline theory, Friedrich Ratzel, a German
cartographer, saved this idea.
  In 1859, Charles Darwin's Origin of Species followed and
presented that the growth of a person was primarily affected by
evolutionary biology.
 Geographers think that physical aspects of the surroundings affect a
person's psychological behaviour.
 The presumption is that people living in tropical areas are lazy
because of the weather, which makes life easier and less evolved
than people living in higher latitudes.

Environmental Determinism -
Characteristics
 Environmental determinism is characterised by climatic, ecological,
and spatial variables.
 These various variables are said to have an impact on human
aspects in society. They are as follows:
 Economic Development - It refers to a community's fiscal growth.
 Cultural development - It occurs when a community has a diverse
range of cultural pursuits. The more varied the activities, the greater
the cultural growth within civilization.
 Societal development - The quality of living in a community is
used to assess societal development. As a result, if a community's
quality of living is high, the community's social growth is also high.

Environmental Determinism - Examples

 Climate, according to environmental or climatic determinism, can
influence civilization as a whole. Individuals' psychological actions
and the culture of the complete community can be influenced by the
physical surroundings.
 Here are some instances of environmental determinism:
 Jamaicans in the tropical environment have a sluggish settlement
as a result of the climatic impact. People in the Netherlands live in a
distinct climate, so they are more dedicated and have superior work
standards.
 According to Max Weber, an economist, the importance of an
economy for the motive of a society's cultural characteristics and
economic growth is critical.
 Mongolians evolved an aggressive mindset as a result of the harsh
environment and scarcity of resources in Mangole.
 People who live in sweltering, humid, and harsh climes are indolent,
inept, fearful, and distrustful.
 Some environmental variables that affect environmental
determinism are the types of landscapes such as mountains, plains,
and so on, as well as river systems such as twisting or fast-flowing
rivers vs. wide or slow-flowing rivers.
 Climate determinism is demonstrated by environmental variables
such as world climate, regional climate, or local climate.
  It is thought that each result has a main cause, or that something
always originates from a cause; for example, the sun's presence is
due to the cause of a nuclear reaction.

Difference between Environmental

Determinism and Environmental Possibilism
Environmental Determinism Environmental Possibilism
It refers to the idea that humans can now adapt to their
It refers to the idea that physical elements can
surroundings based on their needs; however, physical variables
influence a person's behaviour and society.
limit human actions to some degree.
People relied on natural variables and resided People gained independence from nature and started to choose
in temperate climates. and conduct tasks on their own terms.
This idea was popularised by Greek and Vidal de la Blanche and Lucien Febvre were the scholars
Roman academics. accountable for advancing possibilism.
Example: climatic and physical obstacles that
Example: Humans fight the environment by creating roadways or
affect society, such as deserts, mountains, and
extreme communities in familiar circumstances.
so on.
Criticism of Environmental Determinism
 Humans were deemed inert animals by environmental determinism,
but humans are not passive animals; they can make and alter their
natural surroundings.
 The following is an example of how humans alter the natural world.
o Dam construction.
o River linking.
o Artificial Raining.
o Green Revolution.
o Soilless cultivation, also known as hydroculture.
o Agriculture in a greenhouse.
 According to environment determinism, the environment is the sole
determinant of human culture/behaviour, but this is not the case.
Two ethnic/racial groups can coexist in the same area and
environment.
 For example, despite having virtually identical temperature and
environmental circumstances, northeastern India is home to a
diverse range of ethnic groups.
 The same environment can signify various things to different
people, and it is up to them how they use it.
 Examples: The locations and climates of Israel and Jordan are the
same, but Israel is more evolved due to invention and people's
views, whereas Jordan is underdeveloped.
 o Natural and natural resources are limited in Japan, but they
are being exploited.
o Africa is endowed with abundant natural wealth, but it is
impoverished.

2.Possibilism:
The Possibilistic approach to studying man-environment relationships emerged
from the criticism of environmental determinism and the teleological approach.
Despite the influence of physical environment on human activities, there is
ample scope for man to modify and mold nature in their own ways. Possibilism,
founded by French geographers Vidal de la Blache and Jeans Bruhnes and
American geographers Isiah Bowman and Carl Sauer, is based on the philosophy
that man is a master of possibilities and the judge of their use. Possibilists
acknowledge the limitations of man's freedom to dictate terms to nature and
believe that man cannot fully tame nature. They replaced deterministic terms
with more moderate terms like "response" or "adjustment." G. Tantham bridging
the gap between environmental determinism and possibilism emphasized
cooperation with nature. Harlan Barrows (1923) proposed an alternative
approach, defining geography as "human ecology," focusing on mutual
interaction between man and environment, human societies in relation to their
environment, and environmental adaptation instead of environmental control.

The main features of possibilism are-. 1) natural environment does not control
human life.
2) environment offers some possibilities to men.
3)It focused on man's ability to focus and transform and modify nature.
4)Nature does not drive man along a particular road, but it offers a number of
opportunities from which man is free to select.

Criticism:
1. In marginal environments like deserts, tundra, and high mountains,
humans have limited possibilities, making it impossible to choose different
options.
2. Geographers focus on studying the natural environment and its impact on
humans, rather than human problems and cultural landscapes. #
3. Determinists focus on understanding how humans have altered the
environment and its sustainability.

3.Neo-Determinism:
Neo-determinism, also known as "Stop and go determinism," is a major approach
in geography that argues that if human activities cause long-term environmental
damage, they should be stopped, allowing humans to continue their actions
without causing harm to the environment.

Griffith Taylor's views on Neo-determinism:

Environmental determinism and possibilism are two concepts that argue that
human activity is not entirely controlled by the environment. While humans can
innovate and change the environment, they cannot completely go against it.
Examples include climate change, agricultural productivity decline in areas like
Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan, and water crises in cities like Chennai and
Kerala. The environment acts as a controller, guiding development programs and
preventing human actions. In the long run, a nature plan is the best plan, and
prudent people should follow natural laws in their development programs. Nature
is not an absolute dictator, and prudent people should follow nature's plan to
move forward.
Neo-determinism emerged as a reaction to the extreme determinism of
environmental determinism. It seeks to strike a balance between acknowledging the
influence of the physical environment and recognizing the role of other factors in
shaping human activities and societies.
It provides the middle path between Environmental determinism and Possibilism.

Role of Environment:
Neo-determinism still considers the physical environment as an important factor in
influencing human behavior and cultural development. Factors like climate,
topography, and resource availability are taken into account.

Technological Modification:
One key aspect of neo-determinism is the idea that technology can modify or
mediate the effects of the environment on human societies. In other words,
advancements in technology can help societies adapt to challenging environments.

Economic and Social Factors:

Neo-determinism acknowledges that economic and social factors, such as trade
networks, population, and government policies, also play significant roles in
shaping human activities and development.

Cultural and Historical Context:

Unlike strict environmental determinism, neo-determinism recognizes the
importance of cultural and historical contexts in influencing human behavior. It
understands that different cultures may respond differently to the same
environmental conditions.

Here are some of the key criticisms of neo-determinism in geography:

Overemphasis on Environmental Factors:

Neo-determinism still places a heavy emphasis on physical environmental factors
such as climate, topography, and resources as the primary drivers of human
behavior and societal development.
It was also criticized that Neo-determinism ignores the complex interplay of social,
cultural, economic, and political factors in shaping human-environmental relations.

Neglect of Human Innovation:

Neo-determinism neglects the role of human technology and innovation in
responding to environmental challenges [ like pollution and resource depletion].
It fails to account for the capacity of individuals and societies to adapt, make
choices, and modify their environments to suit their needs.

Failure to Explain Regional Diversity:

Neo-determinism failed to explain the diversity of societies and cultures within
similar environmental settings. It does not account for why different groups of
people facing similar environmental conditions can have vastly different social,
economic, and cultural outcomes.

Inaccuracy in Predictions:
The deterministic nature of neo-determinism often led to inaccurate predictions
about the future development of regions. It failed to foresee how regions could
overcome environmental constraints through technological advancements, policy
changes, or shifts in economic focus.

As a result of these criticisms, neo-determinism has largely fallen out of favor within
the field of geography. Modern geography adopts more holistic, interdisciplinary,
and nuanced approaches that consider a broader range of factors influencing
geographical phenomena, including the dynamic interplay of social, cultural,
economic, and political forces.
4. Economic Deterministic Approach
The growth (affluence) school argues that man's mastery over the environment
and continued economic and industrial expansion through modern technologies
prioritizes environmental quality. This approach has led to rapacious exploitation
of natural resources in western developed countries, creating global
environmental and ecological problems. The increasing environmental problems,
such as degradation and pollution, have sparked the emergence of concepts like
environmental economics, ecological economics, and steady-state economies.
Ecological economics focuses on applying ecological insights to economic
analysis and incorporating ecological principles into economic accounting
systems. Maintaining environmental quality and ecological balance is now
considered a prerequisite for sustainable development and a steady-state
economy.

Critics:

The economics approach often portrays people as self-interested, but critics

argue that this is not moral.
Economists argue that economics is not a form of moral instruction but rather a
description of economic behavior as it exists. They distinguish between positive
and normative statements, which describe how the world should be. However,
Adam Smith, the father of modern economics, argues that individuals are both
self-interested and altruistic. Self-interested behavior and profit-seeking can be
labeled as personal choice and freedom. People can make choices about buying,
working, and saving, which can be high-pressure or low-paying, or a combination
of both. The freedom to make economic choices has a moral value worth
respecting, as it allows individuals to make choices that benefit themselves and
others.
Self-interested behavior can lead to positive social results, such as creating
economic output and promoting domestic industries. Adam Smith's concept of
the invisible hand suggests that individuals often prioritize their own security and
gain over societal benefits. This suggests that broader social good can emerge
from selfish actions. Even when focusing on economic matters, individuals may
set aside their narrow self-interest in other aspects of life, such as volunteering
or donating to charities. Self-interest is a useful starting point for analyzing
economic decisions, but it doesn't mean people always act in their immediate
self-interest.

5.Sustainable approach:
Sustainability is a goal of creating a livable, ecological, economically, and socially
sustainable world. It emerged after the Industrial Revolution and is based on
economic, environmental, and social pillars. Yapı Kredi, a financial sector
company, aims to facilitate business and sustainability transformation while
raising awareness of sustainability.
Yapı Kredi is dedicated to sustainability, aiming for a livable world for future
generations. They have a holistic approach, combining environmental, economic,
and social dimensions. They launched the BIST Sustainability Index in 2014 and
became a founding signatory of the Global Compact Turkey Declaration on
Sustainable Finance in 2017.
The company started an integrated reporting process in 2020, publishing its first
report in 2021. It adheres to the International Integrated Reporting Council's
Framework and the Global Reporting Initiative's Standards. The company
participates in Climate Change and Water Security programs, achieved an AA
rating in MSCI ESG Ratings in 2022, and implements ISO 14001 Environmental
Management System.
The institution is a leader in gender equality, listed in the Bloomberg Gender-
Equality Index, participating in initiatives like Women's Empowerment Principles
and Business Against Domestic Violence Project. They support green projects and
investments with sustainability bonds, renewable energy loans, and women
entrepreneur loans.

Man-Environment Interactions Thus, the interactions between man and environment may be
systematically studied on the basis of bi-dimensional aspects of man-environment relationships as
follows : 1. Environment and man i.e. environmental controls on human health and activities, and 2.
Man and environment i.e. adverse effects of human activities on environmental system vis-a-vis
environmental quality and ecological balance.

3.2 ENVIRONMENT AND MAN The environment affects man through (i) biophysical limitations, (ii)
behavioural controls, and (iii) resource availability.

1. Biophysical Limitations’

Weather and climate significantly impact human health and well-being. Human
biometeorology studies how changes in atmospheric conditions affect biological
variability. Three levels of climatic environment affect human behavior:
microclimate, ecological climate, and geographical climate. Environmental
factors like geochemistry of rocks, soils, and water can cause non-infectious
diseases and medical disorders. Seasonal occurrences of diseases and ailments
also influence health.

2. Behavioural Controlls
Environmental factors significantly influence human behavior and responses to
natural events, such as volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, droughts, and landslides.
People in different regions perceive rivers as disaster sources, while others are
unaware. Examples include the 1991 Orissa super cyclone, 2001 Bhuj
earthquake, 2004 tsunami, and 2005 Mumbai floods.

3.Resource Availability
The environment significantly influences human activity, economic viability,
social organization, political stability, and international relations. The availability
of resources, including renewable and non-renewable ones, determines human
activities, social organizations, and political stability.

MAN’S INTERACTIONS WITH THE ENVIRONMENT

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Man's role in the natural environment has evolved significantly, from a primitive
resource user to the modern industrial age. This shift has led to environmental
problems, as human activities become unadjustable. Historical studies reveal the
increasing adverse impacts of human activities on the environment. The
changing relationships of man with the natural environment from prehistoric to
modern periods may be divided into four stages as given below :
1. Period of hunting and food gathering
2. Period of animal domestication and pastoralism
3. Period of plant domestication and agriculture
4. Period of science, technology and industrialization.
1. Period of hunting and food gathering
During the primitive period, early humans were primarily a part of
their natural environment, relying on plants and trees for food and
shelter. However, as they learned to hunt animals, they began
intentionally exploiting natural resources. The discovery of fire and
the invention of tools allowed humans to use fire for improved
travel, hunting, and farming.

2. Period of animal domestication and pastoral

Early humans domesticated animals for their own benefit, creating
temporary habitats and using forests for food. This led to
community life to protect animals and themselves. However, these
changes were within the natural environmental system, affecting
hunting, habitat alteration, forest burning, agricultural practices,
and transporting organisms.

3. Period of plant domestication and agriculture

Domestication of plants led to human skills in controlling the natural

environment, forming primitive agriculture and social groups. This
'river valley civilization' influenced human communities and farming
practices, leading to increased human population and clearing of
forests. The cultural environment evolved until 1750 before the
industrial revolution.

4. Period of science, technology and industrialization

The industrial revolution in the late 19th century exacerbated global

environmental issues, affecting both biotic and abiotic ecosystems,
with direct impacts being reversible and indirect impacts rarely
premeditated. Human activities like cloud seeding and hailstorm
prevention can control atmospheric processes, but they also release
additional heating, causing disastrous consequences like water
table drops and construction damage. Land subsidence in San
Joaquin Velley, California, is caused by groundwater pumping,
disrupting rock equilibrium, triggering seismic events, and altering
river regime and ecology.

Human activities, including industrialization and unbanning,

indirectly impact the environment through pollution and
degradation, causing ecosystem changes and biological disasters
like the Periyar river in India. Urbanization, industrial expansion, and
land use changes significantly impact weather and climate, leading
to increased CO2 levels, depleted ozone, skin cancer, immuno-
suppression, decreased photosynthesis, and marine environment
damage.
 1. Hunter-Gatherer Societies: Early human societies were nomadic,
relying on natural resources available in their immediate
surroundings. They lived in harmony with nature, using stone tools,
and their survival was intricately tied to the environment. For
instance, the indigenous peoples of Australia had a deep
understanding of the land and its resources, using sustainable
practices to manage their environment. Sources: "The Cambridge
World History of Food" edited by Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild
Coneè Ornelas.
2. Agricultural Revolution: The shift from hunting and gathering to
settled agriculture marked a pivotal change. Humans began to
domesticate plants and animals, leading to the formation of
permanent settlements. This transition allowed for food surpluses
and the growth of civilizations. Notably, ancient Mesopotamia
(modern-day Iraq) and the Nile River Valley in Egypt witnessed the
development of sophisticated irrigation systems to support
agriculture. Sources: "Ancient Civilizations: Prehistoric to 500 BC" by
Brian M. Fagan and "The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Water
Systems" edited by Livio C. Stecchini.
3. Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution, which began in
the 18th century, brought mechanization, mass production, and
urbanization. This period saw significant advancements in
technology, but it also resulted in environmental degradation.
Examples include the coal-powered factories that led to air
pollution, such as the infamous London smog of 1952 and the
Cuyahoga River catching fire in the United States due to industrial
waste. Sources: "The Industrial Revolution" by Pat Hudson and "The
Conquest of Nature: Water, Landscape, and the Making of Modern
Germany" by David Blackbourn.
4. Modern Era: In the contemporary era, rapid population growth,
technological advancements, and globalization have led to
widespread environmental challenges. Deforestation, climate
change, ocean pollution, and loss of biodiversity are critical
concerns. Notable examples include the impact of urbanization and
industrialization in rapidly developing countries like China and India,
leading to severe air and water pollution. Sources: "The Sixth
Extinction: An Unnatural History" by Elizabeth Kolbert and reports
from the World Bank and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).

The historical evolution of human-environment interaction showcases the

complex relationship between societal progress and environmental
impact. Understanding these historical contexts is crucial for addressing
present and future environmental challenges and fostering sustainable
practices for a balanced coexistence with nature.
Human Environmental
Interaction Definition
Human-environmental interaction is the connection
between human society and the environment. It is a
complex system due to the fact both society and the
environment have many elements.

Human-environment interaction can affect human life, as

society impacts the environment in everyday activities.
This occurs in examples such as driving (releasing carbon
dioxide emissions), and your diet (the food you eat based
upon the natural resources around you). Human-
environment interaction focuses on three main ideas.
These are how
society depends on, adapts, and modifies the
environment. Let's take a closer look.

How Does Society Depend on the

Environment?
Within society, there are many ways in which humanity
depends on the environment. The most essential way in
which this occurs is through the resources and services
that the environment provides. These are essential for life
and include food and water, as well as climate, clean air
and raw materials. This is a way in which human-
environment interaction takes place.

How Does Society Adapt to the

Environment?
As human-environment interaction takes place, adaption to
the environment often occurs due to society. This
adaptation can transpire due to different factors, for
example, civilizations will adapt to the climate they are
located in, or they will adapt to the physical environment
they are faced with.

How Does Society Modify the

Environment?
Finally, in addition to adaptation, society also modifies the
environment as a process of interaction with the
environment. This can include deforestation, agriculture,
and building dams, which is done to gain development
within society.

The Importance of Human-Envrionmental

Interaction
What makes human-environmental interaction so
significant? The natural environment is critical to human
survival due to all the natural resources we depend on, and
society will continue to depend on these resources in the
future. That is why it is so vital that nature and
society collaborate so that human-environment
interactions are positive going forward, without resources
running out. This is typically done through sustainability.
Sustainability is the continued maintenance of resources
so that they can be used by future generations.

Examples of a Human
Environmental Interaction
Often, the human relationship with the environment is
perceived as negative due to the damage that is caused to
the environment because of humanity, which is why
sustainability must be maintained in these human-
environmental interactions. There are many examples of
how humans interact with the environment. These include:

 Deforestation
 Energy Resources
 Water Use
 Waste
 Pollution
 Tourism
 Urban Expansion

Let’s take a closer look at each of these examples and why

they are perceived as negative.

Deforestation
The human-environmental interaction of deforestation
showcases how society depends on, adapts, and modifies
the environment.

Deforestation is the clearing of forests to utilize the forest

or the land differently, such as in agriculture.
Deforestation occurs for a number of reasons;
infrastructure, agriculture and to house and feed livestock.
These can regularly be seen as negative human-
environment interactions because the action of
deforestation removes a precious natural landscape and
habitat that is key to a variety of species.
Energy Resources
Energy resources, such as renewable and non-renewable
energies, are commonly used by society. The table below
shows the list of renewable and non-renewable energy
resources.

Non-Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy Resources
Resources

Solar – the generation of energy from sunlight. Coal

Wind Oil

Tidal - energy generated from breaking waves Gas

Hydropower – fast flowing water (often from a dam) is used to generate
Nuclear
energy.

Geothermal – generates energy through the Earth's thermal energy,

which is found in the Earth's crust.

Society uses energy resources to generate power for

buildings, transport, and other electrical and
communication systems. This energy generates heating
and electricity, both essential to society. These energy
resources are found in the natural environment. Therefore,
we modify the environment in order to ultilze the energy
for human consumption.

The extraction and continued use of finite resources such

as fossil fuels has caused harm to both the natural
environment and human health (due to the release of
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide). Whereas, the
human-environmental interactions that occur while using
renewable energy sources are far less damaging to the
environment than non-renewable energy sources.

Water Use
Water is a natural resource that humans highly depend on--
in fact, it is essential to human survival. Water has a
number of uses from drinking to industrial processes such
as agriculture and the development of infrastructure. Water
is depended upon, and modified for human use as an
interaction with the environment. Due to its essential
nature, human have modified their natural environment in
order to increase their access to precious water sources.

High dependence on water creates water scarcity, wherein

society can suffer consequences of no water for crops or
drinking use, which can lead to health issues and economic
issues, and in some cases; war. Furthermore, the
environment can face pressures such as droughts. As the
continued modification of the environment can lead to
desertification and the continuation of desertification as
part of a positive feedback loop.

Waste
Waste is produced by humans and deposited in the natural
environment. It is therefore an inevitable product of
human-environmental interactions. Waste increases along
with the world's population, modifying the landscape
during waste disposal at landfill sites. This negatively
impacts both the environment and human health.

Pollution
Pollution also creates a negative impact on ecosystems.
This human-environment interaction is created by humans
in a variety of ways. There is pollution connected to waste,
such as pollution from agriculture, landfill, and littering.
There is also air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution
as well as pollution from burning fossil fuels, which
contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.
Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, and
nitrous oxides. They are mostly produced through the
burning of fossil fuels. The greenhouse gas effect is the
trapping of heat around the earth by these greenhouse
gases, which heats the Earth's surface and is contributing
to climate change and global warming.

Fig 3. Pollution is an Example of Human-Environment Interaction That is

Perceived as Negative.

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Tourism
The economy often relies on tourism because it provides
many jobs and encourages many visitors; thus it is a major
industry that provides a high amount of revenue. This
means the human interaction with the environment in this
case is to change it in order to make it more hospitable to
human visitors. However, this modification is often to the
detriment of locals and animals.

Additionally, popular destinations in tourism are typically

located in more natural environments. This can impact the
environment negatively, as an increasing number of
tourists creates increasing pressure on natural ecosystems.
Therefore, sustainability is crucial in tourism.

Urban Expansion
Urban expansion is occurring as the world’s population
increases. As the world's population increases, more space
is needed to house the growing population. Urban
expansion modifies the natural environment, and the
surrounding areas often have to adapt to the change
in land use. Rural workers are pushed out of these spaces
to create room for urban expansion, and this creates
economic and social issues such as people losing their
homes and jobs. It also creates environmental issues such
as less green space and habitat loss for animals, which are
instead faced with a new environment of urban land that
they have to adapt to.

Human Environment
Interaction and
Environmental Determinism
Environmental determinism studies how physical
geography and the environment influence society.

Environmental determinism is a geographical theory that

states the environment can control and limit humanity.
Environmental determinism is a philosophy which claims
that human-environment interaction occurs in specific
ways, i.e., it focuses on the idea that physical features of
the natural world influence human behavior.

This concept suggests that within human-environment

interaction, the environment has more control over human
actions. However, this philosophy has received many
criticisms.

Human Environmental
Interaction and Possibilism
As a counter to environmental determinism, possibilism
was introduced as a theory by geographers. Possibilism is
the idea that culture and society are not fully limited to
their environmental features, unlike environmental
determinism. Possibilism proposes that there are many
possibilities thanks to the natural environment that
humans can utilize and adapt during human-environmental
interaction. This theory is another way that human-
envrionmental interaction occurs

Ecosystem:
The term ‘ecosystem’ was first used by A.G. Tansley in 1935 who defined
ecosystem as ‘a particular category of physical systems, consisting of organisms
and inorganic components in a relatively stable equilibrium, open and of
various sizes and kinds’.
An ecosystem consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with
which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together
through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the system through
photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue.
F.R. Fosberg (1963) has defined ecosystem as ‘a functioning, interacting system
composed of one or more living organisms and their effective environment,
both physical and biological’.
According to R.L. Lindeman (1942) the term ecosystem applies to ‘any system
composed of physical-chemical-biological processes, within a space-time unit
of any magnitude’.
Based on the contents of above definitions of ecosystem provided by various
scientists it may be pointed out that ‘ecosystems are therefore unities of
organisms connected to one another and to their environm ent’ (P.A. Furley
and W.W. Newey, 1983)* ‘and the ecosystem is thus the sum of all natural
organisms and substances within an area, and it can be viewed as a basic
example of an open system in physical geography’ (C.C. Park, 1980). Stressing
the importance of ecosystem C.C. Park further says that ‘ecosystems are
regarded by many ecologists to be the basic units of ecology because they are
complex, interdependent and highly organised systems, and because they are
the basic building blocks of the biosphere’.

Properties of Ecosystems - y , '.

The ecosystems are characterized by the following basic properties :
► Ecosystem of any given space-time unit represents the sum of all living
organisms and physical environment.
> It is composed of three basic components viz. energy, biotic (biome) and
abiotic (habitat) components.
> It occupies certain well defined area on the earth-spaceship (spatial
dimension).
>■ It is viewed in terms of time-unit (temporal dimension).
> There are complex sets of interactions between biotic and abiotc components
(including energy component) on the one hand and between and among the
organisms on the other hand.
► It is an open system which is characterised by continuous input and output
of matter and energy.
► It tends to be in relatively stable equilibrium unless there is disturbance in
one or more controlling factors (limiting factors).
> It is powered by energy of various sorts but the solar energy is the most
significant.

What is an Ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the
living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding
environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions
between organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was
first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.

Read on to explore the structure, components, types and functions of the

ecosystem in the notes provided below.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both
biotic and abiotic components. This includes the distribution of energy
in our environment. It also includes the climatic conditions prevailing in
that particular environment.

The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components,

namely:

 Biotic Components
 Abiotic Components

The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is

an open system where the energy and components can flow throughout
the boundaries.
Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based
on nutrition, biotic components can be categorised into autotrophs,
heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs
as they can produce food through the process of photosynthesis.
Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on
producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms
for food. Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary
consumers and tertiary consumers.
o Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers
for food.
o Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy.
They can either be carnivores or omnivores.
o Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary
consumers for food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or
omnivores.

o Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These

organisms prey on tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they
are usually at the top of a food chain as they have no natural
predators.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly
thrive on the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential
for the ecosystem as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It
includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind,
altitude, turbidity, etc.

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1.

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life

systems and renders stability.

2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic

and abiotic components.

3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the

ecosystem.

4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.

5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic

components that involve the exchange of energy.

So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that

work together in an ecosystem are:

 Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.

 Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from
one trophic level to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from
producers to consumers and then to decomposers and finally back to the
environment.
 Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material.
The top-soil is the major site for decomposition.
 Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled
back in various forms for the utilisation by various organisms.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an
ocean, spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are
different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various
geological zones. They are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals
and microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the
environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth
and are the major carbon sink. A variety of animal species live in
dense tree covers and tropical rainforests. Forests are home to
about 300 million different plant and animal species. A forest is a
type of ecosystem that includes tropical rainforests, plantation
forests, and temperate deciduous forests.

Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and
herbs. Temperate grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are
examples of grassland ecosystems.

Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or
where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year.
Tundra type of ecosystem is found in the Arctic or mountain tops.

Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little
rainfall and scarce vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These
can be further divided into two types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes,
ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in
contrast with the marine ecosystem.

Freshwater Ecosystem Types: Based on the region, the three

main categories of the freshwater environment are the lotic, lentic,
and wetland freshwater ecosystems.
 Lotic: In a lotic freshwater ecosystem, the water bodies
travel in one direction. Numerous rivers and streams start
at their sources and meet rivers or oceans at their mouths
as they travel toward their destinations.
 Lentic: All non-flowing (still) waterways, such as ponds,
swamps, bogs, lagoons, and lakes are lentic ecosystems.
Due to the saturation of the underlying land, water will
temporarily remain on the earth’s surface. They are closed
structures that keep the water still. Because every lentic
system has multiple areas with different biological
environments, animals, and plants in that system behave
and adapt in different ways.
 Wetlands: Wetlands contain water and are home to
vascular plants. Wetland environments are more often
known as marshes, swamps, and bogs. Because soil and
water are so close together, wetlands are highly
productive. The plant species found in wetlands are
referred to as hydrophytes since they have adapted to the
area’s moist and humid climate. Wetland ecosystems
contain hydrophyte plants such as cattails, pond lilies, and
sedges. Various amphibians, reptiles, birds, shrimp,
shellfish, and other animal species find refuge in wetlands.

Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more
substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the
freshwater ecosystem.

Also check: Habitat Diversity

Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy
required for all plant life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of
photosynthesis, which is used to synthesise their food.

During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical

energy and is passed on through successive trophic levels. The flow of
energy from a producer, to a consumer and eventually, to an apex
predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.

Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into
its constituents by scavengers. The reducers then absorb these
constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers liberate molecules to
the environment, which can be utilised again by the producers.

2. Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number,
energy, and biomass of the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem.
Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the ecological pyramid
and its principals in 1927.

The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the

producer level to the consumer level are represented in the form of a
pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.

The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by

primary and secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex.
In some food chains, the quaternary consumers are at the very apex of
the food chain.

The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly,

the primary consumers outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly,
apex predators also follow the same trend as the other consumers;
wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the secondary
consumers.

For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat,

which are plentiful. These grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common
mouse, which are comparatively less in number. The mice are preyed
upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on by apex
predators such as the brown snake eagle.

In essence:

Grasshopper →Mouse→ Cobra → Brown Snake Eagle

3. Food Web
Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the
food chains within a single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that
plants lay the foundation of all the food chains. In a marine environment,
phytoplankton forms the primary producer.
Energy flow in ecosystem refers to the transfer and consumption of
energy that takes place within a food chain. An ecosystem is a web of
relationships that connects a given area's living and non-living
elements. Nutrient cycles and energy flow in ecosystem bind the biotic
and abiotic components together.

The flow of energy is an important aspect within ecosystems and

defines the relationships of a number of organisms. Learn more about
energy flow in ecosystem, its steps, significance, and the laws that
govern it here.

What is Energy Flow in Ecosystem?

Simply put, energy flow in ecosystem refers to the flow of power
that occurs along a food chain. All living organisms can be classified as
producers or consumers, and those producers and consumers can then
be classified as part of a food chain. Energy flows within ecosystems
because the organisms in those ecosystems are highly interdependent.

Direction of Energy Flow

 Energy flow in a unidirectional manner in an ecosystem.

 This is because the energy that is lost during energy flow cannot
be reused in other stages of energy flow.
 Energy flows from producers to primary consumers to secondary
consumers and finally to tertiary consumers.
 Moreover, at each stage of energy transfer, a certain amount of
energy is lost.

Trophic Level of Energy Flow

A trophic level, also known as a feeding level, consists of numerous

producers and consumers forming several layers. The following is the
hierarchy of trophic levels of energy flow in ecosystem.

 Producers constitute the first level

 Herbivores constitute the second level
 Primary carnivores include the third level
 Top carnivores constitute the top level

Steps of Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

Energy flow or the transfer of energy from one trophic level to another
involves several steps. There are four main straps of energy flow in an
ecosystem, which are listed below.
First Step of Energy Flow

 The first step of energy flow in an ecosystem is the production of

energy.
 Primary producers utilize solar energy to produce organic
material through photosynthesis at the first trophic level.

Second Step of Energy Flow

 Plants are used as food by herbivores at the second trophic level

of energy flow in the ecosystem, which provides them with
energy.
 The metabolic operations of these creatures, such as breathing,
digesting food, etc., consume a considerable portion of this
energy.

Third Step of Energy Flow

 At the next trophic level, carnivores eat herbivores to obtain

energy for their survival and growth.
 If giant predators are present, they represent a higher trophic
level, and they get energy by feeding on carnivores.

Fourth Step of Energy Flow

 Bacteria, fungi, and insects are examples of decomposers, which

break down wastes and dead creatures and return nutrients to
the soil.
 Then, the producers then take up this decomposed waste.
Decomposition does not recycle energy; instead, it releases it.

Energy Flow in Ecosystem: Laws of

Thermodynamics
There are two laws that govern the energy flow in ecosystem. The laws
of thermodynamics validate the energy flow of living and non-living
organisms. The laws of energy low are as follows.

 First Law of Thermodynamics: Any form of energy, including solar

power, cannot be generated or destroyed. Energy can only
transfer from one state to another.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics: A chunk of the energy is
emitted to the environment as heat energy during any
conversion.
Significance of Energy Flow in Ecosystem
Energy flow in an ecosystem must persist for survival. All creatures rely
on energy to function and rely on their fellow beings in an ecosystem
to derive that energy. Understand the significance of energy flow from
the points shared below.

 The ecosystem's essential existence depends on energy flow

(which begins with solar power or insolation) and materials
recycling.
 The energy flow in an ecosystem is critical for maintaining
ecological balance. There is a need to maintain a constant and
consistent amount of energy flow at each trophic level for
survival.
 Through energy flow, the ecosystem sustains itself and achieves
stability. An ecosystem will not function if there is no energy flow.
 A food web is a collection of interconnected food chains. The
ecosystem or environment's stability is maintained via the food
web. The more alternate channels there are, the more stable the
community of living things becomes.
 The sun is the most powerful generator of energy. An ecosystem
is a functional unit in which energy is efficiently transferred
between biotic and abiotic components.

Food Chain: Introduction

A food chain explains which organism eats another organism in the
environment. The food chain is a linear sequence of organisms where
nutrients and energy is transferred from one organism to the other. This
occurs when one organism consumes another organism. It begins with the
producer organism, follows the chain and ends with the decomposer
organism. After understanding the food chain, we realise how one
organism is dependent upon another organism for survival.
Now, let’s look at the other aspects of a food chain, to get a better
understanding.

What is a Food Chain?

A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one
living organism eats another organism, and later that organism is
consumed by another larger organism. The flow of nutrients and energy
from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a food
chain.

The food chain also explains the feeding pattern or relationship between
living organisms. Trophic level refers to the sequential stages in a food
chain, starting with producers at the bottom, followed by primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers. Every level in a food chain is known as
a trophic level.
The food chain consists of four major parts, namely:

 The Sun: The sun is the initial source of energy, which provides energy for
everything on the planet.
 Producers: The producers in a food chain include all autotrophs such as
phytoplankton, cyanobacteria, algae, and green plants. This is the first stage
in a food chain. The producers make up the first level of a food chain. The
producers utilise the energy from the sun to make food. Producers are also
known as autotrophs as they make their own food. Producers are any plant or
other organisms that produce their own nutrients through photosynthesis.
 Consumers: Consumers are all organisms that are dependent on plants or
other organisms for food. This is the largest part of a food web, as it contains
almost all living organisms. It includes herbivores which are animals that eat
plants, carnivores which are animals that eat other animals, parasites that live
on other organisms by harming them and lastly the scavengers, which are
animals that eat dead animals’ carcasses.

Here, herbivores are known as primary consumers and carnivores are

secondary consumers. The second trophic level includes organisms that
eat producers. Therefore, primary consumers or herbivores are organisms
in the second trophic level.

 Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms that get energy from dead or

waste organic material. This is the last stage in a food chain. Decomposers
are an integral part of a food chain, as they convert organic waste materials
into inorganic materials, which enriches the soil or land with nutrients.

Decomposers complete a life cycle. They help in recycling the nutrients as

they provide nutrients to soil or oceans, that can be utilised by autotrophs
or producers. Thus, starting a whole new food chain.

Food Web:
Several interconnected food chains form a food web. A food web is similar
to a food chain but the food web is comparatively larger than a food chain.
Occasionally, a single organism is consumed by many predators or it
consumes several other organisms. Due to this, many trophic levels get
interconnected. The food chain fails to showcase the flow of energy in the
right way. But, the food web is able to show the proper representation of
energy flow, as it displays the interactions between different organisms.
When there are more cross-interactions between different food chains, the
food web gets more complex. This complexity in a food web leads to a
more sustainable ecosystem.

Types of Food Chain

There are two types of food chains, namely the detritus food chain and
the grazing food chain. Let’s look at them more closely:

 Detritus food chain: The detritus food chain includes different species of
organisms and plants like algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mites, insects,
worms and so on. The detritus food chain begins with dead organic material.
The food energy passes into decomposers and detritivores, which are further
eaten by smaller organisms like carnivores. Carnivores, like maggots, become
a meal for bigger carnivores like frogs, snakes and so on. Primary consumers
like fungi, bacteria, protozoans, and so on are detritivores which feed on
detritus.
 Grazing food chain: The grazing food chain is a type of food chain that
starts with green plants, passes through herbivores and then to carnivores. In
 a grazing food chain, energy in the lowest trophic level is acquired from
photosynthesis.

In this type of food chain, the first energy transfer is from plants to
herbivores. This type of food chain depends on the flow of energy from
autotrophs to herbivores. As autotrophs are the base for all ecosystems
on Earth, the majority of ecosystems in the environment follow this kind of
food chain.

Conclusion
Understanding food chains is vital, as they explain the intimate
relationships in an ecosystem. A food chain shows us how every living
organism is dependent on other organisms for survival. The food chain
explains the path of energy flow inside an ecosystem.

Frequently Asked Questions on Food Chain

Q1

What are the first organisms in a food chain?

Producers, also known as autotrophs, comprise the first level in a food chain.

Q2

What is the difference between the food chain and

the food web?
A food chain follows a single path, where animals discover food. But a
food web shows different paths, where plants and animals are connected.
A food web comprises several food chains.
In a food chain, an organism eats a single item, whereas in a food web an
organism consumes multiple items. In a food chain, there is a singular
path for energy flow and in a food web, there are different paths for
energy flow.

What is Productivity?
In ecology, productivity refers to the rate of formation of biomass in the
ecosystem. It can also be referred to as the energy accumulated in the
plants by photosynthesis. There are two types of productivity, namely:

1. Primary Productivity
 2. Secondary Productivity

Primary Productivity
Primary Productivity refers to the generation of biomass from
autotrophic organisms such as plants. Photosynthesis is the primary tool
for the creation of organic material from inorganic compounds such as
carbon dioxide and water. Primary productivity can be divided into two
aspects:

 Gross primary productivity

 Net primary productivity

Gross primary productivity

The solar energy trapped by the photosynthetic organism is called gross

primary productivity. All the organic matters produced falls under gross
primary productivity. This depends upon the photosynthetic activity and
environmental factors.

Net primary productivity

This is estimated by the gross productivity minus energy lost in

respiration.

NPP = GPP – Energy lost by respiration

It the net energy stored in the plants. This energy serves as food for the
animals that feed on plants. It is measured as the amount of organic
matter produced in a community in a given time. Annually, over 170
billion tons of net primary productivity occurs over the entire biosphere.

Secondary Productivity
Heterotrophs such as animals influence Secondary Productivity. It is
the accumulation of energy at the consumer’s level. It keeps moving from
one organism to another, unlike primary productivity. This process occurs
as a result of organic materials being transferred between various trophic
levels. It is also referred to as the rate of increase in the biomass of
heterotrophs. Organisms such as animals, fungi, bacteria and numerous
protists influence Secondary Production.

Unit of Productivity
Typically, productivity is expressed in units of mass per unit volume (or
surface) per unit time.

What is Biome? Definition, Types,

Characteristics, Examples
 Read

 Discuss
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Biomes are the life zones in which various communities of living
organisms showing the common type of environmental adaptations
survive together. It includes multiple ecosystems that are present in
a particular geographical area. The naming of the biome depends on
the dominant feature of the geographical area i.e. if the region is
dominated by grass it is called grassland, if the region is dominated
by sand then it is called a desert, etc.
Definition of Biome
A collection of multiple ecosystems consisting of many communities
that are surviving on the same type of climate, soil quality,
vegetation, water availability, etc. It can be considered as an area
that is classified based on the biotic communities living in a specific
abiotic condition. Biomes can be classified based on the condition of
the climate or based on the type of vegetation found.
Factors that make a Biome
Four main factors make a biome, these are;
1. Physical and chemical condition of the soil i.e. pH, texture,
nutrients, etc.
2. Climatic conditions like temperature, precipitation, etc.
3. Vegetation i.e. availability of herbs, shrubs, trees, etc.
4. Wildlife i.e. availability of insects, birds, fishes, mammals,
etc.
Classification of Biomes
Biomes can be classified into two categories;
Terrestrial Biomes: The biomes which are present in the land and
consist of terrestrial ecosystems, fall under the category of
terrestrial biomes. These are tropical rainforest, temperate forest,
desert, tundra, taiga, grasslands, and savannah.
Aquatic Biomes: The biomes which are present in the water and
consist of aquatic ecosystems are called aquatic biomes. There are
only two types of aquatic biomes; freshwater biome and marine
water biome.

Types of Biomes
Based on the climatic condition and availability of the type of
vegetation, there are nine types of biomes, these are; tropical
rainforest, temperate forest, desert, tundra, taiga, grasslands,
savannah, freshwater, and marine water.
1. Tropical rainforest: This forest receives continuous rainfall
of around 2000 to 2250 millimeters throughout the year and
has a temperature of around 17°C to 25°C. They are located
in tropical regions i.e. in a broad zone outside the equator
and consist of the majority of the terrestrial species found.
The average climate of these forests remains warm and wet.
The soils of these regions are rich in nutrients and boast tall
trees of around 50 meters or above and a wide variety of
 animal species. These forests have the maximum terrestrial
biodiversity and most significant living biomass.
2. Temperate forest: A temperate deciduous forest that is
rich in deciduous trees. These forests are found in the mid-
latitude area that lies between the artic poles and the
tropical regions. The average rainfall they receive is around
762 to 1524 millimetres and have a temperature of around -
30°C to 30°C. They have changing seasons i.e. they witness
spring, summer, winter, and autumn. The vegetation ranges
from trees like birch, oak, etc. to herbs like ferns, grasses,
etc. The fauna is also rich that consists of animals like bees,
mosquitoes, frogs, snakes, hawks, owls, squirrels, tigers,
etc.
3. Desert: Desserts are dry, hot, or cold, and receive very less
around 254 millimeters, or no precipitation at all. The hot
deserts have temperatures that range from 45°C to 50°C,
whereas the cold deserts have temperatures that range
from 0°C to less than -30°C. They can be located in sub-
tropical and polar regions. They have very sparse vegetation
with only those plants that have thick leaves or modified
leaves, the capacity to store water and prevent loss of
water. Due to sparse vegetation, the animal biodiversity is
also limited with only those animals that can adapt to such
extreme conditions.
4. Tundra: Tundra is a snow-covered region that lacks trees.
They are located in the Polar Regions with temperatures
ranging from 3°C to less than -34°C and have very less
rainfall occasionally. Vegetation consists of mainly low
shrubs, herbs, mosses, etc. Due to sparse vegetation, the
animal biodiversity is very less with only animals that have
adapted to cold regions can survive.
5. Taiga: Taiga or the coniferous forest is the dense forest
region found in the cold sub-arctic region. They receive
annual precipitation of around 380 to 1000 millimeters with
temperatures ranging from -5°C to 5°C. They are
characterized by the presence of vegetation that is adapted
to cold regions like cone-bearing trees, needle-shaped
leaves, scaly-leaved trees, etc. It has animals that are
adapted to cold like rodents, owls, moose, bear, etc.
6. Grassland: Grasslands are regions located in tropical and
temperate regions that are dominated by grasses. They
receive an annual rainfall of around 150 to 750 millimeters
which is not enough to support trees. The vegetation mainly
consists of grass, herbs, or other shrubs. Herbivores are rich
in these areas along with their predators’ i.e. top carnivores,
and reptiles.
 7. Savannah: It is a form of grassland biome that has sparse
distribution of tall trees also. It has a semi-arid climate with
wet and dry seasons. Plant and animal biodiversity is similar
to the grassland biome.
8. Freshwater: It is a form of aquatic ecosystem that includes
freshwater bodies i.e. lakes, ponds, rivers, etc. which have
very less or negligible amounts of salts in them. They only
consist of 2% of the aquatic biome. They consist of a huge
number of aquatic plants, animals, and other organisms.
Also, most terrestrial organisms are dependent on
freshwater for their water requirement.
9. Marine water: It is a form of aquatic ecosystem that
includes saltwater bodies like seas, and oceans which have
high concentrations of salt in them. They consist of 98% of
the aquatic biome. They are also rich in biodiversity, but the
majority of biodiversity is found in the coastal regions.
Significance of Biomes
1. Biomes help us to understand how ecosystems differ from
each other.
2. Monitor changes occurring in various ecosystems.
3. It helps to estimate the productivity of the ecosystems and
the effect of climatic changes on them.
4. To understand the type and significance of interactions with
various plants and animals.
5. The resources, habits, and habitats are dictated by the
biome one lives on.
6. Various ecological services like carbon sinks, natural
resource reserves, etc. are unique to each biome.
Biome Characteristics
What is a biome? A biome meaning is simply a large environment
generally characterized by various abiotic factors (e.g. temperature,
amounts of precipitation, pH, light intensity, and so on) and biotic factors.
There are many ways to classify biomes. One of them is according to
climate– whether it is hot, dry, cold, rainy, or humid. Biomes are formed
as a result of physical climates that consequently affects the soil,
precipitation, and wildlife.

Types Of Biomes
There are 6 biomes in the world. Four of which are land
biomes: forest, desert, grassland, and tundra, in addition to the
two aquatic biomes: i.e. marine and freshwater. These biomes are
subdivided into specific types, e.g. temperature rainforest, tropical
rainforest, taiga, and savanna.
Forests are considered to be important homes for several biotic
communities. They serve as a habitat and food source for various animals.
As such, one may find various microhabitats within a forest. Moreover,
forests serve in the climate-buffering global capacity; therefore, forest
destruction may lead to great changes in the local or the global climate.

The marine and freshwater biome types represent the most important
examples of biomes since water is the main constituent of all living
organisms. It is a major biomolecule of life. Additionally, a great number of
living species live in marine and freshwater. Oceans have a great effect on
the global climate even more than forests as the earth’s surface is
covered mainly by waters.

In addition to its contribution to maintaining the atmospheric temperature,

the Earth’s hydrosphere (water component) contains a huge number of
photosynthetic planktons that produce oxygen that supports the
large population of aerobic organisms thriving in oceans, seas, and
freshwater.

Read these free lessons on Freshwater Ecology Tutorial.

Even though freshwater biomes are one of the most important world
biomes they suffer greatly from pollution. Overfishing, for instance, makes
these biomes unstable and harms many organisms within these systems.
Read this tutorial on the conservation efforts made to recover the toheroa
population in New Zealand that significantly declined due to
overharvesting.

Biomes are useful for ecological studies since they help in defining the
ecosystem changes using the remote sensing satellite. Biomes may also
give us information about the functioning of ecosystems. For example, the
productivity of ecosystems, the function of plants, or climate changes.
Figure 1: World biome map showing the earth biomes in different regions around the world.
Credit: NASA.

Earth biome map is constructed either using the knowledge of experts as

well as the vegetation maps of different regions or using satellites.
Satellites, such as A-train, are used to monitor the Earth’s meteorology,
for instance, taking satellite images, and remote sensing. NASA Earth
Observatory is an online repository of various satellite imagery.

Satellite-based biome maps are more accurate and objective regarding

the different threshold of climate that influences the biome boundaries.
The biome map of the world helps in comparing the different ecosystems
in different areas around the world. The same biome in different parts of
the world might contain different species and different ecological systems.
This variance aids in studying the evolutionary and ecological processes in
different regions.
Figure 2: Afternoon Train (A-train), a satellite constellation. As of 2020, CloudSat and CALIPSO are no
longer part of the A-train. Credit: NASA – A-train diagram

Different types of biomes found in the biomes map are shown in the
following biomes list where further biome facts are shown to explain
biomes meaning:

1. Forests:

Forests are covered in trees. They contain great biodiversity of species

such as birds, insects, and mammals. There are three major biomes of
forests, which are tropical forests, temperate forests, and boreal forests
(Taiga). These forests experience different conditions of the climate since
they occur in different regions. Therefore, different types of forests are
classified as follows:

A. Tropical rainforests:
Tropical rainforests are more like jungles. They are close to the equator
where the weather is rainy and warm all year. Several species live in
tropical rainforests as well as a great number of trees that serve as
shelters to many animals, and also contribute to oxygen production and
maintain climate buffering capacity.
Figure 3: A typical structure of a rainforest. Source: Maria Victoria Gonzaga of BiologyOnline.

Figure 4: A rainforest. (Pxhere)

B. Temperate forest
In temperate forests, all four seasons of the year alternate throughout the
year, in the fall, leaves of trees shed and fall, through winter, trees are
inactive. Moreover, through the winter you can find bears, deer, and
woodpeckers.

Figure 5: Temperate forest. (Pxhere)

C. Boreal forest (Taiga)

This biome represents the largest terrestrial (land) biome on earth. Taiga
biome is characterized by the presence of conical-shaped trees called
conifers. The boreal forests have cold, dry, and long winters where most
of the birds migrate and mammals hibernate. Some animals remain active
and grow during winter. Therefore, they have fur or feathers to warm their
bodies and thus, are capable of living in cold conditions.
Figure 6: Taiga forest. (Pxhere)

2. Deserts

Deserts represent biomes of the highest temperature of all biomes.

However, they get very cold during the winter. The extreme swinging in
the temperature contributes to the presence of extreme environments in
the desert where several species migrate to underground shelters to live
in more stable temperatures so that they can survive. Moreover, animals
and plants living in desert biomes are mostly able to live for a long period
without water.
Figure 7: Desert. (Pxhere)

3. Tundra

Tundra biome is cold and flat, it is characterized by the lowest

temperature of all biomes as well as poor nutrients in the soil, which
consequently lead to the presence of short plants, such as moss, shrubs,
lichens, and grasses that grow during summer since a thick ice layer is
present below the soil throughout the year, which is called the permafrost.
Therefore, trees cannot grow their roots into the soil because they cannot
penetrate the ice layer. Birds may be found nesting in the tundra during
the summer but they migrate again during the winter to other areas of
higher temperature. Mammals, such as mice, live in tunnels below the
snow during the winter.

Tundra biome is greatly threatened as the climate changes greatly affect

it. Global warming disrupts the tundra biome, its permafrost, and species
living in it.
Figure 8: Tundra. (Pxhere)

4. Grassland

Grasslands contain no trees; only short to tall grasses. These lands do not
get adequate rain to grow trees since the weather is usually dry and
warm. However, they get the rain that is enough to grow some herbs,
flowers, and grasses. Large mammals that travel in herds are often found
in grasslands.

There are two types of grasslands: (1) temperate grasslands and

(2) savannah (tropical grasslands), The savanna is often found near the
equator. They receive seasonal rainfalls; therefore, trees usually grow
singly or in groups throughout the biome. Animals with long legs usually
live there. They are seen in herds and can escape predators, e.g. by
running.

Humans have greatly affected the grassland biome. In the United States,
most of the grasslands having rich soil have been used for grazing cattle
or agriculture. Different species were affected, from the small animals like
s the monarch butterfly to the various large animals such as elephants.
Losing large animals, e.g. by excessive hunting, will disturb the ecological
balance of an ecosystem. For instance, losing grasses will eventually lead
to the loss of grazing animals such as zebras, which are a food source of
predators or carnivores in the area.
Figure 9: Grassland. (Pixabay)

5. Freshwater

Freshwater contains low salt concentration, i.e. is about less than one
percent. Freshwater biomes include rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds.
Read this Freshwater Ecology tutorial to learn how living things in
freshwater ecosystems adapt to their environment.
Figure 10: Lake Alpe dei Cavalli (also Lake Cheggio or Lake dei Cavalli ). (Pxhere)

Figure 11: A typical structure of a lake ecosystem. Source: Maria Victoria Gonzaga of BiologyOnline.

6. Marine
The marine biome is the largest biome in the world, it covers almost 70%
of the world. It includes five major oceans of the world: the Arctic Ocean,
Southern Ocean, Indian Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and the Pacific Ocean.
Marine water has high concentrations of salt, therefore, plants and
animals in marine waters adapt to high concentrations of salt by getting
rid of excess salt or by increasing the uptake of water (homeostasis).

Figure 12: Sea. (Pixabay)

Biomes may be classified into:

 Terrestrial biomes or land biomes – e.g. tundra, taiga, grasslands,

savannas, deserts, tropical forests, etc.
 Freshwater biomes – e.g. large lakes, polar freshwaters, tropical coastal
rivers, river deltas, etc.
 Marine biomes – e.g. continental shelf, tropical coral, kelp forest, benthic
zone, pelagic zone, etc.

Biome Examples
Forests cover about one-third of the earth. They are distributed in various
geological regions. One example is the temperate forests found in Eurasia
and eastern North America. Several species are found in temperate
forests, including squirrels, deer, and bears. Another type of forests are
the tropical forests They are found near the equator in regions such as
Central America, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan regions. Examples of
animals thriving in tropical forests are large birds and harpy eagles.
The taiga (Boreal forests) are found across Canada, Alaska, Scandinavia,
and Siberia. Deer, moose, and large herbivores are found in Boreal
forests.
Figure 13: the Olympic National Park in Washington, United States is an example of the forest biome.
(Pixabay)

Deserts cover about 20% of the earth (one fifth) divided into four
categories depending on their climate or location which are: hot, cold,
coastal, and semiarid. The Sahara desert covers most of the continent of
Africa. It is a known arid desert. Another desert biome is found in the
southwest of the United States, the Moava desert. Some areas of North
America, Asia, Greenland, and Europe are covered with semiarid deserts,
an example of coastal desert in South America is the Atacama desert of
Chi, additionally, a famous cold desert is the Antarctic.

Figure 14: cacti in the Arizona desert adapt to the lack of water by having pipes that store water.
(Snappygoat)

There are two types of tundra and both are found over high-latitude lands:
(1) the alpine and (2) the arctic tundra. The alpine tundra is found over
very high mountains where the temperature falls overnight. The arctic
tundra is found in the north of boreal forests on high landmasses in
Russia, Iceland, Canada, Greenland, Scandinavia, and Alaska.

Animals in tundra build layers of fat to keep their temperature during

winter. They are covered in fur to insulate them. Tundra animals include
small mammals, such as ground squirrels and large mammals (e.g.
caribou). Tundra carnivores such as snowy owls, polar bears, arctic foxes,
and wolves are on the top of the tundra food chain. They mostly develop
white feathers or fur for camouflage in snow during winter.
Figure 15: the tundra biome lacks trees due to the presence of a permafrost layer so trees cannot
grow roots, moreover, there is a low amount of water that cannot support trees. Credit: Ian
Mitchell, Creative Commons Licence.

Savannas cover most of the continent of Africa, some areas of India, Asia,
Australia, and South America. Temperate grasslands are found away from
the equator covering areas in Argentine, Eastern Europe, North America,
and Russia. Temperate grasslands have no shrubs or trees. Savanna and
temperate grasslands may seem similar but actually, they are different
regarding several aspects. For example, elephants are not found in the
United States temperate grasslands but they are found in the Savannas of
Africa. In contrast, prairie dogs are usually found in temperate grasslands.
Figure 16: grazing giraffes on grassland in Uganda. Credit: Bernard Dupont – (photo), CC BY-SA 2.0

Freshwater and marine biomes cover about 75% of the Earth. Rainwater
or melting glaciers are the main sources of freshwater running rivers and
streams. They usually empty in an ocean or a lake whereas lakes and
ponds represent the stationary forms of freshwater. Oceans are saltwater
bodies that span around most of the surface of the earth, Various living
species live in marine biomes, in deep oceans, there is insufficient light to
support photosynthesis, however, many creatures undergo
chemosynthesis to survive. Coral reefs are formed in shallow oceans, they
are made up of calcium carbonate. Climate changes can affect coral reefs
greatly since oceans become more acidic and hotter.
Figure 17: coral reefs are hosting several species of aquatic animals. (Pixabay)

You are probably wondering what biome do we live in. Here is a simple
example, if you are living in California then biomes in California are:
temperate forests in Redwood forests in northern California and grassland
in Western North America in mountains rose. Moreover, the desert biome
is found in several regions.

In order to explore different biomes in regions all over the world, 3d biome
models were developed to provide a virtual look at any biome mentioned
in the list of biomes using a computer, tablet, or phone.

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources

such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the
extinction of wildlife; and pollution
What is Environmental Degradation?
Environmental Degradation is defined as the deterioration
of the earth’s environment due to the depletion of natural
resources present in our surroundings like air, water, and
soil. It is considered a common concern for humankind.

The environmental degradation is deterioration of the environmental

through depletion of resources which includes all the biotic and
abiotic element that form our surrounding that is air, water, soil,
plant, animals, and all other living and non-living element of the
planet of earth (Bourque et al., 2005; Malcolm and Pitelka, 2000).

Air pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution have

become major challenges for the natural environment.

Before exploring environmental degradation, let us

understand about

What is the Environment?

The environment is a terminology that exhibits numerous
definitions or interpretations. The word environment is
originated from the environs which mean surroundings.
Hence environment for an individual entity or element is
defined as its surrounding region consisting of natural or
artificial resources or entities.

Thus, one can define the term environment as anything

that constitutes our surround or it is the region or space
within which interconnection between various entities
exists.

Basics of Environmental Degradation

We know that the word degradation corresponds to the fall

or deceleration of something. Here degradation is
associated with the environment. Thus, environmental
degradation refers to a fall or reduction in the capacity of
the environment through which it meets the social and
economic activities of the organisms living within it.
Majorly human activities, as well as various natural
calamities, leads to cause environmental degradation.
Human activities include urbanization, industrialization,
increase in population, deforestation, etc. While natural
calamities are floods, drought, earthquakes, etc.

Environmental Degradation is emerging as one of the

serious problems emerging worldwide that is leading to
cause other hazardous issues like pollution, animal
extinction, global warming, desertification, etc. Thus, it is
not wrong to say that environmental degradation is the
result of various socio-economic development as well as
technological activities.

A noteworthy point over here is that through population

mainly contributes to development, simultaneously it
mainly contributes to environmental degradation as well
after the saturation level of the support systems. This
means that the population and life support system must be
stabilized to get the desired results so as to limit the
degradation of the environment.

Question 4. Differentiate between environmental

degradation and environmental pollution.
Answer: The differences between environmental degradation and
environmental pollution are-

Environmental degradation and pollution are often synonymous, but they differ
based on causative factors and scale of deterioration. Pollution is caused by
human activities, while degradation is caused by natural processes and human
actions. Both can be influenced by global scales, making them indistinguishable.

Environmental degradation, a combination of natural and human factors,

destabilizes various environmental components, including plants and animals.
Pollution, the upper limit of degradation, necessitates a comprehensive study for
environmental geographers to develop effective resource utilization strategies
and environmental management programs.

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

(Divided into two categories on the basis of factors responsible for the lowering of environmental
quality and the level and magnitude of lowering/ deterioration of environmental quality)

(1) Extreme events and hazards

(2) Pollution

Extreme events
Extreme events, rare but often caused by natural processes or human factors,
such as tectonic movements, prolonged droughts, floods, atmospheric
disturbances, celestial collisions, toxic gas leaks, petroleum spills, and forest
fires, can cause disaster for society. Extreme events fall into two categories :

(i) natural extreme events (earthquakes, volcanic eruption, atmospheric disturbances,

floods etc.)

(ii) anthropogenic extreme events nuclear disaster, leakage of poisonous gases etc.)

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS

Environmental hazards are rare, extreme events causing significant loss of

property, lives, and settlements. They are defined by the UN Commission for
Human Settlements as the probability of damaging physical events causing
significant loss.

Thus, hazards have the following characteristic featureis:

>• hazards are natural or man-induced extreme events,

► hazards are physical events or causes or processes of disasters,

>- hazards have potential for damaging different forms of life mainly human life,

► hazards represent latent conditions for future threats to all types of biota,

► hazards are of varying origins; of natural origin or of anthropogenic origin,

>• hazards may or may not become disasters etc.

Pollution

(Pollution is caused by human activities and it generally divided into two broad categories).

(i) Physical Pollution (Physical pollution is caused due to lowering of the quality of physical
or abiotic components of the environment by human activities and is further divided into
three subtypes).

A) Land Pollution Examples: (a) accelerated rate of soil erosion through rill and gully erosion, (b)
desertification, (c) soil pollution, (d) salinization etc.

(B) Water Pollution Examples: (a) pollution of sea water, (b) pollution of groundwater, (c) pollution of
streams, (d) pollution of lakes etc.

(C) Air Pollution Examples: (a) depletion of ozone layer, (b) increase in the concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, (c) decrease in the quality of air, etc.
(ii) Social Pollution (Pollution caused in different aspects of the society due to cumulative effects of
extreme events/ hazards and pollution. Social pollution may be further divided into several sub-
types).

(A) Population Explosion

(B) Sociological Pollution Example: (a) educational and social backwardness, (b) crimes, (c) perpetual
quarrels, (d) wars, (e) communal riots etc.

(C) Economic Pollution Example: poverty.

Causes of Environmental Degradation

The pictorial representation below provides the layout of

the causes that leads to environmental degradation.

As we have already discussed that both humans, as well as

natural activities, are responsible for environmental
degradation. Talking about human activities so
industrialization is responsible for the emission of various
harmful gases in the environment such as Carbon
Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxide, Chlorofluorocarbon, etc. along
with various dust pollutes. Excessive urbanization is
resulting in air, water, soil, and sound pollution.

What Are the Causes of Environmental

Degradation?
Both natural calamities and human interventions are the reasons for environmental
degradation.

Natural Causes
Ecological degradation is mainly caused by human activities. However, the fact is that
the environment also continually changes over time naturally. Constant Alteration is also
a massive challenge for adaptation.

Things like landslides, earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes are the reasons for the
Unstable ecosystem. These things either come under physical destruction like natural
disasters or by the long-term degradation process.
Natural disasters such as hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones can cause significant
damage to different parts of the environment.

Anthropogenic Causes
The environment is degrading, mostly because of anthropologic reasons, rather than
natural disasters.

There are many causes for which the environment is deteriorating by human activities,
like land disturbance, deforestation, landfill, urbanization, industrialization, increased
energy use, population growth, mining, etc. Therefore, we need to be concern about our
activities that lead to an unstable ecosystem.

Land Disturbance
We can define land disturbance as the human-made physical change of the
land, leading to soil erosion, loss of topsoil, and increased sedimentation caused by
vegetation. Such activities are not limited to clearing or removing vegetation striping, but
also excavating, filling, and storing materials, e.g., mining.
Some plant species have a spreading characteristic like mustard and garlic; once they
are planted in a suitable environment, they start spreading, which is not ideal
for ecosystem balance.
Deforestation

Deforestation Causing Environmental Degradation

Trees are the storage house for CO2, as required in the process of photosynthesis for
food preparation. Thus, these autotrophs capture atmospheric CO2 and provide us with
oxygen without which we cannot survive for a minute. Thus, deforestation includes the
major causes of environmental degradation.
Forest is the only source of an enormous amount of oxygen. Deforestation is the cutting
down of trees to fulfill a human need. The rapid growth of industrialization, population,
and urbanization are the leading cause of deforestation.
Apart from this, animal gazing and making infrastructure can also be the causes of
deforestation. By taking the Amazon forest as an example, we can see that in every
second one-half an acre of forest land would be free from trees for fulfilling humans’
greed.

Almost 40% of the forest loss happens in the tropical region than in the temperate zone.
Industrialization
After the 19th century of the industrial revolution, the need for land and infrastructure
rapidly increased. This leads to deforestation, water pollution, air pollution, soil pollution,
etc. Hence, it is one of the main causes of environmental degradation.

Some of the major causes are discussed below:

Pollution: Pollution is the presence of contaminants in the

earth’s atmosphere in any of its natural elements such as
air, water, or soil. These contaminants are hazardous to
human health and other living bodies thus are regarded as
pollutants and cause detrimental effects.

Water Pollution occurs when toxic chemicals get mixed

with water bodies like lakes, seas or rivers, etc. This leads
to cause disturbance in biotic life.

Air Pollution occurs when toxic gases such as carbon

dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, etc. emitted from
industries and automobiles get mixed with the air. These
mixed particulates in the air make the air harmful to
breathe.

Soil Pollution is caused when toxic chemicals from

agricultural or industrial activities are mixed with soil
thereby making it dangerous to produce vegetables or
fruits that are consumed by humans. Mainly the fertilizers
used in agricultural activities or the industrial wastes
contribute to soil pollution.

Overpopulation: The excessive increase in population is

disturbing the natural resources in various ways that are
resultantly causing environmental degradation. The
lifespan of the people has show growth because of better
medical facilities and rapid population growth is disturbing
the environmental balance. Basically, with the increase in
population the demand for food, shelter, clothes also
increase and this is disturbing the ecosystem.
Global Warming: Global Warming is the abnormal
increase in the earth’s atmospheric temperature globally.
Global warming is an outcome of events like deforestation,
unbalanced climatic conditions, expansion of deserts, rise
in sea levels, etc. Global warming leads to cause harmful
effects on humans, agricultural growth as well as aquatic
life. Global warming can lead to cause heat-related
diseases along with causing malaria, dengue, viral fever,
etc. Not only this, it may bring droughts, hurricanes, etc.
that can cause insufficiency of food.

Deforestation: Deforestation is one of the major causes of

concern relative to environmental degradation. We know
that forests are a crucial part of our life as it provides raw
materials such as timber for industrial purposes as well as
habitats to animals and microorganisms. Not only this, the
forests provide fertile soil that is nutrient-rich for growing
various beneficial plants. Deforestation is the cutting down
of trees for home or industrial purposes that has reduced
the use of forests for purposes like agriculture, harvesting,
animal grazing, etc.

Natural Causes: Natural calamities like storms, tides,

forest fires, quakes, avalanches, etc. leads to disturbing the
region where animal, plants and human live thereby
making it difficult for survival. We are mentioning from the
beginning that environmental degradation is associated
with human activities however, it is also true that the
environment possesses changeable nature. Even if we
keep aside human activities then also there are various
biological systems that degrade the natural habitat that
supports life.

Land Degradation: It can be due to natural or manmade

activities. Soil or land degradation mainly is a combined
effect of climate change and human activities. It is said
that with the disturbance in surface soil, the surface
topological features along with vegetation patch structure
get changed.
Effects of Environmental Degradation

The various hazardous effects which are the result of

environmental degradation are as follows:

1. Generally, air pollution can cause respiratory illnesses

like asthma thereby damaging human health.
2. The ozone layer prevents harmful UV radiation from
coming to the earth. However, as gases like
chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons are
depleting the ozone layer thereby allowing the
penetration of UV radiations on the earth.
3. Our ecosystem is mainly balanced due to biodiversity
as it helps in the restoration of nutrients along with
stabilizing the climate. The loss of biodiversity causes
global warming and pollution.
4. The economy of the whole world is also suffering
because of environmental degradation. As
environmental degradation requires maintaining the
pollution at the lowest along with cleaning of the
landfills. This needs extra efforts as well as money so
that proper balance is maintained.
Hence, we can say, it is a major cause of concern to human
life on earth and can be handled by water and energy
conservation, and using recycled entities, etc.
estion 5. Discuss the effects of environmental degradation.
Answer: The different effects of environmental degradation are as
follows-

1. Pollution:

One of the main effects of environmental degradation is pollution.

This mainly includes

1. Toxic gases released by vehicles running on fossil fuels

(petrol, diesel), nuclear power plants, etc., into the
atmosphere and render it toxic. for life on earth. This
causes air pollution.
 2. Dumping of industrial wastes in waterbodies, oil spills in
oceans, etc., thus renders the water unsuitable. This
causes water pollution.
3. Use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, excessive
irrigation, etc., which wash away the top layer of the soil
and thus render it unfit for plant and crop growth,
causing soil pollution.
2. Floods and droughts:

Floods and droughts are the results of climatic degradation.

Excessive deforestation is one of the main reasons for drought. On
the other hand, deforestation also causes flash floods in hilly areas
as there is no vegetation cover to absorb the surface runoff during
heavy rainfall.

Besides, soil erosion causes the deposition of too much silt in the
river beds, causing them to overflow their banks and flood the
surrounding areas.

3. Global warming and climatic change:

Practices such as excessive use of fossil fuels and deforestation are

increasing the average temperature of the earth. This in turn, is
causing the polar ice caps to melt, causing a significant rise in the
sea level.

4. Depletion of natural resources:

As the environment gets degraded over time, various mineral

resources, forests, drinking water, fertile soil, etc., are slowly
depleting from the surface of the earth.

5. Loss of biodiversity:

Several plant and animal species that have evolved on the surface
of the earth over thousands of years have been wiped out in the last
few centuries. This steady loss in biodiversity is aggravating the rate
of degradation of the environment.

6. Earthquakes:

Terrace farming, deforestation and construction of roads in hilly

areas, extraction of minerals, unregulated use of groundwater, etc.,
are all factors that induce earthquakes. Earthquakes occurring in an
area degrade the physical and human environment of the area.

7. Diseases:

As the global environment is degrading, human health is getting

affected as well. As a result, the rate of occurrence of diseases such
as cancer, tuberculosis, malaria, encephalitis, and various lung and
heart diseases is rapidly increasing.

8. Chemical Inadequate disaster:

Infrastructure, lack of skilled laborers, upgraded technology not

being used, and carelessness on the part of the workers can cause
fatal chemical disasters at factories.

9. Inflation and disequilibrium between demand and supply:

Inflation in society is an economic problem. Poor economic

decisions, business houses going bankrupt, imports exceeding the
exports of a country all lead to inflation. These also disrupt the
equilibrium between demand and supply.

Question 6. Discuss the ways of conserving the environment.

Or, How can degradation be controlled?
Answer: Environmentalists have suggested several steps to control
environmental degradation.

Few of these are

1. Increase in awareness and fighting poverty:

Awareness about the environment needs to be spread so that

people understand its importance and hence try to reduce its
degradation.

It has been found that environmental degradation is closely related

to poverty. Thus, people of economically backward countries need to
be made aware through education.
2. Use of eco-friendly forms of energy:

The use of coal, mineral oil, and natural gas should be reduced and
instead, alternative and pollution-free eco-friendly forms of energy
should be used. Per-capita consumption of energy should be
decreased.

Example The increased use of wind energy, solar energy, and other
forms of non-conventional sources of energy can prevent further
environmental degradation.

3. Recycling of resources:

With the help of technology, resources should be recycled. Recycling

and judicious use of resources will prevent the misuse of natural
resources. Consumers should be encouraged to buy reusable
commodities.

4. Population control:

A balance between the population of a nation and the resources

available to it is necessary, or else it is bound to cause degradation
of the environment. Thus, regulation of the population in a country is
essential.

5. Conservation of biodiversity:

A loss in biodiversity can have adverse effects on the local

ecosystem and eventually on the environment. Thus, it is necessary
to preserve the natural environment. Man must allow all animals and
plants to grow in their natural habitat.

Cleanliness of air, water, soil, and woodlands should be maintained.

6. Planned development:

Urbanization, construction of roads, railways, factories, watershed

management, dams on rivers, power plants, etc., should be done in
a planned manner, keeping in mind the short and long-term effects
they shall have on the environment.
People should be made aware of environmental issues.

7. Implementation of laws:

Special laws regarding the protection of the environment and their

strict implementation can reduce and eventually stop environmental
degradation at the hands of human beings.

8. Assessing environmental impact of projects:

The environmental impacts of a project or proposal should be

assessed properly before their implementation. Steps should be
taken so that a development plan does not affect the environment
too adversely.

How does environmental degradation take place?

Answer: Environmental degradation takes place in several ways.

These are as follows

1. Burning fossil fuels emit huge quantities of COCO2,

SOCO2, and other harmful gases into the atmosphere. This
is the main cause of air pollution as well as
environmental degradation.
2. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and
irrigation degraded the soil of that area and thus render it
unfit for further use.
3. The construction of large dams and hydel power stations
are responsible for the destruction of the ecological
balance of that area. These thus induce environmental
degradation.
 4. Unscientific excavation of mineral resources and lifting
the of huge amounts of groundwater are the principal
causes of environmental degradation.
5. Chemical disaster like Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984) and
nuclear disasters like Chernobyl, Fukushima, etc., are
considered as the factors leading to environmental
degradation.

Environmental Degradation Introduction:

Environmental degradation is just like an umbrella concept as it includes a variety of
issues like pollution, biodiversity loss, deforestation, land disturbance, and a lot more. It
is a problem through which the natural environment deteriorates and depletes biological
diversity and reduces the general health of the environment, which can be natural, or
human-made.
Environmental degradation is harming our ecosystem. It is a distinct unit including both
living and non-living elements that lives within it. Plants, animals, and we humans
depend on the environment for survival directly or indirectly.
Through the food chain and food web process, we can broadly understand our
ecosystem. These living and non-living things depend upon the other environmental
components like ponds, streams, lakes, etc.
So, a minor change in the environment can affect the whole system. Our environment
has deteriorated for the last two centuries. Somehow, human disturbance is the primary
cause of this. The ‘want’ from nature turns into ‘greed,’ which causes our mother nature
to deplete and destroy.
Degradation of the environment is one of the essential subjects where our mother earth
is dying because of its hazardous, irresponsible, unthinkable, and permanent cause in
this present era. Mindless consumerism and the hunger for more economic development
or growth started its dreadful effect on mother nature. In the present case, sustainable
development becomes a meaningless word.

It happens in several ways, such as the extinction of species, pollution of common

assets, deforestation, and most rapidly by population growth. Other causes include
urbanization, increase in energy consumption, economic growth, and agriculture
intensification.
Therefore, we should understand the causes of environmental degradation to cancel its
harmful effects on our nature.

Table of Contents [show]

Types of Environmental Degradation

There are many forms of environmental degradation, such as soil degradation, water
degradation, atmospheric degradation, and pollutions.

Land and Soil Degradation

This results from the excessive use of nature. Soil quality is essential for microorganisms
and all plants, but due to human interference, its quality is declining. Poor farming
practices, excessive usage of fertilizers and pesticides are the leading cause of this
degradation.
Water Degradation
Water is a crucial natural component for both animals and plants. So, we need to keep it
pure and pollution-free. The discharge of fertilizers, industrial waste, and some
compounds’ biological activity are some of the deadly causes of water degradation.
Atmospheric Degradation
We need atmospheric gases for our survival. However, pollution or degradation of the
atmosphere pushes the world into a dark future. The increasing number of automobiles,
industries, and other electrical for mechanical components are the leading causes of
atmosphere degradation. One of which includes the increased rate of greenhouse gases
which results in global warming and ozone depletion like problems.
Pollution
Besides the above types, there are several other pollutants that are the critical cause of
environmental degradation. The rise in radioactive wastes leads to nuclear
contamination, nuclear pollution, Light pollution, and further noise pollution. Other
elements like deforestation are also occurring for a degrading environment.
What Are the Effects of Environmental
Degradation?
There are many impacts of environmental degradation, and they are hazardous for both
living organisms and the environment. These are such as;

Loss of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is the principal balance of the ecosystem in combating pollution, restoring
nutrients, protecting wear sources, and stabilizing climate. Now the world is facing a
speed-up rate of species extinction, primarily for human interference.
Human activities like deforestation, which is the leading cause of habitat loss for many
organisms, indiscriminate agriculture practice, also be a reason for land fragmentation,
and overexploitation caused the extinction of thousands of species.

Climate change results in global warming, also responsible for the extinction of species.
Besides, population growth, pollution, and research and development also affect
biodiversity significantly.
For example, a significant report from the millennium ecosystem assessment, released
in March 2005, highlighted inevitable loss in the variety of life on our planet.
Another report said that deforestation in the Nile Delta and Amazon, responsible for the
extinction of over 1000 rare amphibians, reptiles by declining ocean diversity and forest
diversity.
Now there are many more laws present to decrease the increased rate of biodiversity
loss such as:
  Ramsar conservation (1971)
 UNESCO (1972) held the UNEP program every year.
 The earth summit (1992)
Human Health Issues:
Human health issues also belong to one of the primary effects of environmental
degradation. Health is an essential factor for everyone. Specialists say that good health
can only build in a pleasant environment. So, a slight change in the environment might
be a cause of irreparable health damage.
So, nowadays environmental degradation causes many diseases through the air, water,
soil, and mutation.

There are many diseases seen because of the increase in environmental degradation. It
also causes diseases like asthma, lung disease, lung cancer, diarrhoea, a psychological
disorder, etc.

According to WHO, in 2014, India’s most polluted city is Delhi, and air pollution is
responsible for 10,000 to 30,000 annual deaths. There are 36,000 crore people are
dying every year in India because of water-borne diseases.
Climate change can also be a significant cause of health problems. For example, in
recent times, the burning of forests in Australia caused a noticeable environmental
degradation and was also responsible for many more human and animal diseases in
Australia.
Ozone Layer Depletion:
Ozone is a membrane present in the stratosphere of the atmosphere, which prevents UV
radiation from entering the earth. Moreover, the increased rate of environmental
degradation is caused by ozone depletion. A hole in the ozone layer due to increased
greenhouse gases makes the UV light quickly enter the earth.
The anthropogenic activities lead to the increment of greenhouse gases like CO2, CFC,
CH4, NO2, and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS).

Ozone plays a crucial role in absorbing 97-99% of incoming UV-B radiation. The
consumption of ODS quality is high in China, which means it has a sizeable depleting
potential.
Because of the degradation of the environment, the ozone-depleting potential of CFC
and HCFCs increases, which may be a significant cause for breaking the sustainable
development rule.
Vienna Convention (1985) and Montreal Protocol (1987) are two internal efforts for
reducing ozone depletion.

Scarcity of Resources:
We should manage, use, and reallocate our resources wisely and carefully. That means
resources need to be sustainably used.

Environmental degradation leads to scarcity of our critical resources like water, fertile
land, pure air, medicinal plants, genetic resources, etc. It also leaves a footprint by
causing natural calamity as both are reciprocal to each other.
For example, in India, some states found lessening of natural assets (because of
earthing cables) like water and food. Therefore, the insufficiency of resources is one of
the significant consequences of environmental degradation.
Loss of Ecotourism:
The environment and ecological features are beautiful enough to attract tourists towards
it. Natural disasters, the greenhouse effect, deforestation, and increased endangered
species are the causes of loss of tourism and affect the economy to a large extent.
The pollution on the beach and the gradual accumulation of wastes also causes
distractions. A report said that the tourism sector loses 50% of its income from tourists.
Many people are also losing their livelihood for this.

Natural Calamities or Disasters:

Another major effect of environmental degradation is natural calamities or disasters. For
industrialization, various natural disasters such as floods, droughts, desertification,
cyclones, earthquakes, etc. are increasing day by day.
For example: In Afghanistan, the degradation of the environment has already been
rampant. The environmental issues that are so common in Afghanistan are soil
sanitization, irrigation, soil erosion, landslide, deforestation, loss of biodiversity,
desertification, etc.
In the Nile delta, the form of degradation is also the same which treasures the loss of
their ecology, food chain dynamics, etc. The oil spill in New Zealand’s worst
environmental disaster since October 11, 2011, is another considerable example of it.
Conclusion of Environmental Degradation:
Working with others too to preserve the environmental commons seems to promote
awareness of interdependence.

We can heal our mother nature by many processes like avoiding deforestation, following
proper government regulation, reducing consumption level, reusing the
resources, recycling environmental products, waste management, and spreading
awareness.
Famous social ecologist G.P. Marsh says, “whether a man is of nature or above her,” it
suggests we should keep in mind that if we nourish our mother earth, she will sustain us
too.

How do Human Activities Affect the

Environment?
The environment is like a blanket that surrounds our being
everywhere. By environment, we do not only mean plants or
animals. The environment is inclusive of all the living and nonliving
creatures present on the Earth. The interaction between humans
and the environment exists right from the evolution of human
beings on earth. Humans have a significant impact on the
environment.

There are many answers to how human activities affect the

environment. The impact of human activities on the environment is
two-sided - positive and negative. Humans are responsible for
impacting the biophysical environment, biodiversity, and other
resources and the working mechanism of the environment. Many
factors have led to alterations in the environment. Have you ever
wondered how the human population affects the environment?

(Image will be uploaded soon)

Effects of Human Activities on Environment are as

Follows
1. Loss of Biodiversity.
2. Pollution
3. Climate Change.
4. Misuse of Natural Resources.
5. Erosion

This article will give you a summary of what is the human impact on
the environment and how the human population affects the
environment.

Effects of Human Activities on Environment

1. Loss of Biodiversity
Ever wondered how human activities affect the environment? One of
the major effects of human activities on the Environment is
Biodiversity loss. Biodiversity is the variety of species living in an
ecosystem. The larger the number of species and genetic variation,
the greater is the biodiversity. Due to the increase in human
settlements, many forests are being cut. This has led to a reduction
in the number of plant species. Many animals become homeless.
The constantly changing climatic conditions and extinction of many
ecosystems have also led to the loss of biodiversity. It is astonishing
to see the impact of human activities on the environment.
2. Pollution
Pollution is a major issue faced by us today. Pollution is a result of
the ignorance of humans towards their environment. The wrongful
disposal of wastes on the roads, in the water bodies, leads to land
and water pollution. The harmful emissions from the human-made
factories get released into the air, causing air pollution. It is sad to
see that the developments made to benefit us are depleting our
environment day after day. This is how humans affect their
environment.

3. Climate Change
One of the most significant human impacts on the environment is
deforestation. Due to deforestation and pollution, there are
significant changes in the weather conditions of a place. These
changes when happening in a prolonged chain are known as climate
change. Deforestation causes a delay in the arrival of monsoon and
the purification of the air. With growing human settlements and
industrialization, the level of harmful gases in the environment
keeps increasing.

4. Misuse of Natural Resources

The misuse or over-exploitation of natural resources also has a
human impact on the environment. It puts a lot of stress on the
environment to re-create these natural resources. Not all natural
resources can be re-created. Some of them like petroleum take
thousands of years to get replenished.

5. Erosion
Another major human impact on the environment is brought by
Erosion. The deforestation and littering of the soil make it more
prone to erosion. Due to the uprooting of trees, the soil becomes
loose and can easily be carried away by the air or floods. Erosion is
also partially connected to climate change.

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How does Human Population Affect the Environment?

The human population is largely responsible for the human impact
on the environment. The question of how the human population
affects the environment is very old. The human population is directly
responsible for the changes in the environment. Here are a few
factors that determine the effects of human activities on the
environment.

The increase in the human population causes overcrowding. With

the increase in population, the demand for space, food, resources,
and employment increases. This directly leads to the clearing of
forests or deforestation.

The employment requirements of the people lead to an increase in

industrialization. Industrialization also demands deforestation. The
wastes of the industries are dumped in the river beds or released
into the air, which causes pollution.

Important Facts of Human Impact on the Environment

Did you know that around 27,000 trees are cut every day to produce
toilet paper rolls? Toilet paper rolls are used almost in every
household. They are used and thrown into the garbage bags. So
many trees are cut to satisfy human needs. Such is the impact of
human activities on the environment.

Solved Example
1. How Does the Human Population Affect the Environment?
Answer: The human population has a great impact on the
environment. The impact of human activities on the environment is
direct. Overpopulation of humans leads to deforestation which is
responsible for climatic change. The more the population, the
demand for resources and food grows. This leads to an over-
exploitation of resources. To study the impact of humans on the
environment through the Forest and Environment Act, there is a
separate human impact on the environment article mentioned in the
Act.

Impacts of Human Activities on the Environment

There are different ways humans impact the environment positively
and negatively. The rise and development of industries resulted in
major impacts like acid rain, ozone depletion, genetic modification.
Humans create a major impact on water bodies in different ways.
Some of the impacts caused by humans on the environment are as
follows.

Water Pollution
Trillions of plastic pieces enter the water bodies like ocean, sea,
lake, etc. They lie suspended on the water surface and over time get
deposited on the bed creating harm to the quality of the water. City
sewage and industrial waste are prominent sources of water
pollution. In addition to that, radioactive substances and oil
substances act as a source of water pollution. Agriculture plays a
vital role as the fertilisers and pesticides are swept due to rain and
affect the water bodies. It also contaminates the quality of
groundwater. Water pollution caused approximately 1.8 million
deaths in the year 2015 and also resulted in illness to humans and
animals.

Acid Rain
Any form of precipitation with high levels of nitric acid and sulfuric
acid is termed acid rain. They occur in the form of rain, snow, and
dry materials and get settled to earth. Acid rain has a pH of 4.3
while pure water is perfectly balanced at 7. An increase in the
number of industries and emission of different chemical components
into the air changes the mix of gases in the atmosphere. The release
of fossil fuels like coal, the exhaust of nitrogen oxides, and sulphur
dioxide from automobiles results in acid rain. Acid rain spread miles
after falling on earth. The toxic substances enter water bodies and
create harm to the aquatic animals by making water toxic. Acid rain
also affects the trees by slowing down their growth and sometimes
making the tree die. The food chain also gets affected due to these
harms caused by acid rain.

Acid rain can be prevented by reducing emissions and designing

cleaner power plants and reducing the number of pollutants. Despite
major prevention being done to reduce acid rain, It affects lakes and
aquatic life. More than 95,000 lakes in North America have been
affected by acid rain. The monuments, sculptures, and buildings are
also damaged due to acid rain.

Global Warming
Due to the industrial revolution, the emission of carbon dioxide(CO )
2

in the atmosphere has been increased. This resulted in the decrease

of the pH value of surface ocean water. Carbon dioxide is naturally
present in the atmosphere and it gets dissolved into the seawater.
water and carbon dioxide react to form carbonic acid, a weaker acid
than hydrogen ions (H ) and bicarbonate ions (HCO ). Due to the
+
3
-

impact of humans, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has

increased and more carbon dioxide gets dissolved and reduces the
pH level of the ocean water.
Ocean acidification becomes a major threat to aquatic animals and
decreases the formation of corals. The limitation of coral growth
affects the habitat of coral animals. Larger aquatic animals will also
face the threat due to the increase in the acidity of water. It affects
the respiratory system of aquatic animals. Marine scientists are
much concerned as these impacts are changing the ocean chemistry
much faster than the organisms can adapt.

Ways to Create a Positive Impact on the Environment

Processes like recycling, establishing wildlife preserves and parks
can create a positive impact on the ecosystem. Reducing the usage
of automobiles and switching to public transports can help reduce
the emission of harmful gases in the atmosphere. Recycling and
reusing whenever possible, planting trees, and consuming less meat
can also leave a positive impact on the ecosystem.

Our environment is a very sensitive topic for the modern-day world.

Human activities are literally disrupting the balance of our
ecosystem resulting in a huge negative impact on it. We are
studying the different aspects of human activities, such as pollution,
and their impact on the environment to recuperate from imminent
disasters.
Human impacts on the natural environment are vast and varied,
influencing ecosystems, landscapes, and natural resources. These impacts
arise from a multitude of human activities and practices, affecting the
environment in diverse ways:

1. Deforestation:
 Definition: Deforestation involves the clearing of forests, primarily
for agriculture, logging, urbanization, and industrial purposes.
 Real-World Example: The rapid deforestation of the Amazon
rainforest, often for cattle ranching and agriculture, has significantly
reduced biodiversity and contributed to climate change.
 Solutions: Reforestation efforts, sustainable forestry practices, and
enforcing policies against illegal logging can help mitigate
deforestation.

2. Pollution:
 Definition: Pollution includes the release of harmful substances
into the environment, such as air, water, and soil pollution caused
by industrial waste, vehicle emissions, and improper disposal of
chemicals.
  Real-World Example: The pollution of rivers and oceans due to
untreated industrial waste and plastic dumping has severely
impacted aquatic ecosystems and marine life.
 Solutions: Implementing stricter regulations, promoting renewable
energy sources, and adopting cleaner production methods can help
reduce pollution.

3. Climate Change and Global Warming:

 Definition: Climate change refers to long-term shifts in weather
patterns, including global warming caused by increased greenhouse
gas emissions.
 Real-World Example: Rising temperatures leading to the melting
of polar ice caps, sea-level rise, and extreme weather events like
hurricanes and heatwaves are attributed to climate change.
 Solutions: Decreasing reliance on fossil fuels, investing in
renewable energy, and international cooperation to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions are crucial in combating climate change.

4. Loss of Biodiversity:
 Definition: Human activities like habitat destruction, overhunting,
and introduction of invasive species have led to a significant loss of
biodiversity.
 Real-World Example: The extinction of species due to habitat
destruction, such as the declining population of various animals like
tigers, rhinos, and orangutans due to habitat loss.
 Solutions: Conservation efforts, protected area designation, and
restoration of habitats to safeguard biodiversity.

5. Resource Depletion:
 Definition: Overexploitation of natural resources, including water,
minerals, and fossil fuels, leads to their depletion.
 Real-World Example: Overfishing in oceans leading to the
collapse of fish populations and the exhaustion of groundwater due
to excessive agricultural and industrial use.
 Solutions: Sustainable resource management, recycling, and
development of alternative resources can help mitigate resource
depletion.

6. Urbanization and Habitat Fragmentation:

 Definition: Urban expansion leads to habitat fragmentation,
dividing natural landscapes and disrupting ecosystems.
  Real-World Example: The expansion of cities often encroaches on
wildlife habitats, leading to the isolation and disruption of
ecosystems.
 Solutions: Urban planning that integrates green spaces, wildlife
corridors, and protected areas to minimize habitat fragmentation.

Human impacts on the natural environment have far-reaching

consequences, but through collective effort, awareness, and sustainable
practices, it's possible to mitigate these impacts and move towards a
more harmonious coexistence with nature.

The climate crisis: the causes, the effects and the

solutions
Why is climate change such a concern? What has caused it and what are the risks we face?
We take a look at the causes of the greenhouse effect that are the result of human activity, the

Life on Earth exists thanks to a combination of three factors: our distance

from the Sun, the chemical composition of our atmosphere and the
presence of the water cycle. The atmosphere, in particular, ensures our
planet has a climate that is suitable for sustaining life thanks to the
natural greenhouse effect. When the Sun’s rays reach the surface of the
Earth, they are only partly absorbed, while the rest are reflected
outwards. Without the presence of the atmosphere, they would be
dispersed into space; instead, most of them are trapped and redirected
back towards the Earth by gases present in the atmosphere (mainly
carbon dioxide and methane, but also water vapor, etc.) called
greenhouse gases because of the effect they produce.
This captured heat is added to the heat absorbed directly from the Sun’s
rays. It’s important to add that without the natural greenhouse effect, the
average temperature on the planet would be around -18°C instead of the
current average of about 15°C.

The causes of climate change

If the greenhouse effect is such an advantageous phenomenon, why are
we so concerned about it today? What is the significance of global
warming? And what is meant by climate change?

Climate change has always existed over the course of our planet’s
history. But the global warming that we have been seeing for around the
last 150 years is anomalous because it is the result of human activity. It’s
called the anthropogenic greenhouse effect and occurs in addition to
the natural greenhouse effect. With the industrial revolution, man
suddenly began pumping millions of metric tons of carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, doubling the quantity of
CO2 present in the atmosphere compared with the minimum levels of the
last 700 thousand years (410-415 parts per million compared with 200-
180 parts per million). This can be observed on a daily basis thanks to
surveys by observatories such as the one active in Mauna Loa, in the
Hawaii archipelago. For around 15 years, the data produced by
thousands of scientists all over the world, analyzed and organized by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), has confirmed
that global warming derives from the anthropogenic greenhouse effect,
i.e., it is caused by human activity. In reality, the scientific basis for the
connection between the levels of carbon dioxide and rises in temperature
was established back in the last century, thanks to the work of Nobel
Prize winner Svante Arrhenius, later confirmed by American scientist
David Keeling in the 1960s.

The consequences of climate change

Over the course of the last century the average temperature of the planet
rose by 0.98 °C and the trend we’ve been seeing since 2000 would
indicate that, unless interventions are made, a further rise to reach 1.5°
by 2030 is likely. The impact of global warming is already evident:
arctic sea ice has been shrinking by 12.85% each decade, while coastal
tide logs show that sea levels have been rising each year by 3.3mm since
1870. The decade 2009-2019 was the hottest ever recorded and 2020
was the second hottest year ever, only just behind the record year of
2016. The “fire seasons” have become longer and more intense, like the
one in Australia in 2019; since 1990 the frequency of extreme weather
events, such as cyclones and floods, has also increased, occurring even
at atypical moments of the year compared with the past and at
devastating levels of intensity. Phenomena such as El Niño have become
more irregular and have caused dangerous droughts in areas already
threatened by chronic aridity, like East Africa, while the Gulf Stream is
slowing down and could well change route. Plant and animal species are
migrating in unpredictable ways from one ecosystem to another, creating
incalculable damage to biodiversity around the world.

Defining all this with the term climate change is accurate but does not
give the full picture of what is happening. We must begin by talking
about the climate crisis because the climate has always been changing,
but never so quickly and never in the presence of such rigid and complex
infrastructure as can be found in the cities and production systems of
industrialized countries.

 0,98° The temperature increase in 2019 compared to pre-industrial levels

 1,5° The temperature increase by 2030 - 2050 if no steps are taken

 97% The percentage of scientists who attribute global warming to human

activity.

The solutions to climate change

Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and destroying rainforests,
have an increasing influence on the climate and the Earth’s temperature.
This adds huge quantities of greenhouse gases to those naturally present
in the atmosphere, increasing the greenhouse effect and global warming.
Causing the most damage is, above all, the consumption of coal, oil
and gas, which represent the majority of greenhouse gas emissions. In
2019, according to McKinsey’s Global Energy Perspective 2019, fossil
fuels were responsible for 83% of total CO2 emissions and the
production of electricity from coal-fired power stations alone
contributed 36%, even though in 2020 – on account of the Covid-19
pandemic – emissions fell dramatically (source: World Energy Outlook
2020). It is estimated that the current trend of CO2 emissions due to
burning coal is responsible for around a third of the increase of 1°C in
average annual temperatures above pre-industrial levels, making it the
largest source of emissions in all of human history. In absolute terms, oil
is the second largest source of emissions, having produced 12.54 billion
tons of CO2 (86% of the total carbon emissions of 14.55 billion tons) in
2019.

The destruction of forests also causes substantial damage: trees help

regulate the climate by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
so if they are destroyed, this beneficial effect is diminished and the
carbon stored in those trees is emitted into the atmosphere, adding to
the greenhouse effect.

Finally, the increase in intensive animal farming and the use of

fertilizers containing ozone contribute to increasing emissions of
greenhouse gases.

International agreements
How to remedy the situation? At the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) conference (COP 21) in
December 2015, international representatives adopted the Paris
Agreement, which provides a credible framework for achieving
decarbonization, with long-term goals to tackle climate change and a
flexible structure based on contributions from individual governments.
The signatory nations committed to limiting the increase in temperature
to below 2° centigrade compared with preindustrial levels, with efforts
to contain this to within 1.5°C, with the ultimate goal of passing peak
emissions as soon as possible and achieving carbon neutrality in the
second half of the century. Despite the success of COP21, many
questions concerning the Agreement have remained unresolved. In 2018,
COP24 in Katowice, Poland, approved the implementation guidelines of
the Paris Agreement (the so-called Paris Rulebook). In 2021, COP26 in
Glasgow reaffirmed the commitment to achieve Global Neutrality by
2050.

The road ahead towards decarbonization is clear and is known as

the energy transition: the shift from an energy mix based on fossil fuels
to one with zero carbon emissions and based on renewable energy
sources. Technologies that support decarbonization already exist, are
efficient and should be implemented at all levels. A significant
contribution to decarbonization will come from the electrification of final
consumption. This means replacing fossil fuel-based technologies in all
sectors – from homes to local and long-distance transport, to heavy
industry – with technologies that use electricity produced from
renewable sources, reducing not only greenhouse gas emissions, but air
pollution as well, particularly in cities.

Science offers clear data, projections and carefully studied future

scenarios. Climate change waits for no one and will not stop on its own.
What is required is a substantial cultural change, a true paradigm-shift.
There is already widespread agreement on what needs to be done: it now
needs to be turned into reality.
An environment is generally defined as the surroundings or conditions in
which a person, animal or plant survives or operates. From this, it must be
relatively easy for one to comprehend its importance in the famed cycle of
life.

Our environment is constantly changing, and as our environment changes

so does the need to become increasingly aware of the environmental
issues that are causing these changes. With a massive increase in natural
disasters, warming and cooling periods, and different types of weather
patterns, people need to be a lot more cautious with the way they lead
their lives in conjunction with the types of environmental issues our planet
is facing.

Also Read: Our Environment

Environmental Issues
Environmental issues are the harmful effects of human activities on the
environment. These include pollution, overpopulation, waste disposal,
climate change, global warming, the greenhouse effect, etc.

Various environment protection programs are being practised at the

individual, organizational and government levels with the aim of
establishing a balance between man and the environment.

Some of the current environmental issues that require urgent attention

are:
Climate Change
Climate change is a great concern in today’s scenario. This problem has
surfaced in the last few decades. Greenhouse gases are the major cause
of climate change. Environmental changes have several destructive
impacts such as the melting of glaciers, change in seasons, epidemics,
etc.

Global Warming
The burning of fossil fuels, emissions from automobiles and
chlorofluorocarbons add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This
has led to an increase in the earth’s temperature causing environmental
changes. This increase in temperature across the globe is known as global
warming.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer is a layer of concentrated ozone gas. It protects us from
the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. This very important layer is being
destroyed by CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), which are used in industries and
everyday life (e.g. aerosol cans).

The chlorine in these compounds destroys the ozone layer. The hole in the
ozone layer leaves humans and wildlife exposed to harmful UV rays
resulting in several skin diseases including cancer.

Water Pollution
The introduction of harmful substances into rivers, oceans, lakes and
ponds, which changes the physical, chemical or biological condition of the
water is called water pollution. The polluted water lacks oxygen and
therefore the organisms die.

Water is the main source of life and therefore it is our prime duty to
prevent it from any kind of pollution.

Air Pollution
Air pollution is the result of emissions from industries, automobiles, and
the increasing use of fossil fuels. The gaseous emissions have added to an
increase in the temperature of the earth. Not only this, but it had also
increased the risk of diseases among individuals.

Solid Waste Management

Solid-waste management is defined as the discipline associated with the
generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and
disposal of solid waste in a manner that it does not have a harmful effect
on the environment.

Deforestation
Deforestation is the depletion of trees and forests at an alarming rate. The
trees provide us with oxygen, and several raw materials and also maintain
the temperature of the earth. Due to the depletion of trees for commercial
purposes, there has been a drastic change in the earth’s climate.

Forests are an abode to a large number of wild animals and plants.

Destruction of forests has led to the elimination of a large number of
plants and animal species affecting biodiversity.

Overpopulation
The earth’s population is increasing drastically. It is estimated to be more
than seven billion. The increasing population has led to a shortage of
resources. If this continues, it will be very difficult to sustain such a huge
population. The other environmental issues including pollution, waste
management, deforestation, climate change and global warming are all
associated with overpopulation.

Also Read: Solid Waste Management

Solutions to Environmental Issues

Following are some of the most common solutions to the environmental
issue:

1. Replace disposal items with reusable items.

2. The use of paper should be avoided.
3. Conserve water and electricity.
4. Support environmental friendly practices.
5. Recycle waste to conserve natural resources.
Environmental issues are a warning of the upcoming disaster. If these
issues are not controlled, there will soon be no life on earth.

Greenhouse Effect Definition

“Greenhouse effect is the process by which radiations from the
sun are absorbed by the greenhouse gases and not reflected back
into space. This insulates the surface of the earth and prevents it
from freezing.”

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

A greenhouse is a house made of glass that can be used to grow plants.
The sun’s radiations warm the plants and the air inside the greenhouse.
The heat trapped inside can’t escape out and warms the greenhouse
which is essential for the growth of the plants. Same is the case in the
earth’s atmosphere.

During the day the sun heats up the earth’s atmosphere. At night, when
the earth cools down the heat is radiated back into the atmosphere.
During this process, the heat is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the
earth’s atmosphere. This is what makes the surface of the earth warmer,
that makes the survival of living beings on earth possible.

However, due to the increased levels of greenhouse gases, the

temperature of the earth has increased considerably. This has led to
several drastic effects.

Let us have a look at the greenhouse gases and understand the causes
and consequences of greenhouse effects with the help of a diagram.

Greenhouse Gases
“Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb the infrared
radiations and create a greenhouse effect. For eg., carbondioxide
and chlorofluorocarbons.”

Greenhouse Effect Diagram

The Diagram shows Greenhouse Gases such as carbon dioxide are the primary cause
for the Greenhouse Effect

The major contributors to the greenhouse gases are factories,

automobiles, deforestation, etc. The increased number of factories and
automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the atmosphere. The
greenhouse gases never let the radiations escape from the earth and
increase the surface temperature of the earth. This then leads to global
warming.

Causes of Greenhouse Effect

The major causes of the greenhouse effect are:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are an important part of our lives. They are widely used in
transportation and to produce electricity. Burning of fossil fuels releases
carbon dioxide. With the increase in population, the utilization of fossil
fuels has increased. This has led to an increase in the release of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Deforestation
Plants and trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Due to the
cutting of trees, there is a considerable increase in the greenhouse gases
which increases the earth’s temperature.

Farming
Nitrous oxide used in fertilizers is one of the contributors to the
greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.

Industrial Waste and Landfills

The industries and factories produce harmful gases which are released in
the atmosphere.

Landfills also release carbon dioxide and methane that adds to the
greenhouse gases.

Effects of Greenhouse Effect

The main effects of increased greenhouse gases are:

Global Warming
It is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the average temperature of
the Earth’s atmosphere. The main cause for this environmental issue is
the increased volumes of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and
methane released by the burning of fossil fuels, emissions from the
vehicles, industries and other human activities.

Depletion of Ozone Layer

Ozone Layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun.
It is found in the upper regions of the stratosphere. The depletion of
the ozone layer results in the entry of the harmful UV rays to the earth’s
surface that might lead to skin cancer and can also change
the climate drastically.

The major cause of this phenomenon is the accumulation of natural

greenhouse gases including chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide,
methane, etc.

Smog and Air Pollution

Smog is formed by the combination of smoke and fog. It can be caused
both by natural means and man-made activities.

In general, smog is generally formed by the accumulation of

more greenhouse gases including nitrogen and sulfur oxides. The major
contributors to the formation of smog are automobile and industrial
emissions, agricultural fires, natural forest fires and the reaction of these
chemicals among themselves.

Acidification of Water Bodies

Increase in the total amount of greenhouse gases in the air has turned
most of the world’s water bodies acidic. The greenhouse gases mix with
the rainwater and fall as acid rain. This leads to the acidification of water
bodies.

Also, the rainwater carries the contaminants along with it and falls into the
river, streams and lakes thereby causing their acidification.

Runaway Greenhouse Effect

This phenomenon occurs when the planet absorbs more radiation than it
can radiate back. Thus, the heat lost from the earth’s surface is less and
the temperature of the planet keeps rising. Scientists believe that this
phenomenon took place on the surface of Venus billions of years ago.

This phenomenon is believed to have occurred in the following manner:

 A runaway greenhouse effect arises when the temperature of a planet rises to

a level of the boiling point of water. As a result, all the water from the oceans
converts into water vapour, which traps more heat coming from the sun and
further increases the planet’s temperature. This eventually accelerates the
greenhouse effect. This is also called the “positive feedback loop”.
  There is another scenario giving way to the runaway greenhouse effect.
Suppose the temperature rise due to the above causes reaches such a high
level that the chemical reactions begin to occur. These chemical reactions
drive carbon dioxide from the rocks into the atmosphere. This would heat the
surface of the planet which would further accelerate the transfer of carbon
dioxide from the rocks to the atmosphere, giving rise to the runaway
greenhouse effect.

In simple words, increasing the greenhouse effect gives rise to a runaway

greenhouse effect which would increase the temperature of the earth to
such an extent that no life will exist in the near future.

To learn more about what is the greenhouse effect, its definition, causes
and effects, keep visiting BYJU’S website or download the BYJU’S app for
further reference.

Global Warming Definition

“Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature
generally due to the greenhouse effect caused by increased
levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants. “
1,01,554

Table of Contents

 What is Global Warming?

 Causes of Global Warming
 Man-made Causes of Global Warming
 Natural Causes of Global Warming
 Effects of Global Warming

What is Global Warming?

Global warming is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the
temperature near the earth’s surface. This phenomenon has been
observed over the past one or two centuries. This change has disturbed
the climatic pattern of the earth. However, the concept of global warming
is quite controversial but the scientists have provided relevant data in
support of the fact that the temperature of the earth is rising constantly.

There are several causes of global warming, which have a negative effect
on humans, plants and animals. These causes may be natural or might be
the outcome of human activities. In order to curb the issues, it is very
important to understand the negative impacts of global warming.

For More Information On Global Warming, Watch The Below Video:

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Let us have a detailed study of global warming, its causes and its effects.

Also Read: Environmental Issues

Causes of Global Warming

Following are the major causes of global warming:

Man-made Causes of Global Warming

Deforestation
Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and
release oxygen thereby maintaining environmental balance. Forests are
being depleted for many domestic and commercial purposes. This has led
to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving rise to global warming.

Use of Vehicles
The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various
gaseous emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of
carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere resulting in a
temperature increase.

Chlorofluorocarbon
With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have
been adding CFCs into the environment which affects the atmospheric
ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth surface from the harmful
ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The CFCs have led to ozone layer
depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the
temperature of the earth.

Industrial Development
With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has
been increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the factories add to
the increasing temperature of the earth.

In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that

the increase in the global temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been
0.9 degrees Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius when compared
to the pre-industrial mean temperature.
Agriculture
Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas.
These add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase the
temperature of the earth.

Overpopulation
An increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an
increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global
warming, in the atmosphere.

Natural Causes of Global Warming

Volcanoes
Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming.
The ash and smoke emitted during volcanic eruptions goes out into the
atmosphere and affects the climate.

Water Vapour
Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the
earth’s temperature, more water gets evaporated from the water bodies
and stays in the atmosphere adding to global warming.

Melting Permafrost
Permafrost is frozen soil that has environmental gases trapped in it for
several years and is present below Earth’s surface. It is present in
glaciers. As the permafrost melts, it releases the gases back into the
atmosphere, increasing Earth’s temperature.

Forest Blazes
Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing
smoke. These gases are released into the atmosphere and increase the
earth’s temperature resulting in global warming.

Also Read: Bergmann’s Rule

Effects of Global Warming

Following are the major effects of global warming:
Rise in Temperature
Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature.
Since 1880, the earth’s temperature has increased by ~1 degrees. This
has resulted in an increase in the melting of glaciers, which have led to an
increase in the sea level. This could have devastating effects on coastal
regions.

Threats to the Ecosystem

Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to the loss of
plant and animal lives. Increase in global temperatures has made the
fragility of coral reefs even worse.

Climate Change
Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are
droughts at some places and floods at some. This climatic imbalance is
the result of global warming.

Spread of Diseases
Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity.
This has led to the movement of mosquitoes that carry and spread
diseases.

High Mortality Rates

Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the
average death toll usually increases. Also, such events can bring about
the spread of diseases that can hamper human life.

Loss of Natural Habitat

A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants
and animals. In this case, the animals need to migrate from their natural
habitat and many of them even become extinct. This is yet another major
impact of global warming on biodiversity.
Understanding Climate Variability and Change

In order to understand climate change, we must understand climate variability. This

module will outline some key concepts such as weather, climate variability and of
course, climate change.
Weather vs. Climate; Natural Variability vs. Climate
Change
Weather describes current atmospheric conditions, such as rainfall, temperature,
and wind speed, at a particular place and time. It changes from day to day.
Climate is the average (or ‘normal’) pattern of weather for a particular place over
several decades. Changes in climate are hard to detect without very long-term
records.
“Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get” Heinlein, 1974.
One way to understand the difference between weather, climate variability and
climate change is to think about how they operate on different time scales.
The big arrow in Figure 1 refers to different periods of time – days, months, years, decades and
centuries. We can see here that weather refers to hours, days and maybe months; climate refers
to months, years and decades, and climate change refers to decades and centuries. Examples of
weather are rain storms that might last one or two hours and tropical cyclones that may last days.
Climate variability can be defined by climate patterns such as the El-Niño Southern Oscillation
and climate change refers to things which happen over centuries, like global warming.
 Figure 1: A guide to the timescales applicable to weather, climate variability and
climate change.
We are now going to take a closer look at the each of these timescales. The graph in Figure 2
shows an example of the changes in air temperature over five days. On the vertical axis (also
called the “y-axis”) the temperature is displayed and on the horizontal axis (the “x-axis”) are the
five days. This shows the influence of weather, as well as the daily (also called the “diurnal”)
cycle – for example the minimum daily temperatures and maximum daily temperatures are
different on each day. Some days are warmer than others and there is variability from hour to
hour.

Figure 2: Example air temperature over five days

The graph in Figure 3, the time scale has been expanded to show temperature changes over five
years. The temperature is shown in degrees Celsius on the y-axis and the years are shown on
the x-axis. The black rectangle shows a five-day period similar to that shown in Figure 2. The
blue line shows the daily temperature variation and the red line shows the average daily
temperature over the five years. Daily temperatures vary greatly but the daily averages clearly
show that some parts of the year are regularly warmer than others. These seasonal cycles are
an example of a temperate climate with four distinct seasons: summer, autumn, winter and
spring.

Figure 3: Example air temperature over five years (the black rectangle shows a five-
day period like that shown in Figure 2).
You can see how summer temperatures are higher and winter temperatures are lower in some
years than others due to natural variation. However, if we want to understand the general climate
of this area, we need to consider a longer time period such is shown in Figure 4.

Over a longer period, such as 50 years (see Figure 4), we can see the year to year variability
more clearly. We can calculate the long term mean, or average climate and we can see whether
there is a trend in the mean climate. In this example there is a warming trend identified by the
black line going up. This shows an increase of more than one degree Celsius over fifty five years.
This is not what would be expected under normal conditions and is very likely an indication that
the climate is changing. It should be noted however, that even though there is a gradual overall
warming trend over the fifty years, the situation can appear quite different if we look at shorter
periods. The short blue lines show that some 10 year periods show a decrease (a) while others
show a more dramatic increase (b) in temperature. These short-term changes are due to natural
variability – caused by factors such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation.
Figure 4: Example air temperature over 50 years (the black rectangle shows a five-
year period like that shown in Figure 3).
What causes climate variability?
In the Pacific region, climate is influenced by three main large-scale features (see Figure 5):

1. South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ)

2. Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
3. West Pacific Monsoon (WPM)
The South Pacific Convergence Zone is a band of heavy rainfall extending from near the
Solomon Islands to east of the Cook Islands. It is strongest in the Southern Hemisphere wet
season.

The Intertropical Convergence Zone stretches across the Pacific just north of the equator and is
strongest in the Northern Hemisphere wet season.

The West Pacific Monsoon is driven by large differences in temperature between the land and
the ocean. It moves north to mainland Asia during the Northern Hemisphere summer and south
to Australia in the Southern Hemisphere summer. The seasonal arrival of the Monsoon usually
brings a switch from very dry to very wet conditions.
Figure 5: The main influences on the climate of the Pacific Region, shown here in
their long-term average November to April positions. The arrows show near surface
winds, the blue shading represents the bands of rainfall convergence zones, the
dashed oval shows the West Pacific Warm Pool and the H’s represent typical
positions of moving high pressure systems.
These features are, in turn, influenced by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) which is the
main cause of year to year variability in the climate of the Pacific. ENSO affects the strength and
position of the main climate features, leading to variability in rainfall, temperature, winds, cyclone
activity, ocean currents and sea level.

During the Southern Hemisphere wet season, the heaviest rainfall occurs in the monsoon region
and in the South Pacific Convergence Zone.

The map in Figure 6 shows the long term mean climate of the Southern Hemisphere wet season
rainfall and surface winds. Rainfall is shown by the colours, where darker blue represents the
wetter areas and purple/red the driest. The wind is shown by the arrows.
Figure 6: Long term mean rainfall and wind in the Southern Hemisphere wet season
over the Pacific. Colours show rainfall in mm/day and arrows show wind speed and
direction averaged for December to February.
The South Pacific Convergence Zone and the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone can be seen as
regions of high rainfall. Also, high rainfall can be seen over the western Pacific because of the
West Pacific Monsoon. Winds converge to form the South Pacific Convergence Zone.

In contrast, the climate of the Southern Hemisphere dry season (Figure 7) has the heaviest
rainfall in the monsoon region and the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone.

Figure 7: Long term mean rainfall and wind in the Southern Hemisphere dry season
over the Pacific. Colours show rainfall in mm/day and arrows show wind speed and
direction averaged for June to August.
As we have seen, climate variability describes short-term changes in climate that take place over
months, seasons and years. This variability is the result of natural, large-scale features of the
climate that we looked at earlier. It is likely that you have heard of El Niño and La Niña, these are
the two phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (sometimes shortened to ENSO – see Figure
8) which is the most important driver of year-to-year variability in climate in the Pacific region.
The different phases of ENSO can cause droughts and floods. Each El Niño and La Niña event is
different and so they have different impacts. El Niño and La Niña events drive changes in
circulation, winds, rainfall and ocean surface temperatures.

Normal conditions, or the neutral phase of ENSO, is shown on the left in Figure 8. The trade
winds (white arrows) blow to the west and cause a build up of warm surface water (orange-red
areas) and higher sea level in the West Pacific. The warm water heats the air above it, making
the moist air rise and forming clouds (this is called convection). This warmer air then moves east
to where the air is cooler, the cooler air sinks towards the surface and moves west, creating a
convective circulation.

Figure 8: Three-dimensional depiction of three important phases of the El Niño-

Southern Oscillation (ENSO): Normal (left), La Niña (centre) and El Niño (right).
(Image source: NOAA, http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/nino-home.html).
Under La Niña conditions, shown in the centre of Figure 8, ocean temperatures across the
central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean are cooler than normal (blue and green areas) and the
easterly trade winds are stronger than normal across the Pacific Ocean. La Niña usually brings
wetter than normal conditions to countries like Australia, Niue and Tonga because rainfall moves
farther to the south-west than under normal conditions.

El Niño (Figure 8, right) brings extensive warming of the central and eastern Pacific and weaker
than normal (easterly) trade winds leading to a major shift in weather patterns across the Pacific.
Typical El Niño conditions in the northern hemisphere winter result in the western Pacific
experiencing very dry conditions and the central Pacific around the equator experiencing wetter
conditions. The 1997 El Niño brought drought to countries like Papua New Guinea.

Causes of climate change

The Earth’s climate has changed over the centuries and millennia due to a number of different
factors (see Figure 9).

These include:

 Natural changes in the Earth’s orbit which may occur over time scales of
thousands of years
 Natural changes in the sun which affect the amount of incoming solar
radiation
 Natural, large-scale volcanic eruptions which eject large amounts of ash
into the atmosphere. The ash may remain in the atmosphere for several
months or years reflecting sunlight back into space and resulting in a
drop of mean global surface temperature
 Changes in atmospheric chemistry (such as the quantity of greenhouse
gases) – both natural and caused by human activities. It is almost
certain that most of the changes seen in the past century have been
caused by human activities such as burning fossil fuels. We will now
concentrate on these changes.
Figure 9: Factors that lead to changes in the Earth’s climate.
The role of ‘greenhouse gases’
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that makes our planet liveable. Without the
greenhouse effect, the average temperature at the earth’s surface would be below the freezing
point of water. As shown in Figure 10, some of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb
the outgoing solar radiation and reflect it back to earth keeping Earth’s temperatures much as we
know them now. The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere can be compared to the walls of a
greenhouse, keeping the heat in. These greenhouse gases include: water vapour, carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane, nitrous oxide and some industrial gases such as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs). Water vapour and carbon dioxide are the most important greenhouse gases.

Adding more of a greenhouse gas, such as CO2, to the atmosphere intensifies the greenhouse
effect, thus warming Earth’s climate. The amount of warming depends on various feedback
mechanisms.
Figure 10: The ‘Greenhouse Effect’. (Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, Fourth Assessment Report, 2007).
As can be seen in Figure 11, current atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (in red) far
exceed pre-industrial values (pre-1700 values). This has been determined in part by analysing
the air trapped in ice cores spanning the past 800,000 years. The inset picture shows air bubbles
trapped in an ice core taken from Antarctica - this air has been tested for levels of C0 2.
The graph shows carbon dioxide levels are now rising at a very fast rate. During the 1990s, the
amount of carbon dioxide in the air rose by less than 1 part per million per year. From 2000–
2005, the growth rate increased to more than 2.5 parts per million per year. Carbon dioxide
concentrations are now greater than at any time during the past 800,000 years. The rate of
increase is accelerating.

At the same time as carbon dioxide is increasing in the atmosphere, the earth is warming. The
climate system is currently warmer than at any time during the past 2000 years, and perhaps the
warmest it has been for a million years. This is consistent with the increases in carbon dioxide
emissions.

Figure 11: Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4)
for the past 1000 years. Inset: ice-core sample showing trapped air bubbles. (Source:
CSIRO)
The graph in Figure 12 shows 100 years (1910-2010) of annual mean surface air temperature
anomalies (relative to the 1961-1990 mean) for the globe and the PCCSP/PACCSAP region. The
solid blue and red lines indicate 11-year running means for the global and PCCSP/PACCSAP
region temperature respectively. You can also see that most of the region’s warmest years have
occurred over the last two decades. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere due to human activities are most likely the underlying cause of warming in the
20th century.
Figure 12: Surface air temperature anomalies (relative to 1961-1990) for the globe
and the PCCSP/PACCSAP region from 1910-2010.
As we put greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, this creates warming, and a lot of this heat
goes into the ocean. The chart in Figure 13 shows that most of the extra heat from global
warming is being absorbed by the oceans and only very small amounts are absorbed by land
masses and the atmosphere. This results in changes to the ocean which we will look at in the
next section.
Figure 13: Heat content of the ocean, land and atmosphere from 1950 to the early
2000s. Note that almost all of the added heat has gone into the ocean. (Source:
http://www.skepticalscience.com/graphics.php)
Changes in the Oceans
As water warms it expands. Added to this, glaciers and ice sheets melt as the atmospheric
temperature increases. These two factors, expanding warmer water and ice melt, result in sea
level rise. Observations of sea level rise from tide gauges over the 20th century show a global
average sea level rise of 1.7 mm a year, or a total of 17 cm over the 100 years. The graph in
Figure 14 shows global average sea level since 1850. The solid blue line is based on tide gauge
data and the red line is sea level measured by satellites. Since 1993 the rate of rise measured by
satellite altimeters has been about 3.2 mm/yr and from tide gauges about 3.0 mm/yr. Sea level
rise is a challenge for low lying areas.

Figure 14: Global average sea level since 1850 derived from tide gauge data (blue
line) and satellite data (red line).
The ocean absorbs about one quarter of the annual emission of CO2 resulting from human
activities. This is good in that it slows the rate of atmospheric warming but the consequence is
ocean acidification.

When the CO2 is taken up by the ocean, it combines with the seawater to produce carbonic acid,
a weak acid (Figure 15). The ocean is alkaline but the addition of carbonic acid reduces the
alkalinity. As a result, many key species in tropical ecosystems, including reef building corals,
show a reduced capacity to grow calcium carbonate skeletons and shells. Ocean acidification
could have serious consequences for these reef ecosystems which are already stressed by
global warming and other pressures like fishing. This will in turn impact industries such as coastal
fisheries and others that depend on marine resources.
Figure 15: Carbon dioxide is absorbed by the oceans leading to a change in the
water chemistry. (Source: Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007)
The climate has changed across the Pacific region and while there is considerable variation from
country to country, there are some general similarities across the region.

Temperature has warmed at all locations in the Pacific, with Pacific island annual temperature
trends ranging between 0.1 to 0.2 °C/decade (1960-2009). Rainfall across the region has
increased and decreased in response to natural climate variability but over the last 50 years,
rainfall totals have increased to the north-east of the South Pacific Convergence Zone and
declined to the south.

There have been significant changes to the ocean too with acidification increasing across the
region, Sea level has risen, however there are differences across the region.

In summary
This module has outlined some of the key aspects of both climate variability and climate change.
Climate is the long term average of weather, and climate variability acts on different timescales.
ENSO is the most important driver of year to year variability in the region. A large increase in
greenhouse gases has resulted in climate change, which is a long-term trend in the mean
climate. While there is a clear trend in increasing air temperatures, it is often more difficult to
identify climate change trends in rainfall because rainfall has larger natural variability. It is
important to remember that climate variability and climate change can occur together so we while
we still experience cold and cool weather, the overall average climate is warmer than it was one
hundred years ago.