Review

What Is Polluting Delhi’s Air? A Review from 1990 to 2022

Sarath K. Guttikunda 1,2,*, Sai Krishna Dammalapati 2, Gautam Pradhan 3, Bhargav Krishna 4, Hiren T. Jethwa 5
and Puja Jawahar 2

1 Transportation Research and Injury Prevention (TRIP) Centre, Indian Institute of Technology,
New Delhi 110016, India
2 Urban Emissions, New Delhi 110019, India

3 Earthmetry, Bengaluru 560037, India

4 Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi 110021, India

5 GESTAR-II, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Morgan State University, Greenbelt, MD 21251, USA

* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Delhi’s annual average PM2.5 concentration in 2021–22 was 100 μg/m3—20 times more than
the WHO guideline of 5 μg/m3. This is an improvement compared to the limited information
available for the pre-CNG-conversion era (~30%), immediately before and after 2010 CWG (~28%),
and the mid-2010s (~20%). These changes are a result of continuous technical and economic
interventions interlaced with judicial engagement in various sectors. Still, Delhi is ranked the most
polluted capital city in the world. Delhi’s air quality is a major social and political concern in India,
often with questions regarding its severity and primary sources, and despite several studies on the
topic, there is limited consensus on source contributions. This paper offers insight by reviewing the
influence of Delhi’s urban growth since 1990 on pollution levels and sources and the evolution of
technical, institutional, and legal measures to control emissions in the National Capital Region of
Delhi.

Keywords: air quality monitoring; PM2.5; Delhi; India; source apportionment; sectoral history; long-
term trends

Citation: Guttikunda, S.K.;

Dammalapati, S.K.; Pradhan, G.;
1. Introduction
Krishna, B.; Jethwa, H.T.; Jawahar, P. “How bad is Delhi’s air quality?” and “What are the main sources of Delhi’s air
What Is Polluting Delhi’s Air? A pollution problem?” are perennial questions in India, despite Delhi being the most
Review from 1990 to 2022. studied city [1–8]. Delhi’s air pollution peaks during the winter months starting with
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209. Diwali and post-harvest agricultural waste burning and deteriorates further with lower
https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054209 surface temperatures resulting in an increase in demand for space heating [9–11]. The
Academic Editor: Mohammad pollution levels are the lowest during the monsoon months, but not negligible. This
Aslam Khan Khalil cyclical nature also overlaps with the overall interest in the topic and efforts to address
the issue, peaking at the start of the winter pollution episodes, with the most the media
Received: 2 February 2023
coverage (based on the number of articles published), public interest (based on social
Revised: 22 February 2023
media activity and google search trends), and political will (based on the number of
Accepted: 23 February 2023
Published: 26 February 2023
political statements made) [12,13].
Delhi’s air pollution is a year-round problem with substantial contributions coming
from vehicle exhaust, road dust, construction dust, cooking and heating, open waste
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
burning, light and heavy industries, diesel generator sets, seasonal sources such as
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. agricultural burning and dust storms, and contributions from sources outside Delhi’s
This article is an open access article administrative boundary [2,7,8,14,15]. While Delhi’s air quality is the most talked about,
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons studied, and published (nationally and internationally), there is limited consensus on its
Attribution (CC BY) license sources and their contributions. These modelling studies conducted between 1990 and
(https://creativecommons.org/license
2022 ranged from the use of filter sampling with chemical analysis in a laboratory [8],
s/by/4.0/).

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054209 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 2 of 38

building multi-pollutant emission inventories [14,16,17], conducting chemical transport

modelling [18–20], to the use of real-time instruments [21–23].
Continuous ambient air quality monitoring expanded from mostly manual
monitoring in the 1990s to one real-time station in the 2000s to 40+ real-time stations in
2022. These stations measure and reported a mix of pollutants ranging from aerosols such
as particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10 size fractions), to gases such as sulphur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH3), and ozone
[24,25]. For convenience, the discussion in this paper is limited to PM2.5, which is the most
important pollutant often exceeding Indian standards [3,26,27] and also contributes to a
large share of estimated health impacts related to the respiratory, heart, and neurological
systems [28–34].
The judiciary system, comprising the Supreme Court and the National Green
Tribunal, has played a critical role in addressing the air pollution problem in Delhi, in
some cases mandating technical, economic, and institutional solutions ahead of the
respective national and state departments. Despite these efforts, in 2022, Delhi’s air quality
ranked the worst among the world’s capital cities [35].
More than 100 studies have documented the rise and fall of Delhi’s air quality, the
interventions in various sectors that worked and failed to address the air quality problem,
the capacity-building efforts to generate and disseminate monitoring data, the efforts to
quantify emission sources and their contributions to ambient PM2.5 pollution, the ways to
raise awareness via pollution alert systems, and the challenges in institutionalising air
quality management efforts. This long-form review paper aims to gain a deeper
understanding of the concerns surrounding Delhi’s air quality and its evolution from data,
including sectoral, judicial, and institutional perspectives, by consolidating all the
information between 1990 and 2022.

2. Geography and Meteorology

Delhi was designated union territory in 1956 and the National Capital Territory
(NCT) in 1992, with limited state-level administrative power. The NCT (Table 1), covering
~0.05% of India’s landmass, is inhabited by ~1.6% of India’s total population and hosts
~8% of India’s registered vehicle fleet. Situated on the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP), the city
is landlocked between the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan and is
surrounded by multiple Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities. The most notable satellite cities are
Gurgaon, Noida, Greater Noida, Ghaziabad, Faridabad, and Sonipat, with constant
personal and commercial traffic to and from Delhi. The most notable Tier-3 cities within
Delhi’s influential airshed are Rohtak, Jhajjar, Manesar, Bhiwadi, Bulandshahr, Hapur,
and Meerut. Collectively with more districts from the neighbouring states, this area is
referred to as the National Capital Region (NCR).

Table 1. Geographical and other salient characteristics of the NCT-Delhi (Data sources: Census
India, Open Street Maps, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, and Delhi Statistical reports).

Characteristic Data
Total area 1500 km2
Green cover (2019) 21%
Number of districts 11
Number of sub-districts 27
Number of municipal corporations 3
Total state population 19 million
Net migrant population (2011 census) 2 million
Population density 12,000 persons/km2
Urbanization (state) 86%
GDP (per capita, 2020) US$4600
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 3 of 38

Road density 2100 km/100 km2

Total registered vehicles (2021) 14 million
Metro rail length 350 km
Landfills 3
Landfill capacity 7000 tons/day
PM2.5 pollution rank (2021) 4 (among world cities) [35]
PM2.5 pollution rank (2021) 1 (among world capital cities) [35]

Delhi’s weather can be described as a mix of seasons—warm and pleasant spring

(February to April) with occasional dust storms; hot and humid summer (May to June)
with temperatures reaching up to 40 °C; monsoon (July to September) with occasional
thunderstorms and strong winds; post-monsoon (late September to early November) with
cool breeze and clear skies; and cold and foggy winter (late November to early February)
with temperatures dropping to below 10 °C (Table 2). While the emissions quantum is one
reason for high air pollution levels in Delhi, seasonal meteorology also plays a dominant
role in exacerbating pollution levels [36].
The winter peaks and monsoonal lows in air quality have a strong correlation with
modulations in wind speeds, temperature, and mixing heights. Mixing layer (inversion)
height, which is a proxy for vertical mixing of emissions, is the lowest during the winter
months and even lower during the winter nights (under 100 m), resulting in smaller
volumes of air to mix and disperse emissions. At the same time, the winter months also
witness a sharp rise in emissions from burning coal, biomass, and waste for heating
purposes to counter dropping air and surface temperatures (below 10 °C). The spring and
summer months are marked by mixing layer heights above 1000 m and higher wind
speeds, allowing for better dispersion of emissions, in both horizontal and vertical
dimensions and lesser ambient pollution levels. On average, based on tracer simulations
for the years 2001–2008, wintertime PM2.5 concentrations were 20–60% higher, and
summertime PM2.5 concentrations were 20–40% lower than annual averages [36].

Table 2. Summary of all day (AD), daytime (DT), and nighttime (NT) averages (±standard
deviations) of mixing heights (MH in m), near-surface temperature (T in °C), and near-surface wind
speeds (WS in m/s) by month. Data were extracted from WRF model simulations using the NCEP
reanalysis fields for the year 2018.

MH-AD MH-DT MH-NT T-DT T-NT WS-AD

JAN 298 (58) 557 (118) 39 (8) 18.9 (1.8) 9.9 (1.5) 2.7 (0.7)
FEB 516 (94) 974 (187) 57 (56) 24.2 (2.8) 15.3 (2.5) 2.8 (0.9)
MAR 926 (198) 1801 (393) 51 (18) 30.5 (2.6) 19.6 (1.8) 3.1 (0.6)
APR 1075 (254) 2066 (501) 84 (45) 35.5 (2.4) 26.3 (2.2) 3.8 (0.8)
MAY 1243 (307) 2377 (640) 109 (60) 39.4 (2.7) 31.1 (1.8) 3.7 (0.9)
JUN 1054 (244) 1855 (485) 254 (124) 39.0 (3.2) 34.0 (2.3) 4.5 (1.2)
JUL 573 (240) 994 (450) 153 (85) 33.9 (2.9) 30.6 (2.1) 3.1 (0.7)
AUG 505 (152) 906 (269) 104 (58) 33.0 (2.1) 29.3 (1.3) 2.7 (0.7)
SEP 462 (123) 827 (239) 97 (105) 31.4 (2.2) 26.5 (1.1) 2.8 (0.9)
OCT 501 (91) 959 (184) 43 (13) 30.0 (1.6) 21.8 (1.8) 2.5 (0.5)
NOV 350 (73) 651 (129) 50 (33) 25.3 (1.5) 17.5 (1.9) 2.7 (0.7)
DEC 286 (71) 534 (140) 38 (8) 18.8 (2.2) 11.1 (2.8) 2.4 (0.6)

Most of the monsoonal rains are observed between June and September, followed by
sporadic rain spells due to the occurrence of western disturbances during October and
November. The frequency of these occurrences doubled between 1980 and 2019 in North
India [37]. The winter months also experience low wind speeds, stagnation of air, fog
formation, and low visibility, leading to the cancelation of flights and trains and
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 4 of 38

hindrances resulting in economic losses [38–40]. All schools have been shut for multiple
days due to severe to hazardous levels of pollution leading to public health emergencies
between November and January every year since 2017. An increase in fog formation rates
is also linked to the presence of secondary organic aerosols from the combustion of
biomass for space heating and post-harvest open biomass burning in the North Indian
states of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh [41].

3. Ambient Air Quality

The rate of urbanization is a proxy for an increase in the demand for cooking and
heating fuels, transportation, electricity for residential and industrial needs, garbage and
solid waste management, construction of residential and commercial estates, and state
infrastructure development in the form of expressways, highways, arterial roads, and
pavements. Most energy needs are met by burning coal, gasoline, diesel, and natural gas.
All the combustion and dust-producing activities have resulted in an increase in ambient
pollution levels. Change in Delhi’s land use and land cover between 1990 and 2014 is
shown in Figure 1a for an airshed covering the NCT and its satellite cities. According to
the global human settlements program [42], more than 80% of Delhi’s landmass is
designated as a built-up urban area. In Delhi’s airshed, the total built-up area increased
four times, from 370 km2 in 1975 to 1220 km2 in 2014.

Figure 1. (a) Built-up area in the airshed covering the NCT Delhi and its satellite cities, mapped from
the Global Human Settlement program. (b) Metro rail system in Delhi and Gurugram. Black lines
represent major highways, ring roads, and bypass expressways.

3.1. Ground Measurements

In Delhi, the ambient air quality is monitored by the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) and the Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC). The data from a combination
of manual and continuous monitoring stations are hosted on CPCB’s online portal [24].
While only the monthly and annual average concentrations are discussed in this paper,
where available, all the data as daily, hourly, and sub-hourly averages are included as
Supplementary Information (SI). We acknowledge that there are biases in comparing the
data collected from manual and continuous stations to construct trend analysis. However,
in the absence of long-term data from one operational monitoring network, it was difficult
to interpret the influence of the implementation of key policy and technical interventions
on air quality without combining all the available data.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 5 of 38

3.1.1. Pre-2006 Period

Most information on Delhi’s air quality before 1998 is anecdotal and available only
as averages from academic and official publications. This period also marks a turning
point in the air quality dialogues in Delhi with the Supreme Court’s decision to mandate
the conversion of all public transport buses and three-wheelers to operate on compressed
natural gas (CNG) [4,43,44].
A 1997 white paper [1] published by CPCB and the Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEF, now MoEFCC with Climate Change) listed the annual averages of total
suspended PM (TSP) values as 373, 338, 317, 377, 372, 377, 407, 387, and 370 μg/m3 for the
period of 1989 to 1997 (nine years), based on data collected by manual stations. Assuming
a typical ratio fraction of 60% between TSP and PM10 and 60% between PM10 and PM2.5,
the average PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations for the period are 221 ± 20 μg/m3 and 133 ± 12
μg/m3, respectively, which stand as 14 and 26 times more than the WHO (2021) guidelines
of 15 and 5 μg/m3, respectively. While a typical ratio of 60% is used in this assessment, the
PM2.5/PM10 fraction could range from as low as 10% during very dusty days to 90% during
winter days, with a large portion of PM coming from the burning of coal, biomass, and
waste. Summertime 1998 averages during a filter-based study were 71 ± 15 μg/m3 near the
Lodhi institutional area and one of Delhi’s largest gardens [45]. Wintertime concentrations
are expected to be at least more than double the annual averages.
PM2.5 was introduced as a criterion pollutant requiring mandatory monitoring only
in November 2009, and most of the measurements available before 2010 are reported as
respirable PM (aka PM10). For the period covering 1999 and 2006, continuous PM10 data
are accessible only at an ITO (income tax office) monitoring station near a traffic junction
and can be viewed as a station representative of an urban setting (a copy of the data is
included in the Supplementary Materials). Figure 2 presents a summary of the PM2.5 data,
derived as 60% of PM10. The seasonal trend includes highs during the winter months (Dec-
Jan) and lows during the monsoonal months (Jun–Jul). The annual average PM10
concentrations between 1999 and 2006 (8 years) are 209 (70–515), 185 (64–359), 184 (61–
410), 275 (131–474), 256 (100–476), 225 (97–378), 257 (96–476), and 212 (97–412) μg/m3. For
the same period, the derived PM2.5 concentrations are 126 (42–309), 111 (39–216), 110 (36–
246), 165 (79–284), 154 (60–285), 135 (58–227), 154 (58–286), and 127 (58–247) μg/m3. The
numbers in brackets represent the 5th and 95th percentile daily average concentrations in
the year. We interpret the drop in the annual average concentrations in 2000 and 2001 of
approximately 18% compared to the pre-1998 average (133) and 12% compared to the 1999
average (126) as an immediate result of multiple emission control measures implemented
in the late 1990s. These measures included the conversion of buses and three-wheelers to
operate on CNG, relocation of polluting brick kilns from within city limits to the outskirts,
and promotion of cleaner fuels for cooking [44,46,47]. The 2000-01 change observed in
these measurements can be attributed to CNG conversion. It is assumed that any
significant change in fleet average emission rates is expected to be reflected in the
transport-emission-heavy surroundings of the ITO station.
After 2001, all the gains of CNG conversion were gobbled up by an increase in the
number of personal vehicles and their usage [47–49], and the overall PM10 and PM2.5
averages during 1999-2006 hovered at 228 ± 123 μg/m3 and 137 ± 74 μg/m3, respectively.
These values are 15 and 27 times more than the WHO (2021) guidelines of 15 and 5 μg/m3,
respectively.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 6 of 38

Figure 2. Annual average PM2.5 concentrations in Delhi for the period of 1989 to 2022 (left axis), no.
of operational continuous ambient air quality stations reporting PM2.5 concentrations in Delhi (right
axis) and data availability as % of 15 min points available in that year (calculated only for CAAQM
stations) (ITO = Income tax office, New Delhi).

3.1.2. 2006–2018 Period

The number of continuous ambient air quality monitoring (CAAQM) stations and
access to data started to increase in 2006, including direct measurements of PM2.5
concentrations. In India, Delhi was among a handful of cities that started to measure and
report these values. The PM2.5 data for the period of 2006 to 2022 from CPCB’s online
repository were cleaned by deleting nulls, negatives, and unexplainable feeds and they
were quality controlled for final use. A summary of these data filters is listed in the
Supplementary Materials. Figure 2 presents spatial coverage in the form of the number of
CAAQM stations operational by year and temporal coverage in the form of % of useful
data points by 15 min interval and the annual average PM2.5 concentrations. The archived
database (in the Supplementary Materials) contains both the raw data by station and
cleaned hourly, monthly, and annual averages. While there is an improvement in the
annual averages between 2006 and 2022, it is difficult to infer what fraction of this
improvement is due to on-ground emission controls and what fraction is due to better
representation in the measurements with a larger pool of data.
Between 2006 and 2018, the number of stations increased from 1 (ITO station only) to
35. The first big jump in the number of stations came before the Commonwealth Games
(CWG) in 2010 when DPCC installed six continuous stations. In the later years, the
database included continuous stations operated by the Indian Meteorological Department
(IMD) and the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) under the SAFAR (System
of Air quality and weather Forecasting And Research) program [25,50]. The seasonality in
the month-by-month (Table 3) data shows typical highs during the winter months and
lows during the summer and monsoonal months. This period did not observe any major
changes in activity patterns, besides periodic improvements in vehicle and fuel standards
and the promotion of clean fuels for cooking.

Table 3. Monthly and annual average PM2.5 concentrations in Delhi for the period of 2006 to 2022 in
μg/m3 from the continuous ambient air quality monitoring network.

Year JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Annual
2006 74 168 217 203 171.0
2007 253 146 88 109 73 89 45 32 52 145 188 111.1
2008 156 178 136 90 73 50 51 22 23 174 226 189 138.6
2009 145 123 91 68 65 73 55 43 37 163 91.5
2010 69 116 82 115 117 61 60 65 187 292 267 144.1
2011 217 161 123 127 98 70 69 53 61 164 258 277 140.1
2012 205 141 139 101 122 69 58 70 147 263 179 140.3
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 7 of 38

2013 190 128 148 105 129 126 66 85 95 145 212 106 125.3
2014 193 123 69 98 120 137 114 87 74 137 166 161 117.2
2015 179 124 96 101 120 97 67 58 90 153 243 177 125.3
2016 249 151 126 120 92 73 56 42 61 152 258 217 133.3
2017 164 134 96 96 122 60 36 37 58 135 268 200 117.2
2018 205 143 104 94 95 86 42 43 45 139 209 236 120.0
2019 190 123 83 81 88 63 46 34 39 114 187 203 105.0
2020 148 120 57 44 54 46 34 24 47 132 199 190 93.0
2021 187 150 96 86 53 53 39 41 32 74 230 191 106.0
2022 150 103 98 106 78 62 35 32 40 106 178 171 99.7

3.1.3. Post-2018 Period

This period is marked by several significant developments: (1) ratification of the
National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in 2019, (2) major disruptions due to COVID-19
lockdowns in 2020 and 2021, (3) the introduction of Bharat Stage (BS) 6 vehicles in April
2020, (4) the closure of the Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority
(EPCA) in 2020, (5) formation of the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)
in 2021, and (6) an increase in CAAQM stations from 35 to 41. Under NCAP, Delhi was
designated as one of the 132 non-attainment cities required to reduce their annual average
PM2.5 concentrations by 20–30% by 2024 compared to those observed in 2017 [26], with a
special emphasis on the need for more ambient and emissions monitoring and more
source apportionment studies to support clean air action plans.
The data quality, as usable data in 15 min average points, improved from 30% in 2006
to 85% in 2019 (Figure 2). In the last five years (2018–2022), usable data in the pool
remained above 75%, with at least 40 CAAQM stations operating in the city.
Post-2018, a 10% dip in 2020’s PM2.5 concentrations (Table 3) when compared to 2019
is notable. This is due to a 25–45% drop in the monthly average concentrations between
March and August of 2020 because of the strictest COVID-19 lockdown restrictions thus
far [51]. On the evening of 24 March 2020, the Indian government announced a national
lockdown in its fight against COVID-19. Phase 1 of the lockdown lasted for 21 days, Phase-
2 for 19 days, Phase 3 for 14 days, and lastly Phase 4 for 14 days, ending on 31 May 2020.
A similar lockdown was announced during the second wave of COVID-19 in 2021, during
the months of April-June. These lockdowns came as an exogenous shock to human
mobility and economic activities. Per the Google Mobility data, mobility fell up to 80%
during the lockdown periods [52,53]. In addition to restrictions for personal and freight
movement, a large portion of small- and medium-scale industry including markets was
shut, most of the non-manufacturing workforce was moved to work from home, and all
schools and universities operated remotely for a large portion of 2020 and 2021 [54].
Besides the reductions observed during the lockdowns in 2020, there is limited variation
in the annual and seasonal trends between 2019 and 2022.

3.2. Satellite Observations and Reanalysis

Due to technical, personnel, and financial reasons, it is not feasible to cover all the
parts of a city or a region with monitors [55]. As of December 2022, a total of 45 stations
are operational in Delhi, which is a vast improvement compared to only 1 station during
the period of 2006-09 period. Yet, large parts of the city are either underrepresented or not
represented at all. Interpretation of satellite retrievals has started to fill this gap in
understanding regional air quality trends [55–58]. These feeds are available for PM in the
form of aerosol optical depth (AOD) and columnar density for SO2, NO2, ozone, HCHO,
and CO gases from a cluster of satellites operated by NASA and ESA. Over India, there
are currently no dedicated geostationary satellites observing atmospheric pollutants; all
the information is only available as daily snapshots from other satellites [59]. GEMS from
the Korean Space Agency is a new resource yet to be used for Indian applications [60].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 8 of 38

While these observations are not a direct reflection of the on-ground activities, data can
help understand regional pollution signatures and track sources. Applications of these
retrievals of atmospheric composition range from calibrating local and regional emission
inventories [61] to nudging global model simulations, building reanalysed historical
concentrations [19,62], and supporting studies to estimate health impacts using
reanalysed data [31,58].
For the NCT region, reanalysed PM2.5 fields for 1998 to 2021 combining results from
the GEOS-chem chemical transport model, all-available satellite observations, and on-
ground measurements are shown in Figure 3 in four time blocks [19,62]. Annual average
maps for individual years are included in the Supplementary Materials. In India, as state-
level averages, Delhi ranked the most polluted for the entire period [27]. The estimated
domain average concentration for 1998–1999 was 81 μg/m3, for 2000–2009 102.3 μg/m3, for
2010–2019 119.7 μg/m3, and for 2020–2021 was 115.0 μg/m3. The general trend between
1998 and 2021 indicates deteriorating air quality, despite improvements from the
introduction of better vehicle and fuel standards, the introduction of a 350 km metro
system connecting all the satellite cities, the promotion of zig-zag technology for brick
manufacturing, and increasing the number of customers for LPG. An illustration of AOD
from the MODIS-Terra satellite for 2010–2022 is shown in Figure 4a. While AOD is a
columnar representation, including regional influences, high pollution periods of
wintertime heating in January-February, dust storms after spring months, and post-
harvest agricultural residue burning in October-November are evident.

Figure 3. Reanalysed annual average PM2.5 concentrations in Delhi for the period of 1998 to 2021
using chemical transport model (GEOS–chem), ground measurements, and satellite observations
from [19,34].

The dip in 2020 annual averages in the ground measurements and the reanalysed
data fields (Figures 2–4, and Table 3) reflect the impact of COVID-19 lockdowns [54]. Air
quality improvements during the early days of the lockdowns were reported with pictures
of clear blue skies in all the cities, good air quality index (green colour on India’s air quality
index scale), and reports of seeing the range of Himalayas from areas 200 km away in
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 9 of 38

Punjab. Figure 4b–d present a summary of the 8-day mean AOD and columnar density of
NO2, SO2, and ozone as a domain average of multiple years excluding 2020 and
independently for 2020 for four months between March and June. These observations
represent a combination of local emissions at the lower altitudes and regional
contributions from the tropopause to the upper troposphere.
In April and May months, the incidence of regional and transported dust storms is
high, which can lead to an increase in the regional aerosol loading and, subsequently,
gradual abundance in AOD. The sharp reduction in AOD for 2020 can be directly linked
to the absence of combustion activities and road dust during the lockdown periods. A
similar drop in the columnar NO2 density can be directly linked to the near-absence of
traffic emissions, personal and freight, during the first two lockdown periods and partial
personal traffic during the later periods. The differences are not as significant in the case
of SO2 and ozone loading because of their emission source regions, sectors, and chemistry.
A majority of the SO2 emissions in the NCR region and in India are linked to coal-fired
thermal power plants and large point sources such as iron and steel industries and
refineries [14,47,63]. With the introduction of BS6 fuel, sulphur content in urban vehicle
exhaust is the lowest in two decades, and all the coal-fired power plants are located at
least 100 km from the centre of the city airshed. While there was a drop in electricity
generation rates at the beginning of the lockdown periods, most of the power plants were
running at business-as-usual setting, resulting in limited changes in the background SO2
concentrations and the overall columnar density. The behaviour of ozone concentrations
during and immediately after COVID–19 is still a topic of many on-going investigations
[64,65]. One theory is that a drop in NOx emissions altered the local photochemistry to
produce marginally more ozone during the lockdowns and subsequently settled back into
the seasonal pattern. In practice, NOx–VOC-ozone chemistry is not simple, and the
regime’s behaviour also depends on the mix of individual emissions such as
anthropogenic vs. biogenic vs. biomass VOCs and their age mix. Science aside, an
important lesson learned from the on-ground and satellite observations during the
COVID–19 lockdown period is that the only path to better air quality is through reducing
emissions from all known sources.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 10 of 38

Figure 4. Summary of satellite data retrievals as an 8–day running mean of the area covering Delhi’s
airshed. (a) NASA MODIS-Terra AOD for all years and all days to illustrate long-term trends. For
the period of 1 March to 30 June in specific, (b) NASA MODIS-Terra AOD, (c) NASA OMI NO2, (d)
ESA TROPOMI SO2, and (e) ESA TROPOMI ozone, illustrating changes during 2020’s COVID-19
lockdowns. MODIS and OMI data were extracted from NASA’s Giovanni open-access database and
TROPOMI from Google Earth Engine database.

4. Receptor, Source, and Other Modelling Studies

4.1. Source Apportionment
Any amount of fuel or waste burnt is a source of emissions and will eventually be
part of the air pollution problem. However, estimating the contribution of these sources
to ambient pollution levels is the hardest result to pinpoint. Being a landlocked hub-city
surrounded by multiple Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities, the sources are not always locally
registered nor under Delhi’s own jurisdiction to control, for example, constant personal
and commercial traffic to and from the city in vehicles not registered in Delhi and power
plants outside the city limits within a radius of 100 km.
For source apportionment, Delhi is the most-studied city, having been studied with
various techniques, and yet remains a city with no consensus on the contribution patterns
[8,14,66–68]. Measurement-based studies are preferred for regulatory purposes [68,69],
where filter samples are collected from various locations across the city and are subjected
to chemical analysis for shares of ions, metals, and carbonaceous aerosols. Together with
representative chemical profiles of all the known sources and using a receptor model,
source contributions are statistically determined. A major limitation of this method is
spatial coverage, which is limited only to the measurement locations. Despite the gaps
and high financial cost, this top-down receptor modelling technique has been the most
popular and more than 50% of the known studies in India were conducted in Delhi and
IGP between 1990 and 2022 [8]. On the other hand, an emissions-based technique is a cost-
effective way to fill the spatial and temporal gaps. The biggest advantage of this method
is its ability to model a multi-pollutant environment at urban, regional, and global spatial
scales and temporally at hourly, monthly, and annual scales to evaluate pollution trends,
identify hotspots, differentiate between local and non-local sources, and support policy
dialogue with what-if scenarios. The major limitations of this technique are access to a
representative emissions inventory and high computational cost. Eventually,
consolidating the results from both methods can identify any inconsistencies and thus
lead to more reliable results.
Detailed reviews of receptor-model studies conducted across India were published
by Pant and Harrison 2012, Banerjee et al., 2015, and Yadav et al., 2022 [8,67,68]. A similar
review of emission-model studies is not available. Only the results from a selection of
studies published between 1990 and 2022 are summarised in Table 4 to demonstrate the
evolution of the range of source contributions and the methods employed at arrive these
conclusions.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 11 of 38

Table 4. Summary of source contributions to ambient PM2.5 concentrations in Delhi, estimated by

studies published between 1990 and 2022.

Study Year of
Study Source Information and Other Remarks
Year Publication
Industrial–vehicular–domestic source contributions were reported as 56%-
23%-21%, 40%-42%-18%, and 29%-64%-7% respectively.
1970–71
CPCB white This is the first known official account of source contributions in Delhi. The
1980–81 1997
paper [1] industrial sources include power plants, and no other sources were
1990–91 mentioned as part of the source apportionment. There is no mention of the
technique utilised for this assessment. From the description provided in the
report, this apportionment is likely for ambient PM10 concentrations.
For Delhi’s PM10 samples, average contributions were all dust (45.5%),
domestic cooking and heating (7%), garbage burning (16.6%), and industries
+ diesel gensets (17.2%).

However, the published results for PM2.5 were difficult to accept with
domestic use of LPG resulting in 45.4% of the total mass. Relevant pages
from the official report are included in the Supplementary Materials for
CPCB six-city
2006 2011 reference.
study [2]

PM2.5 and PM10 samples were collected at residential, industrial, and

kerbside locations for multiple seasons. The study also included establishing
a gridded emissions inventory and a database of emission factors for other
cities to adapt. The total emission loads were calculated for a representative
grid of 2 km × 2 km and extrapolated to the city size of 32 km × 32 km. The
estimated PM2.5 emission load is 53.6 kt/year.
SAFAR was developed by IITM for the 2010 CWG. The reports did not
include any apportionment for ambient concentrations.

The program conducted a series of surveys and on-ground measurements to

2010
develop an emission inventory at 1.67 km × 1.67 km and updated to 400 m ×
SAFAR & 2011
400 m resolution in 2018. Total PM2.5 emission loads in 2010 and 2018 were
2018
94 kt and 108 kt, respectively. The % shares of key sectors were 32% and
39% for transport, 17% and 23% for industries, 28% and 18% for all dust,
18% and 6% for residential cooking and heating, 3% and 3% for power
plants, 2% and 12% for others, respectively.
Emission and ATMoS Lagrangian model-based source contributions for
PM2.5 ranged 16%–30% for vehicle exhaust, 8%–14% for road dust +
construction dust, 20%–27% for diffused sources including cooking, heating,
and open waste burning, 3%–17% for diesel generator sets, and 34%–41% for
Urban industries including brick kilns and power plants.
Emissions 2010 2013
(authors) [14,18] Emissions inventory covered an airshed of 52 km × 52 km around Delhi. The
estimated PM2.5 emission load is 63 kt/year. The inventory was extended to
an area covering 80 km × 80 km (Figure 1) and utilised for short-term (3-
day) air quality forecasting and validating against monitoring data every
hour.
Winter
DPCC— Receptor-model-based source contributions for PM2.5 in winter–summer
2013–14 2016
IIT Kanpur months were 25%–9% for vehicle exhaust, 6%–31% for all dust, 8%–7% for
and
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 12 of 38

Summer open waste burning, 5%–26% for industrial coal and fly ash, 26%–12% for
2014 biomass burning, and 30%–15% for secondary PM component, respectively.

The estimated PM2.5 emission load was 21.5 kt/year for Delhi city. Emission
and CTM model-based simulations were conducted, but no contribution
shares were published.
Emissions and CTM-based source contributions for PM2.5 were 8.7% for
vehicle exhaust, 17.4% for cooking, 19.1% for all dust, 16.5% for industries
including power plants, open waste burning 6.1%, agricultural waste
GAINS [70] 2015 2017 burning 4.3%, Diwali fireworks 1–2%, and 24.3% for secondary PM.

The study also estimated that 60% of the estimated PM2.5 originates outside
Delhi administrative limits.
Receptor-model-based source contributions for PM2.5 in summer–winter
months were 18%–23% for all transport, 34%–15% for all dust, 15%–22% for
all biomass, 11%–10% for industry, 5%–4% other sources, and 17%–23%
secondary PM component, respectively.

Emission and CTM model-based source contributions for PM2.5 in summer–

Summer
winter months were 17%–28% for all transport, 38%–17% for all dust, 8%–
and
TERI [71] 2018 10% for residential cooking, 7%–4% for agricultural waste burning, 22%–
Winter
30% for industry, and 8%–10% for other sources. Total estimated PM2.5
2016
emission load is 32 kt/year for Delhi and 528 kt/year for the NCR Delhi.

For receptor modelling, 24 h PM2.5 and PM10 samples were collected at 20

representative locations in Delhi and its satellite cities. For emissions
modelling, the study included updates to activity levels, source profiles and
emission factors.
Global emission and CTM model-based source contributions for PM2.5 were
29% for all residential cooking and heating, 7% for vehicle exhaust, 25% for
industry including power plants, 15% all dust, 3% open waste burning, 2%
agricultural waste burning, and 19% others.

GBD-MAPS The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study (since 1990) quantifies impacts of
2017 2021
[19,34] over 300 diseases and risk factors by age and sex [28]
(https://www.healthdata.org/gbd, accessed 23 February 2023). An
extension to the program is GBD-MAPS (mapping air pollution sources),
which uses the same global chemical transport model to apportion sources.
Because of the coarse nature of the model, the data were extracted for the
grid covering the Delhi city.
Receptor-model-based source contributions for PM2.5 were 17–28% for all
transport, 16–30% for all dust, 14–31% for mixed combustion including
biomass, 12–25% for industries, and 17–33% secondary PM component,
Gupta et al., respectively.
2018–19 2023
2023 [72]
PM2.5 and PM10 457 samples were collected at two locations in Ghaziabad
(one of the prominent satellite cities of Delhi) for one year from June 2018 to
May 2019.
Gani et al., 2020 These studies used new techniques, equipment, and analytical platforms
[5]; Bhandari et 2019–20 2020–21 that allow for real-time sampling, metal and ion speciation, and receptor
al., 2021 [22]; modelling to ascertain source contributions. Applications in Delhi used
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 13 of 38

Rai et al., 2020 aerosol chemical speciation monitors (ACSMs), scanning mobility particle
[23]; Tobler et sizers (SMPSs), aerosol mass spectrometers (AMSs) and Xact ambient metals
al., 2020 [73] monitors (XACTs). These systems provide information at a higher temporal
resolution and avoid the risk of contamination that is associated with offline
measurements, storage, and analysis of filters. However, this approach was
limited to only one (IIT-Delhi campus) location, PM1 fractions, and chemical
speciation, and continues to be mostly academic in nature due to higher
equipment costs and unique expertise required to operate them.
This real-time source apportionment system was launched in January 2023
(http://raasman.com, accessed 23 February 2023). No long-term data were
available at the time of the review. Receptor-model-based source
DPCC [21] 2023 2023 contributions for PM2.5 for three days in January 2023 were 4–24% for all
transport, 10–18% for all dust, 13–30% for all biomass, 5–7% for coal
combustion, 2–6% open waste burning, and 30%–34% secondary PM
component.

Irrespective of the techniques used, a summary of results points to sources burning

coal, petrol, diesel, gas, biomass, and waste that support daily activities in the fields of
personal transport, freight transport, electricity generation, industrial manufacturing,
cooking, heating, construction, road dust resuspension, and waste burning. Delhi also
experiences long-range transport of pollution from seasonal post-harvest field residue
burnings and wind-blown dust lasting for a few weeks in a year [74]. A consolidated
summary of the results from various source apportionment studies is presented in Table
5.

Table 5. Consolidated source contributions to annual average PM2.5 concentrations across Delhi.

Sector/Source Category % Annual Contribution Range

Vehicle exhaust from petrol, diesel, and gas combustion 10–30%
Dust from roads and construction activities 10–30%
Industrial sources, including power plants 10–30%
Under 10% in summer and under 30%
Residential cooking and heating activities
in winter
Open waste burning 5–15%
Power plants (mostly outside city limits) Under 7%
Dust storms as a seasonal regional source Under 5%
Agricultural residue burning as a seasonal, regional short-term source Under 3%
Diwali firecrackers as a 2-day extreme event source Under 1%

The contribution of various sectors to air pollution in the city has remained consistent
over time. However, the estimated source contribution ranges may vary depending on
factors such as where ambient filters were collected, how many filters were collected, and
the size of the selected airshed for emissions. Emerging source apportionment techniques
aim to evaluate these contributions in real time and bridge gaps from previous studies
[21,74]. Ultimately, controlling emissions at their sources within the city and collaborating
with neighbouring districts and states to do the same is necessary to effectively address
air pollution.

4.2. Air Quality Forecasting and Alert Systems

The concept of air quality forecasting was first introduced in Delhi as part of the 2010
CWG and proposed as an activity for all the non-attainment cities under the National
Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in 2019 [26,75]. Air quality forecasting is the prediction of
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 14 of 38

future levels of air pollution for both long-term policy planning and short-term pollution
alerts. These systems use meteorological and emissions data at the finest resolution
possible in coded mathematical models to predict pollutant concentrations in the
atmosphere, the levels of dry and wet deposition, and the range of chemical and physical
transformations feasible for the given mix of emissions. The goal is to provide people with
air quality information so they can take steps to protect their health. In this section, only
the short-term (3 to 5 day) air quality forecasts programmed by various institutes using
urban, regional, and global models are listed. Model results available in the public domain
(in no order of preference) are.
 The Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) forecasting system is a
service provided by the European Union (https://atmosphere.copernicus.eu/data,
accessed 23 February 2023) that uses a combination of mathematical models and
satellite data to provide air quality forecasts at 40 km spatial resolution globally and
at 10–12 km spatial resolution for select regions. It is designed to provide reliable
forecasts of air quality across Europe with the use of the ESA’s geostationary satellite
data. The global data can be visualised at https://www.windy.com (accessed 23
February 2023). The CAMS reanalysis archives from 1990 are also available for
studying long-term trends;
 The Early Warning System (EWS) for Delhi by IITM is hosted at
https://ews.tropmet.res.in (accessed 23 February 2023) and includes results from the
WRF-Chem regional model and GEOS and WACCM global modelling systems as a
combination of national, region, and cit- level hourly maps, time series, and
comparison with data from the CPCB’s monitoring network. The system also
includes the forecast of fog onset and visibility for Delhi and a summary of air quality
forecasts for other cities;
 The NASA-GEOS system is operated by the Global Modelling and Assimilation
Office (GMAO) to support a wide range of applications, including air, weather, and
climate modelling (https://gmao.gsfc.nasa.gov, accessed 23 February 2023). A 10-day
air quality forecast for Delhi from the GEOS-5 model is included on the EWS portal.
Like CAMS, the GEOS system also includes a data assimilation system (GEOS-DAS)
with reanalysis archives from 1990 for studying long-term trends (like MERRA-2—
https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni, accessed 23 February 2023);
 SAFAR (https://safar.tropmet.res.in, accessed 23 February 2023) uses a combination
of on-ground measurements, emission inventories, and mathematical models to
predict air quality for the next three days. Since its inception for Delhi, the model has
been replicated for the cities of Mumbai, Pune, and Ahmedabad;
 SILAM (System for Integrated modeLing of Atmospheric composition) is a global
chemical transport model developed and maintained by the Finnish Meteorological
Institute (FMI). As part of a memorandum of understanding, FMI shares air quality
forecasts customised for the NCR Delhi region with the Indian Meteorological
Department (IMD). These results are also included on the EWS portal;
 The Urban Emissions program (by the authors) uses the WRF-CAMx modelling
system covering the Indian Subcontinent and Delhi’s airshed as a nest. The city
results are shared at https://www.delhiairquality.info (accessed 23 February 2023) in
the form of hourly and daily average maps, city-level hourly and daily average PM2.5
source apportionment, district-level concentration and source apportionment time
series, and real-time (updated every 6 h) comparison of results with data from
CPCB’s monitoring network.
Eventually, consolidation of results from various models, known as ensemble
forecasting, can improve the overall accuracy of the predictions while leveraging the
strengths of the models and compensating for their individual weaknesses.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 15 of 38

5. Sectoral History
Delhi’s annual average concentration in 2021–22 was 100 μg/m3—20 times more than
the WHO guideline of 5 μg/m3. This is an improvement compared to the limited
information available for the pre-CNG-conversion era (~30%), immediately before and
after 2010 CWG (~28%), and the mid-2010s (~20%). These improvements are a result of
continuous technical and economic interventions interlaced with judicial engagement in
various sectors. In this section, we review the interventions that demonstrated some
noticeable drops in air pollution, some that caused notional changes, and some that
caused none.

5.1. Transport Sector

Road transport is considered the most significant contributor to Delhi’s air pollution,
despite being on par with other sectors such as residential cooking and heating, open
waste burning, and industrial fuel combustion. With a large portion of the national vehicle
fleet (8%) in a small area, traffic congestion and high exposure to pollution on roads are
major issues [47,76,77]. Studies show that daily at least 55% of the population in Delhi is
within 100 m of main roads and exposed to PM2.5 concentrations higher than average
ambient concentrations.
There is a misconception that if Delhi’s traffic problem is solved, Delhi’s air quality
will improve. This stems from the fact that major milestones in Delhi’s air quality history
are marked with interventions in the transport sector (Figures 2 and 3). While
interventions are doing their job in reducing on-road emissions, the growing number of
vehicles and their usage is nullifying any improvements coming from introducing better
vehicle and fuel standards and any other interventions to curb traffic. The total registered
vehicle fleet in the NCT increased five times between 1990 and 2018 from 2.8 million to
11.4 million [78] (Figure 5). The total fleet is expected to reach 13.0 million for the year
ending in 2022. Overall, two-wheelers dominate the fleet, with 65% of registrations,
followed by four-wheelers, which increased their share from 22% in 1993 to 28% in 2018.
The reminder of the fleet is comprised of passenger taxis (three-wheeler and four-
wheeler), buses (long-distance traveling outside Delhi and short distance intracity), and
freight vehicles. Leading up to 2010 CWG, the overall bus fleet increased year-on-year
until 2012; afterwards, new buses were introduced only to replace retiring buses. Due to
a restriction on the number of three-wheeler licenses, their registrations remained
consistent over the years. The largest jump in fleet size was observed for taxis, with the
emergence of Ola and Uber services in 2010. These vehicle numbers do not include the
daily transient fleet of personal and commercial vehicles from the neighbouring Tier-2
and Tier-3 cities, which on a weekday doubles the active number of on-road vehicles in
Delhi.

Figure 5. Yearly number of registered vehicles as a ratio of 1993 fleet values for 2-3-4 wheelers (2W,
3W, and 4W), taxis (4WT), buses (BUS), heavy and light duty vehicles (HLDV), and total
registrations (TOTAL).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 16 of 38

5.1.1. Vehicle and Fuel Standards

Before 2020 (BS6), Delhi implemented vehicle and fuel standards four years before
the rest of the country. BS standards were first introduced in 2000, with BS2 in 2001 in
Delhi and 2005 nationwide, BS3 in 2005 in Delhi and 2010 nationwide, BS4 in 2010 in Delhi
and 2017 nationwide, and BS6 nationwide in 2020. SO2 emissions improved significantly
from 1% sulphur diesel under pre-BS standards in 1995 to 10 ppm sulphur diesel under
BS6, and other pollutant standards improved by 90–95% with the introduction of diesel
particle filters and selective catalytic converters under BS6. Most of Delhi’s fleet will be
BS6 compliant by 2025–26 [47,79].

5.1.2. Pollution-Under-Check (PUC) Programme

Introduced in 2004, the PUC certification process has known gaps. The test neither
includes exclusive measurements of PM2.5, SO2, and NO2 emissions nor records the
odometer reading to build usage statistics. The failure rate for the diesel vehicle smoke
test is under 2% and for the petrol vehicle CO test is under 5% [80]. While the test currently
serves as a namesake control measure, its true potential for inspection and maintenance
is yet to be fulfilled. As of 25 October 2022, vehicles in Delhi are not allowed fuel at stations
if they do not display a valid PUC certificate on their dashboards.

5.1.3. Public Transportation and CNG Introduction

In 2021–2022, the Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) operated fewer than 4000 buses
on 450 routes, transporting 3.3 million commuters daily, which is about 40% of the
passenger-km travelled in the city [81]. Over 80% of this fleet will officially retire in 2025.
This is far from the ideal number of buses required for a city of nearly 20 million people.
An ideal bus fleet for a city is 0.5 to 1.2 buses per 1000 people, which means Delhi’s
requirement is 10,000 to 24,000 [82]. In 1997, a white paper on Delhi’s air quality
recommended that the city needed to operate at least 15,000 buses by 2000 to meet the
increasing demand [1]. Then, the fleet size was 2000, which was retrofitted from diesel to
CNG; subsequently, all new vehicles were only CNG. In 2022, 150 electric buses were
introduced into the DTC fleet, and this is expected to reach 1500 in the coming years [83].
The Supreme-Court-mandated diesel to CNG conversion process in 1998 took five
years to implement, including the designing of conversion kits, training, replacement,
CNG fuel stations, and preparation of standards for manufacturers to produce CNG
vehicles [46]. Upon full conversion, more than 90% of PM2.5 and SO2 emissions were
reduced from buses, autos, taxis, and some passenger vehicles [47]. Emissions also
improved due to the introduction of new fuel standards between 2000 and 2005, which
reduced sulphur content from 0.25% to 0.05% to 350 ppm in multiple stages. Based on
limited ambient monitoring data, PM2.5 concentrations were reduced by 10–15% in 2001
compared to 1998 (Figure 2), but not all reduction can be linked to the conversion. The
same period also witnessed the relocation of brick kilns and major industrial units from
within Delhi’s administrative boundary to outside the borderline [4,44].

5.1.4. Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) System

The BRT system was piloted in Delhi on a small section of 6 km in 2008 as part of the
preparations for the 2010 CWG. The corridor featured dedicated bus lanes in the middle
of main roads, with covered stations and stops for passengers [84]. The pilot was designed
using successful systems from around the world, such as (a) Curitiba, Brazil, considered
the “father” of modern BRT systems; (b) Bogotá, Colombia, another successful system
with over 120 km of dedicated bus lanes and a ridership of over 2 million passengers per
day; and (c) Guangzhou, China, the longest system in the world, with over 400 km of
dedicated bus lanes. These examples have different characteristics and challenges, but
they all implemented successful strategies for BRT services such as dedicated lanes,
efficient fare collection, frequent service, comfortable stations, and more [85,86].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 17 of 38

The pilot was short-lived and faced criticism for several reasons that led to its failure,
such as poor infrastructure design, confusion among drivers resulting in cars and
motorcycles frequently entering the bus lanes, increased congestion during peak hours,
and poor management of the BRT corridor, all of which led to lack of support from users
[87]. The project also faced administrative delays and cost overruns, which further
reduced public support. As a result, the corridor was dismantled in 2016.
Before the start of the 2010 CWG, to transport athletes, officials, and visitors,
approximately 80 km of dedicated bus lanes were marked with paint and traffic barriers
(orange cones) on several major roads in the city. The overall bus fleet was doubled with
new buses equipped with GPS trackers and intelligent transport systems to track their
movements. The goal was to give priority to buses, and additional traffic police were
deployed to enforce compliance and ensure the smooth flow of buses. The dedicated bus
lanes helped reduce travel times for athletes and officials, and the presence of additional
enforcement also helped ease traffic congestion on the roads for general traffic along the
non-dedicated corridors. While the additional buses were made part of the DTC fleet, the
dedicated bus lanes were only in operation for the duration of the Games and were
dismantled immediately after. This experience shows that with dedicated enforcement
and community support, permanent BRT lanes can be carved out of the existing transport
network with little change in design [88].

5.1.5. Metrorail System

Delhi’s Metrorail system serving 286 stations expanded its operations over multiple
phases and now covers 390 km across the NCT and its neighbouring cities (Figure 1b).
The first corridor began operations in 2002 and Phase 1 and 2 started operating in 2011,
covering 190 km. In 2022, ridership was at 85% of the 2019 (pre-COVID) peak, at 6.0
million per day.
An access–egress survey of metro riders found that up to 25% of trips are supported
by para-transit vehicles, such as auto-rickshaws, creating mini-hubs near the stations [89].
Most of these trips are within a 3 km radius of the stations, and some are battery-operated.
More than 50–60% of access–egress trips are non-motorised, such as walking and cycle-
rickshaws. The metro was designed to ease traffic load and congestion on the roads, with
users from motorcycles and cars shifting to this mode. However, with a large portion of
riders reporting as users of walking, cycling, and bus modes, those gains were never
immediately visualised, and the roads continue to be congested during peak hours. More
than 50% of riders own either a two-wheeler or a car, and 13% of access–egress trips used
personal transport. Localised feeder systems have grown organically to support last-mile
connectivity, catering to residents within a 2–3 km radius. During peak hours, while there
is some congestion outside the stations due to pick-up and drop-off of passengers, some
stations have taken measures to distribute these loads to multiple gates.
The satellite cities of Gurugram a”d NO’DA are benefiting from the expansion of the
metro rail system, which is promoting connectivity, easing congestion along the main
corridors, and providing more mobility options. Gurugram also operates a 12 km rapid
metro rail system, which serves as a feeder system to Delhi’s larger system. This system
began operations in 2013 and became fully operational in 2017 and is expected to serve
100,000 passengers per day.

5.1.6. Para-Transit System

The Delhi taxi system includes both three-wheelers (auto-rickshaws) and four-
wheelers. After 2000, all auto-rickshaws were required to use CNG, and by 2010, all four-
wheeler taxis were also required to operate on CNG. Additionally, all radio and app-
based taxi services are required to operate on CNG or electricity [90]. The introduction of
app-based services such as Ola and Uber in 2011–2012 led to a significant increase in the
taxi fleet size (Figure 5), as they are considered a more convenient option for riders, as
they can track the driver’s location and estimated time of arrival and allow cashless
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 18 of 38

payments, compared to the hassles of haggling and over-charging from 3Ws and
traditional black-n-yellow taxis. The total ride-hailing fleet in NCR Delhi is between 80,000
to 100,000. While some studies have shown that app-based services reduced on-road
congestion, others have suggested that they led to an increase in motorised transport and
overall vehicle km travelled, which means more emissions and pollution [91].

5.1.7. Odd–Even Experiment

Delhi’s government attempted the odd–even experiment three times, with limited
success in improving air quality. The first attempt in January 2016 saw some
improvement, but the second and third attempts in April 2016 and November 2019 had
no noticeable difference [92]. The rule restricted vehicles with registration numbers
ending in odd numbers on odd days and even numbers on even days, but it was
unsuccessful due to multiple exceptions and a lack of alternatives for commuters [93].
Without exceptions, the DTC was required to operate at least 13,000 buses to support a
50% cut in personal vehicle usage, but it operated less than 5000 buses during the first
attempt (calculations are included in the Supplementary Materials). The exceptions
included all motorcycles, cars with women drivers or with kids, cars operating on CNG,
and cars with the special service tag. This meant approximately 70% of daytime cars were
exempted. Anecdotally, use of four-wheeler taxis and three-wheelers operating on CNG
increased, along with the use of motorcycles. What was gained by reducing the number
of vehicles on the roads was wiped out by additional usage of other vehicles. In January
2016, [92] suggested that while some improvement in PM2.5 concentrations was recorded
during the daytime, an equivalent increase was recorded during the nighttime, implying
a shift in the time of use of the vehicle, instead of full avoidance of usage as anticipated.
The same ambient concentrations as daily averages demonstrated limited benefits.
In the second and third attempts, the bus fleet was not increased as it was in the first
attempt. Dust and fire events in the region made it difficult to record any benefits of the
program during these periods. A similar program was implemented in Mexico City in
1989 and resulted in an increase in the number of vehicles on the road, bypassing the
numbering system [94]. High silt loading on Delhi’s roads is a result of ongoing
construction activities and tyre wear and tear. As road dust resuspension is linked to
vehicle speeds, during the odd–even period, higher speeds also undermined some of the
benefits of reduced vehicle use.

5.1.8. Electric Vehicle (EV) Promotion

To encourage the adoption of electric vehicles in Delhi, the government implemented
the Delhi Electric Vehicles Policy in 2020, offering various financial incentives such as
exemptions from road tax and reductions in registration fees, as well as plans for
scrapping old vehicles, subsidies on loans, and discounts at charging stations [95]. The
main goal of the policy was to accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles in two-wheelers,
public/shared transport vehicles, and goods carriers. The target was to have 25% of new
vehicle registrations be battery electric vehicles (BEVs) by 2024, which is approximately
500,000 across all vehicle segments in the city. These vehicles will collectively reduce on-
road PM2.5 emissions and CO2 emissions over their lifetime compared to an equal-sized
fleet running on petrol, diesel, and gas. These savings are equivalent to eliminating the
lifetime CO2 emissions from nearly 100,000 gasoline cars [96].
According to the Delhi Dialogue Commission (DDC), BEV registrations are
averaging 10% of total registrations, making it a leader among India’s other metropolitan
cities. As of July 2022, Delhi has an on-road EV fleet of 160,000 and an EV-to-public-
charger ratio of 25:1, which is comparable to ratios in cities such as Oslo and Helsinki. A
Charging Action Plan was also released, which includes plans to install 18,000 public and
semi-public EV charging points to achieve a ratio of 15:1 by 2024. The plan also includes
the establishment of battery recycling centres and skill centres to train people in jobs
related to the EV ecosystem [95].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 19 of 38

5.1.9. New Expressways

The Eastern and Western Peripheral Expressways encircling Delhi (Figure 1) were
designed to divert non-destined traffic away from Delhi, reducing pollution and traffic
congestion in the city. The Eastern Expressway, also known as the Kundli-Ghaziabad-
Palwal Expressway and the Western Expressway, also known as the Kundli-Manesar-
Palwal expressway, are both 135 km long. According to the results of surveys conducted
by IIT-Delhi and the Centre for Science and Environment, prior to 2015, approximately
130,000 heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) entered Delhi every day and more than 50% of the
traffic only passed through the city [97]. The share of traffic emissions in Delhi from
passing HDVs is between 30–50% in various parts of the city [47], and diverting this traffic
away from the urban parts has significant benefits to health in terms of exposure.

5.2. Agricultural Waste Burning

After the transport sector, the source with the most media coverage is the open
burning of agricultural waste in October and November to prepare fields for the winter
crop in the states of Punjab and Haryana [12,13]. Due to time constraints and the lack of
an affordable and wide-scale residue management system, farmers consider burning the
residue a faster and cheaper way than tilling and inundating the fields to mulch the waste
naturally over weeks [98,99]. Field residue burning is also prevalent during the months of
April and May, although lesser in frequency, but the pre-winter burning emissions have
a higher impact on the regional and urban air quality due to slow-moving winds, lower
inversion heights, and lower surface temperatures, all conducive to manifesting severe to
hazardous levels of air pollution.
Several satellite feeds (https://worldview.earthdata.nasa.gov, accessed 23 February
2023) are available to track and model these fires to predict the onset and propagation of
fire emissions [100–103]. The prediction for 2022 prediction ranks as the fifth most active
fire season after 2012, 2016, 2020, and 2021 (Figure 6). Such a prediction model is based on
a long-term (2002–2016), robust relationship between satellite measurements of vegetation
index (NDVI), a proxy for crop amounts and proportionate generation of residue, and
post-harvest fires, a precursor of air pollution events. The NDVI-fires relationship opens
the possibility of predicting seasonal fire activities in advance by looking at the regional
mean NDVI values prior to the onset of the burning season. The revised prediction model
predicts fire statistics for the years 2017–2021 with more than 90% accuracy (or less than
10% error) [104]. The prediction of the totality of seasonal fires can be useful to gauge the
overall spatial–temporal variations in PM2.5 and aerosol loading in the downwind region
(including Delhi) in the regional models for the short-term to even seasonal forecast.
Long-range transport of these emissions is a known source of PM2.5 peaks over Delhi,
contributing to up to 50% of the daily averages during the pre-winter season [9,105,106].
While this phenomenon lasts only for 2–3 weeks and on an annual basis contributes to
less than 3% of Delhi’s averages, the extreme nature of its impacts on health and local
economics has lasting effects [27,34,107].
To improve air quality and protect the health of millions, there is an urgent need to
implement a cost-effective and farmer-friendly crop residue management system to
replace the harmful practice of stubble burning. In the states of Punjab, Haryana, and
Uttar Pradesh, two strategies have been employed to reduce stubble burning: ex situ and
in situ methods. Since 2018–19, the Union Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare
has provided financial assistance and subsidies to farmers’ collectives and cooperative
societies to tackle this problem. The funds have primarily been used to subsidise the
purchase of stubble management equipment such as happy-seeders, combine harvesters,
rotavators, and super-straw management systems. As of March 2021, approximately INR
24,400,000,000 (USD 298,000,000) has been spent on subsidising and distributing this
equipment. Additionally, other initiatives such as the development of units to convert
stubble into biomass briquettes or pellets for co-firing in boilers have received a subsidy
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 20 of 38

of INR 6,910,000,000 (USD 84,000,000) [108,109]. While the core issue traces its roots back
to the green revolution and the dominant cultivation of rice and wheat in the water-
depleting regions of Punjab and Haryana, the solutions have largely been focused on the
immediate practice of stubble burning rather than the root cause [110].

Figure 6. A linear prediction model for estimating the post-monsoon (October and November)
paddy residue burning season fire counts over Punjab-Haryana (Lon: 74E–77E, Lat: 29N–32N)
region based on the pre-burning NDVI from Aqua-MODIS.

5.3. Residential Emissions

Residential sector emissions in Delhi and in India are a combination of cooking,
heating, and lighting emissions. Together, this sector contributes to more than 30% of the
estimated premature deaths in India due to outdoor PM2.5 concentrations [10,111] and
contributes to 15–20% of the estimated annual PM2.5 concentrations in Delhi. This
contribution is higher during the winter months due to heating emissions and
disadvantageous meteorology [14,18,66].
According to the 2011 census (last available update) [112], in the urban parts of the
districts, 80–85% of the registered households are predominantly using LPG or electricity
for cooking. These districts include nine from Delhi; Faridabad, Gurugram, and Rohtak
from Haryana; and Noida and Ghaziabad from Uttar Pradesh. In the rural parts of the
districts, 63% in Delhi, 30% in Haryana, and 19% in Uttar Pradesh predominantly use LPG
and electricity for cooking. Other traditional fuels include coal, crop residue, wood, cow-
dung, and others. Collectively, in these 12 districts, 75% of the households are listed as
urban dwellers.
In 2016, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG) launched the Ujjwala
program to provide LPG connections to women from economically and socially
disadvantaged households across India. At the end of 2022, a total of 110 million new
connections were made, which included a subsidy to cover the cost of a stove and the first
cylinder. The goal of the program is to increase the use of clean cooking fuel, reduce
indoor and outdoor air pollution, and improve health [113,114]. While the share of LPG
usage in the 2011 census was already the highest in Delhi compared to the other states,
the Ujjwala scheme added another 150,000 consumers to the pool (as of November 2022).
Another 100,000 and 350,000 consumers were added in the neighbouring Haryana and
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 21 of 38

Uttar Pradesh districts, further reducing the overall load of cooking emissions on ambient
air quality.
At the beginning of the Ujjwala program, the Government also launched the “Give It
Up” campaign—a voluntary scheme for individuals who can afford LPG connections
without subsidy so that the government can use the funds to provide LPG connections to
families living below the poverty line [115]. Approximately 17 million consumers
volunteered. However, in January 2021, the government revoked all subsidies on LPG for
domestic consumers in a move to reduce the fiscal deficit and align domestic LPG prices
with international prices. The lack of subsidies has raised concerns for the continued usage
of LPG and an increase in risk for rural households shifting to low-cost traditional fuels
[113,116]. As of December 2022, a partial subsidy of INR 200 is available only for Ujjwala
beneficiaries for 12 cylinders/year. While the loss of subsidy is not an issue for rich Delhi
districts, this could have an impact of the emission loads in the neighbouring districts.
Winter months in Delhi (November to February) are marked by low ground-level
temperatures (under 15 °C) (Table 2), prompting the burning of coal, wood, and in some
instances waste for warmth. During this time, the average minimum temperature
typically ranges from 5–10 °C on the coldest nights, with occasional frost and fog. While
most of the permanent and large building neighbourhoods use cleaner options such as
electric and water heaters, a large portion of the neighbourhoods still relies on
conventional fuels for heating. During some winter days, the contribution of space heating
emissions to ambient PM2.5 levels is as high as 50%, due to two factors: (a) an increase in
overall emissions and (b) low wind speeds and mixing heights, further enhancing the
pollution loads, on average 8–20 times worse than the summer months [36,117]. Several
vulnerable groups were identified: street vendors; rickshaw pullers; construction
workers; homeless people; people living in the slums, rural areas, and informal
settlements with inadequate housing insulation; and people with pre-existing chronic
health conditions such as asthma and heart disease [10]. Every winter, the government
and the Residential Welfare Associations run blanket and warm clothing drives and
operate warm shelters for outdoor workers to minimise exposure to cold temperatures
and high pollution levels.

5.4. Waste Management

As of March 2022, Delhi operates three landfills—Ghazipur (70 acres), Bhalaswa (36
acres), and Okhla (46 acres), with a combined processing capacity of 7000 tons a day [118].
According to [1], four landfills were operational during 1996–97 with a combined
processing capacity of 5000 tons a day, and 14 smaller landfill sites were already full and
closed. As of July 2019, there were 2.8 billion tons of legacy waste at the three landfills,
which was reduced to 2.0 billion tons in 2020. These landfills are sometimes referred to as
mountains, with the potential threat of spontaneous fires.
Urban solid waste is normally a mixed waste comprising household, plastic,
commercial, toxic, and hospital wastes. The five municipal corporations (MC) in Delhi
entrusted to manage waste are (1) North Delhi (NDMC), (2) South Delhi (SDMC), (3) East
Delhi (EDMC), (4) New Delhi (NDMC), and the (5) Delhi Cantonment Board (DCB). While
MCs are responsible for managing solid waste, there is a wide range of stakeholders
involved: households, rag pickers, recyclers, waste dealers, etc. MCs are responsible for
setting up infrastructure for the segregation, collection, storage, transportation,
processing, and disposal of solid waste, either on their own or by engaging private
agencies. They are also responsible for ensuring that recyclable waste gets recycled, open
burning of waste does not take place, and no damage is caused to the environment in the
process. As of March 2022, only NDMC and SDMC have a solid waste management plan
for reducing the processing load and managing the legacy waste. The overall waste
segregation rate in Delhi is 32% and only 48% (~5300 tons/day) of the waste collected is
processed and safely disposed of. NDMC processes and segregates 100% of the waste
collected. Assuming a per capita waste generation rate of 0.7 kg per day, approximately
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 22 of 38

20 million Delhi inhabitants can produce 14,000 tons per day, and the official waste
generation rate is 11,000 tons/day. Subtracting the landfill processing capacity means
approximately 6000 to 9000 tons/day of the total waste generated is left for composting
and/or open burning. Open waste burning in residential areas, waste collection centres,
and at the landfills is an uncertain source of emissions [103,119]. Source apportionment
studies suggest that waste burning can account for up to 5–15% of ambient PM2.5
concentrations across Delhi [5,66].
Various types of MSW processing facilities are available: material recovery, waste to
energy (WTE), recycling, composting, bio-methanation, and refuse-derived fuel.
Currently, 4550 tons/day of the 5300 tons/day of waste processed is at the WTE plants and
this method is being pursued as a primary technology for waste management by all the
municipalities. Two new plants are expected to be operational in 2023 with a combined
WTE capacity of 8050 tons/day. However, [120] identified various socio-economic and
environmental concerns with this singular focus on WTE plants, such as (a) the impact on
the livelihood of informal rag-pickers since all the recyclables would be diverted to the
plants. Approximately 300,000 informal waste workers’ livelihoods would be at threat
with the addition of two new plants. Additionally, (b) waste incineration leads to
emissions of dioxins and furans, causing health problems in the neighbouring areas.

5.5. Construction Sector

In Delhi, construction of residential and commercial buildings, roads, flyovers, and
subways for metro rail system are common sights. Emission sources associated with the
sector are dust particles generated during construction activities such as drilling, sawing,
mixing, and demolishing; movement and management of the construction and demolition
(C&D) waste; hot mixing units; and brick kilns.
In Delhi, approximately 3500 tons of C&D waste was generated per day in 2021–22
[121]. In addition to solid waste management, the five MCs are responsible for the
managing of C&D waste at 257 designated sites across the city. On average, only 1770
tons/day (51%) of the collected waste is processed per day, while the processing capacity
at the plants is 5150 tons/day. The processed waste is used to make paver blocks, kerb
stones, concrete bricks, and other aggregates, as well as granular sub-base, sand, and soil,
which are used in infrastructure projects as directed by the Department of Urban
Development to minimise the use of traditional natural resources and increase the use of
recycled products. These recycling rules include (a) a minimum of 2% of C&D products
in all building works, (b) a minimum of 10% of C&D products in all road works and (c) a
minimum of 5% of C&D products for non-structural applications, including private
entities.
Fugitive dust from the construction sites is also a concern during the days with winds
above threshold speeds and forms a large portion of the coarse fraction of PM. Whenever
GRAP is in effect for PM10 in poor conditions, the Commissioner or officers in charge of
police departments can enforce rules for dust control and close all non-compliant sites.
For very poor, severe, or emergency PM10 conditions, DPCC and MCs can stop all
construction activities [122]. While GRAP has been operational since 2016, there is limited
information on the impact of passing these rules whenever the poor-to-emergency
conditions are triggered, with the limited overseeing capabilities of the DPCC, MCs, and
police departments.
The brick manufacturing industry in NCR uses fixed chimney brick kiln technology
(FCBKT), which is more energy-efficient than traditional clamp-style kilns (where
sundried bricks are stacked with fuel such as coal dust and biomass and burnt
continuously for 10–15 days). In FCBKT, a chimney in the middle of the kiln allows for
the flue gas to circulate within the kiln and escape from a single outlet. In 2006–08, there
were 937 marked brick kilns in Delhi’s airshed, covering an area of 80 km × 80 km (Figure
7). In 2021, the number dropped to 751 due to either closures or relocation to farther
districts. There are no brick kilns within Delhi’s administrative boundary limits. All kilns
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 23 of 38

within the limits were either relocated or closed following the Supreme Court order in the
1990s [44,46]. Some of the kilns also closed due to proximity to growing residential hubs
in NOIDA, Ghaziabad, and Rohtak.
A typical kiln can produce up to 20,000 bricks a day and most of the production in
IGP occurs only during the non-monsoonal months of October to March. These months
are also marked with the highest levels of air pollution in Delhi (Table 2). In 2010–11, the
brick industry produced up to 16 million bricks a day [14]. Fuel used for baking the
sundried bricks includes coal dust, wood, and agricultural waste, and in some cases old
shredded tyres (Figure 7c). For those relocating or refurbishing kilns, the NCR officials
and private groups encouraged brick kiln owners and facilitated conversion of FCBKT
kilns to use zigzag technology, which emits 30–40% lower emissions per kg of baked brick
[123,124]. Here the bricks are loaded in a zigzag pattern, with minimal changes to the
structure of the kiln or the chimney.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7. Mapped brick kilns using Google Earth imagery for (a) 2006–08 and (b) 2021 (the extracted
KML files are available via email) and (c) photograph of fuel loading at a brick kiln in Rohtak (by
author).

5.6. Road Dust

Roads in Delhi are covered with a mix of natural dust and tyre wear and tear. With
the constant movement of vehicles, the potential for dust resuspension is high. On
average, 10–20% of the PM2.5 and 30–50% of the PM10 fractions are constituted of dust
[8,14,125,126]. While the fraction of paved roads has increased in Delhi, leading to lesser
natural dust on the roads for resuspension, a constant increase in the number of vehicles
and vehicle km travelled means that the overall shares of road dust have remained
constant over the years (Table 4). Several measures were proposed and implemented to
control road dust in Delhi, such as (a) regular manual sweeping and the use of mechanical
sweepers with water sprinklers to suppress resuspension for some hours. While wetting
is an effective method, this also requires a lot of water, often sourced from the waste water
treatment plants; (b) paving of roads with asphalt or concrete to reduce dust loading on
the roads, often as part of managing C&D waste; (c) planting vegetation along the sides
of roads to reduce exposure to dust by providing a barrier between the road and the
surrounding area and to provide additional leaf surface for dry deposition. Some
proposals have included green roofs and vertical farming on the building; (d) restricting
the movement of heavy-duty vehicles during peak hours. Since dust resuspension is a
function of vehicle speeds and vehicle weights, reducing the presence of heavy-duty
vehicles during peak hours has a direct impact on resuspension rates. In Delhi, big trucks
are not allowed to enter or conduct operations between 6 am and 9 pm; and (e) use of dust
suppressants at construction sites to reduce wind erosion and kerbside dust loading.

5.7. Electricity Consumption and Load Sharing

Load sharing in Delhi is different from other states. While other states have power
deficits, Delhi has tied up surplus power to cater to the increasing demand and peak load
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 24 of 38

and has dropped the need for diesel generator sets, with load shedding at under 0.02%
[127]. Delhi’s residential consumers also benefit from subsidies such as free 200 units per
month, discounted pricing for consumption between 200 to 400 units per month, 100%
rebate for special groups, and the lowest fixed tariffs in the country. Between 2013 and
2022, average demand per day has increased (Figure 8), with peaks during the summer
months of May to Aug. These months are hot and dry, pushing the need for constant air
conditioning. In 10 years, the highest net increases in the average demand are 45% in April
and 32% in June. Delhi’s annual demand in 2021–22 was 33,300 million units.

Figure 8. (a) Monthly electricity demand in MU/day between 2013 and 2022. (b) Weekly electricity
demand between 2019 and 2021 highlighting the COVID waves (data source: Grid Controller of
India Ltd.).

A summary of the installed generation capacity (in MW), annual generation (in
million kwh), and annual plant load factor for all the power plants in the immediate
vicinity of Delhi is presented in Table 6. The installed generation capacity in Delhi is 1792
MW, supported by three gas units (90 MW) operated by the Indraprastha Power
Generation Company and nine gas units (1702 MW) operated by the Pragati Power
Generation Company. However, local generation only supports 15% of the demand, and
the remaining 85% is purchased from neighbouring states. In 2011, these distributions
were 23% and 77%. Between 2015 and 2022, three old power plants closed operations—
Rajghat, Badarpur, and Faridabad—as part of the drive to reduce the impact of local
power plants on Delhi’s air quality, and the two operational plants are underutilised, at
PLFs between 20 and 50%. The overall impact of the local and regional power plants on
Delhi’s air quality is estimated at 5–7% of annual average PM2.5 concentrations [63,128]. A
large portion of this is in the secondary form of sulphates from the chemical conversion
of SO2 emissions during the advection of gas from the source region to the city limits.
While the new emissions norms were in place for flue gas desulphurization in December
2015, the implementation has been delayed multiple times and only a fraction of the
power plants in India have even prepared plans to implement.

Table 6. Summary of power plant operations in the immediate vicinity of Delhi—plant name,
installed generation capacity (MW), actual annual generation (MU) from 2013 to 2022, and annual
average plant load factor (%) (data source: Grid Controller of India Ltd.).

Plant MW 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
4317 3768 2359 2087 1559 1400
Badarpur TPS 705
(71%) (62%) (39%) (34%) (26%) (23%)
13,007 12,786 10,319 9936 8880 10,870 7411 3494 5824 8671
Dadri NCTPP 1820
(83%) (81%) (66%) (63%) (56%) (69%) (47%) (22%) (37%) (60%)
3404 2645 2960 2620 1741 1491 1771 2107 885 659
Dadri CCPP 830
(47%) (37%) (41%) (37%) (24%) (21%) (25%) (29%) (12%) (10%)
1679 1586 1360 986 839 648 849 355
Faridabad CCPP 432 560 (15%)
(45%) (43%) (36%) (26%) (22%) (17%) (23%) (10%)
1070 622 621 525 462 224 309
Indraprastha CCPP 270 975 (42%) 593 (25%) 607 (26%)
(46%) (27%) (27%) (22%) (20%) (10%) (14%)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 25 of 38

5272 6657 6178 5808 6702 7638 4712 2594 6916 7684
Indira Gandhi STPP 1500
(41%) (51%) (48%) (45%) (52%) (59%) (36%) (20%) (53%) (65%)
5735 6256 5764 3163 5823 7181 6222 4706 7889 7055
Mahatma Gandhi TPS 1320
(50%) (55%) (51%) (28%) (51%) (63%) (55%) (41%) (69%) (67%)
6234 4421 1890 2241 2404 3372 2337 916 2310 4562
Panipat TPS 1360
(53%) (38%) (16%) (26%) (30%) (42%) (29%) (14%) (38%) (81%)
1612 2041 1948 2819 3698 3765 3374 3340 2558
Pragati CCGT-III 1500 999 (11%)
(12%) (16%) (15%) (22%) (29%) (29%) (26%) (26%) (22%)
2469 2061 1695 1716 1791 1782 1391 1555 1547 1074
Pragati CCPP 330
(86%) (72%) (59%) (60%) (63%) (62%) (49%) (54%) (54%) (41%)
Rajghat TPS 135 555 (48%) 367 (31%) 130 (11%)
4577 4940 4637 4431 3828 5216 2081 1528 2286 5450
Rajiv Gandhi TPS 1200
(44%) (48%) (45%) (43%) (37%) (50%) (20%) (15%) (22%) (57%)
7
Rithala CCPP 108
(1%)
3291 3610 3812 3889 3362 2975 3380 2032 2543 4019
Yamuna Nagar TPS 600
(63%) (70%) (74%) (75%) (65%) (57%) (65%) (39%) (49%) (85%)

COVID-19 lockdowns also had an impact on the overall electricity demand in Delhi,
with the largest drops coming from the commercial and industrial estates. A summary of
the weekly demand between 2019 and 2021 is included in Figure 8, including a forecast
line to illustrate the drop in demand during the two waves. The maximum drop in the
estimated demand was 48% during the first wave and 45% during the second wave.

5.8. Diwali Firecrackers

The Diwali festival, highlighted with fireworks, falls in the month of October or
November (based on India’s lunar calendar) and is one the extreme events when air
quality levels go past the emergency scale for at least three nights—the day before, the
day of, and the day after Diwali. At some hotspots across most Indian cities, hourly
averages can peak at 1000 to 3000 μg/m3. The mix of pollutants includes copious amounts
of heavy metals and gases from bursting tons of firecrackers in a short span of 3–6 h [11].
Between 2016 and 2022, the Supreme Court intervened with on-and-off bans on the sale
of firecrackers in Delhi (but not in the whole of the NCR). However, the effect on the
overall median and peak concentrations was limited. Figure 9 summarises all-station
hourly average PM2.5 concentrations as ranges for two days (the day of and the day after
Diwali). The peaks correspond to the hours of firecracker burning on Diwali night,
overlapping the two days. While these peaks occur only for a few hours and for 2–3 days,
the total load of emissions and severity of the concentrations is very high compared to any
of the remaining days of the year, resulting in a large number of acute exposure incidents
of respiratory cases [129]. An important outcome of a series of public interest litigations
(detailed in the following section) is the information on firecracker sales in Delhi.
According to the papers filed on behalf of firecrackers manufacturers, distributors, and
sellers, in response to the ban in 2016, total firecracker sales in Delhi was five million
kilos—approximately 30% of their national sales, shared by 1.6% of the national
population living in an area of 0.05% of the national landmass.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 26 of 38

Figure 9. (a) Summary of PM2.5 concentration ranges of all-station hourly averages for the day of
and the day after Diwali in Delhi (data source: CPCB, New Delhi, India). (b) Summary of ventilation
rate (wind speed * boundary layer height) from ERA5 reanalysis fields, averaged over the grids
covering Delhi.

Between 2015 and 2022, the peaks and the averages of 2022 are the lowest recorded.
A blanket ban on the bursting of firecrackers was issued in 2022. However, multiple non-
compliant reports were registered across the city. Despite this, the pollution levels were
low for two reasons: (a) advantageous meteorological conditions on the night of Diwali
and the day after Diwali (Figure 9b), and (b) 2022’s Diwali day was at least a week ahead
of the post-harvest fires in Punjab and Haryana. The ventilation rates during this period
were at least double compared to previous years, halving the net concentrations. While
there is more awareness of the health impacts of firecracker emissions and the extreme
nature of the pollution on Diwali day, with no clear path ahead, this event is expected to
repeat in the following years, with the only course of action coming from nature.

6. Judicial and Institutional Engagement

6.1. Role of the Judicial System
The Supreme Court of India, propelled primarily by public interest litigations (PIL)
filed by concerned citizens, has intervened on multiple occasions to either introduce an
intervention for the first time or fast track existing interventions for immediate action to
support Delhi’s air quality management. Its actions, while encroaching on the turf of an
elected executive and the Parliament, can be seen as a reaction to the two latter institutions
being largely apathetic to Delhi’s deteriorating air quality [130]. The interpretation of the
Supreme Court in a separate case (M. C. Mehta vs. Union of India, 1986) also provided the
legal basis for the court to intercede in matters of air quality by recognising the right to
clean air under article 21 of the Indian constitution. Several landmark judgements have
brought notable changes to the regulatory framework of Delhi’s air quality and led to the
introduction of sweeping policy interventions. At the same time, the wide berth occupied
by the Court has also led to the promotion of ad hoc and unscientific interventions. Some
milestones are highlighted in this section.

6.1.1. Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA)

In 1998, following the Supreme Court’s orders, the Union Government constituted
the EPCA as a statutory body under the Environment Protection Act (1986), with the
objective of protecting the environment and controlling pollution in Delhi (and the
surrounding states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan) and providing guidance to
the Court on the matter (https://epca.org.in, accessed 23 February 2023). EPCA, however,
chose not to utilise the full extent of its legal authority, largely restricting itself to
submitting monitoring reports to the Supreme Court and progress reports to the Union
Government. While some actions taken by the Supreme Court (highlighted in the
following sections) are a result of EPCA’s contributions to the Court, independent experts
note that EPCA effectively failed to perform in its role as a quasi-judicial authority, leading
up to its replacement with the new Commission in 2020 [131].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 27 of 38

6.1.2. Diesel to CNG Conversion

Started with the PIL filed by environmental lawyer M. C. Mehta in 1998, the Supreme
Court ruled on the immediate conversion of public transport buses and para-transit
vehicles from diesel to CNG [46]. Upon complete conversion, more than 90% of PM2.5 and
SO2 emissions from buses, auto-rickshaws, taxis, and some passenger vehicles were
reduced [47,48]. The SO2 emissions also benefited from the introduction of newer fuel
standards reducing the sulphur content in petrol and diesel. This successful conversion
program remains an iconic intervention in Delhi’s history, with the Court intervening on
multiple occasions to fast-track this transition. Since then, multiple cities have introduced
CNG buses and promoted CNG for passenger vehicles, but never replicated at the same
scale.

6.1.3. Diwali Firecracker Ban

In 2015, three toddlers filed a PIL at the Supreme Court asking for a complete ban on
the sale of fireworks in the period just before and during Diwali [132]. Noting the concerns
related to the health of children and the vulnerable in society, the Supreme Court
nevertheless declined the petitioners’ request to ban firework sales, indicating that a ban
would be considered if evidence comes to light that fireworks are found to be a major
pollutant during the festive season. Instead, it initially directed the government and the
educational institutions to disseminate messaging around the ill effects of fireworks and
the air pollution caused by their use.
In 2016, the Supreme Court decided against a complete ban on sales and instead
directed the government to reduce by half the number of fireworks sellers in the region
[133]. With this order doing little to reduce access to fireworks, air quality levels jumped
to alarming levels in late October (Figure 9a), and the Court eventually temporarily
banned sales on 11 November [134].
Subsequent directions from the Court included soliciting a report from the CPCB on
the harmful chemicals used in fireworks, directing the Petroleum and Explosives Safety
Organization (PESO) to examine the potential to manufacture “green” fireworks that
would emit 30–35% less air pollution, and banning the sale of specific categories of
fireworks. In subsequent years, the Court attempted to regulate sales to comprise only
approved “green” fireworks and directed the government to restrict the burning of
fireworks to two-hour windows on Diwali [135]. The failure of such moves led to a
complete ban on the sale of fireworks in 2022, but compliance levels were low.

6.1.4. Leapfrogging from BS4 to BS6 Vehicle Emission and Fuel Standards
In February 2016, the Union Ministry for Transport issued a notification on the
transition from BS4 to BS6 standards for 2Ws, 3Ws, LDVs, and HDVs on 1 April 2020 [136].
In effect, this meant leapfrogging five years in advance, compared to the original date of
2025, under the Auto Fuel Policy. In 2018, the society of automobile manufacturers (SIAM)
filed a petition requesting an extension that would allow them to continue to sell BS4
standard vehicles. The Supreme Court denied their petition and ruled in favour of the
introduction of the BS6 standard nationwide, as per schedule in 2020 [137].

6.1.5. Petcoke Ban

In 2017, the Supreme Court ruled in favour of an immediate ban on using petcoke
(which has high sulphur content) in all non-cement industrial units in NCR Delhi [138].
Subsequently, the ban was extended to any industry using petcoke and furnace oil in the
neighbouring states of Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. Petcoke is a by-product of
the oil refining process with a sulphur content of 6–7% by weight, which upon combustion
is released as SO2 gas and transforms to its aerosol form (sulphates—a major chemical
component of ambient PM2.5). In India, the total consumption of petcoke peaked at 25.6
million tons in 2018 before dropping to 21.7 million tons, partly because of this ruling [27].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 28 of 38

6.1.6. Installation of Smog Towers

On 25 November 2019, the Supreme Court directed the Union Government and the
Government of Delhi to install smog towers across Delhi to improve air quality levels at
those locations [139]. Driven primarily by the public discourse around the perceived
impact of one such giant vacuum cleaner installed in Xi’an, China, the smog tower came
to be seen as a symbol of solutions for deteriorating Delhi’s air quality [117]. There are no
studies in India or elsewhere that showcase any beneficial impact of these installations on
ambient air quality. If anything, all the installations opened with a lot of fanfare, only to
fizzle out within days of operations. Delhi installed one large smog tower at a capital cost
of INR 3,000,000, one medium-size tower at a capital cost of INR 1,000,000, and multiple
air purifiers at traffic intersections and bus stops. Of all the interventions by the Supreme
Court to address Delhi’s air quality, this is the most unscientific push for a solution to
scrub pollution, instead of addressing emissions at their sources.

6.1.7. National Green Tribunal (NGT)

NGT is a special judicial body established by the Parliament under the NGT Act of
2010 to expedite litigations related to environmental protection. India is the third country
in the world, after Australia and New Zealand, to have dedicated environmental courts.
The Supreme Court of India declared NGT’s position as a unique forum endowed with
suo moto powers to take up environmental issues and can thus recognise issues based on
letters, representations, and media reports. Specifically, NGT’s jurisdiction extends to any
issue that falls under the Water Act, the Water Cess Act, the Forest Conservation Act, Air
Act, Environment Protection Act, Public Liability Insurance Act, and the Biological
Diversity Act. Accordingly, the NGT has intervened for the protection of Delhi’s air
quality in:
 Vardhaman Kaushik vs. Union of India case [140]—the NGT ordered de-registration
of all diesel vehicles older than 10 years and all petrol vehicles older than 15 years.
 Smt. Ganga Lalwani vs. Union of India and Ors. case [141]—the NGT took cognisance
of crop burning as a significant cause of Delhi’s air pollution and ordered various
steps to reduce crop burning in adjoining states. These include converting crop waste
into organic manure, use of ISRO’s services to alter lice on crop burning incidents,
etc.
 Almitra H. Patel and Ors. vs. Union of India [142]—the NGT prohibited open burning
of waste and directed all states to implement the solid waste management rules.
Using its authority, the NGT under the polluter pays principle, in October 2022,
imposed an environment compensation fee of INR 9,000,000,000 on the Delhi
government for undisposed waste in its landfills.
 Mayank Manohar and Paras Singh vs. Government of Delhi and Ors. [143]—the NGT
directed the government to immediately shut down 4770 industrial units running
illegally in the residential areas of Delhi and directed it to adopt coercive measures
to recover compensation for illegal operation of such units in accordance with law
apart from prosecution.

6.2. Role of Union Government

The prominence of Delhi as the national capital has meant substantial media
coverage has been devoted to its deteriorating air quality over the years. This has
translated into significantly more attention paid to it by the Union Government often to
the neglect or even detriment of areas in the IGP that are likely as polluted [27]. While
policy action from the Union Government has often been seen as a lagging indicator to
judicial attention, here are some instances of a more proactive approach materialising.

6.2.1. Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 29 of 38

Responding to the extreme air pollution episodes before and during the winter
months, CPCB formed the GRAP in January 2017. The plan outlined a series of escalating
air pollution control measures for various line departments in the NCR Delhi, depending
on the prevalent ambient PM2.5 and PM10 levels expressed as air quality index (AQI) [122].
 When AQI conditions land in the poor category, actions include ensuring strict
enforcement of controls on garbage burning, brick kilns, power plants, ash ponds,
construction sites, fireworks, and periodic wet sweeping of roads; vigilance on
polluting vehicles, vehicles touting PUC norms and out of state trucks; deploying
more traffic police; and posting information on social media.
 When AQI conditions land in the very poor category, actions include banning diesel
generator sets, increasing parking fees, increasing bus services, stopping coal and
wood burning at hotels, opening eateries and stationing guards at markets in
residential areas, and increasing public awareness.
 When AQI conditions land in the severe category, actions include shutting down
brick kilns, hot-mix plants, stone crushers, and power plants, intensifying public
transport services, and wet-sweeping roads more frequently.
 Under emergency conditions, actions include closing entry of non-commodity
trucks, closing all construction activities, introducing the odd–even formula, and
additional measures as the authority sees fit (for example, in January 2023, all coal
use was banned in the NCR region).
Overall, the GRAP measures remain largely reactive, brought into effect only if the
severity of the air quality persists for at least 48 h in any of the AQI categories, and to date,
there has been little analysis on whether the GRAP has been successful in reducing
ambient air pollution during these extreme events.

6.2.2. National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)

In January 2019, the Union Government notified NCAP, the first long-term policy
aimed at improving ambient air quality nationwide. With a 2019 baseline, a total of 102
“non-attainment” cities were tasked with reducing ambient PM2.5 levels by 20–30% by
2024 compared to a 2017 baseline [26]. An updated list of 132 cities covers 24 states, with
Maharashtra (19), Uttar Pradesh (17), and Andhra Pradesh (13) with more than ten cities
each. The benchmark for air quality improvement was later changed to the reduction in
PM10 levels due to the lack of an adequate baseline for many cities. In 2022, the new target
under NCAP was 40% reduction in the annual averages by 2026, compared to the 2017
baseline.
Under the program, all the non-attainment cities were required to submit action
plans. An early assessment of 102 approved action plans indicated that most cities
compiled a series of actions akin to a wish list [26]. Only 25% of these plans integrated any
kind of data on relative source contributions with respect to their source-specific control
strategies and 50% of the action items were related to dealing with transport emissions
from roads, rail, aviation, shipping, and road dust. Of the 92 action points in Delhi’s plan,
49 and 22 were transport- and industry-related; the rest covered open waste burning,
residential cooking and heating, dust, monitoring, and public awareness. The skewed
nature of the action plans is also an indication of the perception that transport is the most
important source of emissions, irrespective of the shares determined via source
apportionment studies (Section 4). Upon approval, MoEFCC allocated some funds for
institutional capacity building such as adding more monitoring systems and setting up an
information dissemination platform. Cities showcasing the greatest improvement across
a range of metrics including actions to reduce emissions from waste burning, road and
construction dust, vehicles, and industries were awarded additional funds under the
Swachh Vayu Survekshan or clean air survey [144].
NCAP has helped focus attention on India’s air pollution issue nationwide, rather
than just in NCR Delhi. The increased ambient monitoring network has enabled cities to
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 30 of 38

measure their air quality and develop tailored action plans, rather than just following
Delhi’s example. The number of continuous ambient monitoring stations across India rose
from under 100 in 2018 to over 400 by the end of 2022.
To facilitate further development and evaluation of city clean air action plans, a
National Knowledge Network (NKN) was created by the Indian Institute of Technology—
Kanpur. More than 130 Indian institutes of repute are included in the network. These
institutes are tasked with assisting cities, state PCBs, and urban local bodies with the
design, implementation, and evaluation of city action plans, in addition to any other
technical support necessary in the form of expansion of the ambient monitoring network,
building emission inventories, conducting source apportionment, evaluation of costs and
benefits, and institutional capacity building.

6.2.3. Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)

The CAQM for NCR Delhi and adjoining areas was introduced by the Union
Government through an ordinance in October 2020. This was in response to the Supreme
Court appointing a special committee headed by a retired Judge, Madan. B. Lokur, to
direct action on Delhi’s air quality. In response to the promulgation of the CAQM
ordinance, both the Lokur committee and EPCA stood dissolved, with their
responsibilities passing on to the CAQM.
Comprised of past and current bureaucrats, the modus operandi of the CAQM is like
the erstwhile EPCA. After functioning for six months, the CAQM ordinance lapsed in
March 2021, and was repromulgated by the Union Government in April 2021. In August
2021, Parliament passed the CAQM Act, empowering the body with substantial authority
to regulate air quality not only in the NCT Delhi but also in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, and Rajasthan. With this broader remit, the CAQM became the first expression
of air pollution policy that intends to regulate air pollution across state boundaries. Under
the act, the CAQM has broader powers including the ability to collect environmental
compensation, override decisions of the CPCB and other regulatory entities, and
transcend jurisdictional boundaries.

6.2.4. Fifteenth Finance Commission Grant (XVFC)

In November 2019, the XVFC allocated performance-linked grants for air quality to
42 urban agglomerations with over one million inhabitants. These grants were structured
in two tranches, with the first tranche targeting expansion of monitoring, development of
city-specific action plans, and building capacity in urban local bodies to undertake air
quality management actions. The second tranche of funds are linked to performance
metrics, mainly improvements in air quality shown by these cities. With a total fund
allocation of INR 44,000,000,000 (USD 530,000,000) over five years and with half of it front-
loaded, this is the single largest allocation of funds ever made for air quality management
in India [145]. In the first year of the funds, most cities focused on expanding ambient and
emissions monitoring networks, constructing an emissions inventory, conducting source
apportionment studies, and conceptualising clean air action plans [26,146].

7. Final Remarks
Air pollution in Delhi is a year-round problem, not just limited to specific events such
as Diwali or post-harvest fires or seasons such as winter. Long-term solutions should be
the focus to address this issue, as outlined in the clean air action plans for the city. These
solutions include increasing infrastructure for public transportation, walking, and cycling;
promoting the use of clean fuels such as LPG and electricity for cooking and heating;
enforcing emissions standards for industries; improving waste management and reducing
open waste burning; and increasing the city’s green cover. The COVID lockdowns have
shown that when emissions from all sources are reduced, air quality improves.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 31 of 38

There is sufficient understanding of sources and emission loads contributing to

observed PM2.5 pollution levels and the best available solutions to reverse the trends. In a
nutshell, the key sources that require immediate attention are vehicle exhaust, road dust,
construction dust, cooking and heating, open waste burning, and industries. The
collective list of long-term actions has consistently remained in multiple clean air plans
prepared between 1997 to 2020. While we can wait for further research, more evidence on
the impacts of air pollution, and the development of better emission databases, there is no
need to wait before acting. This problem is not limited to the city’s boundary; instead, a
collective regional set of actions are required to address this urgent issue at hand.
The relationship between the urban environment, health, and planning is inseparable
in mega cities. With a population of over 25 million in the airshed, pollution from a mix
of sources, such as transport, cooking, heating, waste burning, and industries, is an
inevitable part of urban life. To address this, reducing pollution must be incorporated as
a key aspect of the city’s master plan. Urban planning measures, such as reducing traffic,
promoting non-motorised transportation, creating pedestrian zones, and encouraging
mixed-use commercial and residential areas, are crucial in achieving this goal.
Air purifiers are designed to filter the air in a specific area, such as a room or an office,
to reduce exposure to harmful levels of particulate and gaseous pollutants. However, the
same concept, as larger installations, cannot be a solution for ambient air pollution. To
effectively address ambient air pollution, it is necessary to implement measures that target
the emissions at the sources by altering control technology, influencing behaviours, and
providing incentives.
AQI is an easy-to-understand public message metric. To populate this with more
representative information, Delhi city and the neighbouring cities must expand their
monitoring network. The spatial heterogeneity of pollution in Delhi’s airshed is high,
requiring many monitors to accurately measure the intensity and variability. To cover the
airshed of 100 km × 100 km, at least 100 CAAQMSs are needed to represent all the
activities spatially and temporally. A hybrid system using a mix of reference-grade and
low-cost sensors is a cost-effective solution, provided the low-cost sensors are properly
and often calibrated and validated. Satellite feeds and operational chemical transport
models can also be used to supplement monitoring in areas where monitors are not
present. A larger pool of measurements is also useful for understanding any
inconsistencies in the local and regional source contributions.
Health impacts, such as the number of cases of chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), asthma, bronchitis, heart attacks, reduced cognitive development,
mental health, diabetes, and lung cancer, are key metrics for assessing good and bad air
quality in a city. Tracking air pollution exposure rates through a comprehensive
monitoring network and analysing hospital admission records during both extreme and
moderate air quality periods is critical to understanding the impact of air pollution on
human health. Providing open access to this information to the health community is also
beneficial as it can help in the development of targeted interventions and public health
campaigns. Additionally, this information can be used to prioritise interventions and
allocate resources to the areas of highest need.
The sectors are constantly changing, resulting in fluctuating emissions. For example,
as vehicle sales increase, so do vehicle emissions, and as fuel and vehicle standards
improve, transport emissions decrease. The expansion of the city leads to increased
emissions from transport and construction, and for industrial output, associated
emissions fluctuate with energy sources. As the population increases, the demand for
cooking and heating energy also increases, leading to increased emissions. However,
these changes should not be an excuse to neglect the importance of consolidating
knowledge and establishing an operational emissions inventory to identify hotspots and
inform short-term pollution alerts and long-term policy analysis programs.
Periodic updates to emission inventories and repeating source apportionment
studies are essential for a clean air action plan. This helps us track changes in various
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 32 of 38

sectors, anticipate missing links, and enable surveys or studies to bridge informational
gaps. It is like the need for an expanding air quality monitoring network to track progress
or lack thereof. A regular update on the emission inventory allows for the identification
of new sources or hotspots, the assessment of their relative contributions, and the
development of targeted control measures. Similarly, repeating source apportionment
studies every 2–3 years can help identify the relative importance of different sources over
time. The last known studies were in 2018 using filter samples collected in 2016 and 2021
using the 2017 baseline emissions inventory. Updated information is crucial for the
development and implementation of effective clean air strategies.
Under the GRAP program, it is important to use air quality forecasting information
to proactively manage pollution rather than relying solely on trends from the last 48 h.
Due to the diverse sources of pollution and weather patterns in Delhi, anticipating the
severity of pollution in advance and being prepared to address the likely sources can help
prevent high-exposure events. This requires a centralised agency to lead the system,
disseminate information, and follow up with relevant departments to implement short-
term measures.
To address the air pollution problem in Delhi, we have MoEFCC, CPCB, Union
Ministries, CAQM, and the Supreme Court at the national level; the Government of the
NCT Delhi and DPCC at the state level; and various municipalities at the urban level. An
overarching body is crucial in addressing this multi-faceted issue of air pollution to bring
together different stakeholders, including governments, corporations, and NGOs, and
develop a unified plan of action. While the CAQM is ordained with the authority and
resources necessary to enforce regulations, monitor compliance, and ensure
accountability to reduce air pollution in NCR Delhi, the implementation strategy is
dependent on the capacity of urban municipalities.
It is important for action to be taken by the relevant municipalities, PCBs, and
ministries in addressing the issue of air pollution rather than waiting for the Judiciary to
intervene. These line departments have the knowledge, expertise, and resources to
implement effective solutions to address the issue and to work collaboratively with other
stakeholders, such as community groups and industry leaders. This proactive approach
is also important for avoiding legal challenges and penalties, which can be costly and
time-consuming and could lead to delays in effective and permanent action.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at

https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7595761 (accessed 23 February 2023). This includes (a) available
ambient air quality monitoring data for Delhi: (a1) cpcb_delhi_data_2006-2018-raw-cleaned.rar (a2)
1999-2006-CPCB ITO-Hourly.xlsx (a3) NAMP data for 2011 to 2015 (a4) Graph-Composite-1989-
2022.xlsx (b) Supporting documents: (b1) 1997-CPCB-White-Paper-on-Delhi-Air-Pollution.pdf (b2)
2011-CPCB-Source-Apportionment-Report-Extracts.pdf (b3) 2015-04 Infograph Delhi Banning
Vehicles to Control AP.jpg (b4) 2016-03 Inforgraph Delhi Odd Even Emissions.jpg (b5) 2019-09-
Infograph-Delhi-Odd-Even-Buses.jpg (b6) NCAP-Planned-Source-Apportionment-studies.pdf (b7)
SIM-41-2021-Data-Resources-for-Energy-Emissions-Analysis.pdf (c) Reanalysis fields from WUSTL
global modelling system: (c1) wustl_delhi_1998-2021.csv is at 0.01 degree resolution (c2)
wustl_delhi_1998-2021.png and (d) Satellite data retrievals: (d1) satellite-modis_terra_aod_delhi-
covidperiod.xlsx (d2) satellite-modis_terra_aod_delhi-longerperiod.xlsx (d3) satellite-
omi_no2_delhi-covidperiod.xlsx (d4) satellite-tropomi_o3_delhi.xlsx (d5) satellite-
tropomi_so2_delhi.xlsx
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.K.G. and P.J.; methodology, S.K.G.; software, G.P. and
S.K.D.; validation, S.K.D. and S.K.G.; formal analysis, All authors; investigation, All authors;
resources, All authors; data curation, S.K.G., G.P. and S.K.D.; writing—original draft preparation,
S.K.G.; writing—review and editing, S.K.G. and P.J.; visualization, S.K.G. and S.K.D.; supervision,
P.J.; project administration, P.J. and S.K.G.; funding acquisition, S.K.G. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4209 33 of 38

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: All the supporting documents and collated databases are publicly
available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7595761 (accessed 23 February 2023)
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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