Circuit Theory I
Chapter-5
Operational Amplifiers
Asst. Prof. Dr. Kamil ÇETİN
İzmir Katip Çelebi University
Department of Electrical&Electronics Engineering
[email protected] Objectives of Lecture
• Describe how an ideal operational amplifier (op-amp)
behaves.
• Define voltage gain, current gain, transresistance gain, and
transconductance gain.
• Explain the operation of an ideal op amp in a voltage
comparator and inverting amplifier circuit.
– Show the effect of using a real op-amp.
• Apply the ‘almost ideal’ op-amp model in the following
circuits:
– Inverting Amplifier
– Noninverting Amplifier
– Voltage Follower
– Summing Amplifier
– Difference Amplifier
– Cascaded Amplifiers
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The Operational Amplifier
• An operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is a DC-
coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier
with a differential input and, usually, a single-
ended output.
• An Op-Amp produces an output potential
(relative to circuit ground) that is typically
hundreds of thousands of times larger than the
potential difference between its input terminals.
• The operational amplifier finds daily usage in a
large variety of electronic applications.
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Op Amps Applications
• Audio amplifiers
– Speakers and microphone circuits in cell phones,
computers, mpg players, boom boxes, etc.
• Instrumentation amplifiers
– Biomedical systems including heart monitors and
oxygen sensors.
• Power amplifiers
• Analog computers
– Combination of integrators, differentiators,
summing amplifiers, and multipliers
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Symbols for Ideal and Real Op Amps
OpAmp uA741
LM111 LM324
Terminals on an Op Amp
Positive power supply
(Positive rail)
Non-inverting
Input terminal
Output terminal
Inverting input
terminal
Negative power supply
(Negative rail)
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Op Amp Equivalent Circuit
vd = v2 – v1
A is the open-loop voltage gain
v2
v1
Voltage controlled
voltage source
The Operational Amplifier
Ideal Op-Amp Rules
– No current ever flows into either input terminal.
–There is no voltage difference between the two input terminals.
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4
Typical Op-Amp Parameters
Parameter Variable Typical Ideal Values
Ranges
Open-Loop A 105 to 108
Voltage Gain
∞
Input Ri 105 to 1013 W
Resistance
∞W
Output Ro 10 to 100 W 0W
Resistance
Supply Voltage Vcc/V+ 5 to 30 V N/A
-Vcc/V- -30V to 0V N/A
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How to Find These Values
• Component Datasheets
– Many manufacturers have made these freely
available on the internet
• Example: LM741, LM 324, etc.
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5
The Operational Amplifier
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dB
• Decibels
Since P = V2/R
10 log (P/Pref) or 20 log (V/Vref)
In this case:
20 log (Vo/Vin) = 20 log (A) = 100
A = 105 = 100,000
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Large Signal Voltage Gain = A
• Typical
– A = 100 V/mV = 100V/0.001V = 100,000
• Minimum
– A = 25 V/mV = 25 V/0.001V = 25,000
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Caution – A is Frequency Dependent
http://www.national.com/ds/LM/LM124.pdf
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Modifying Gain in Pspice OpAmp
• Place part in a circuit
• Double click on component
• Enter a new value for the part attribute called
GAIN
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OrCAD Schematics
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Open Circuit Output Voltage
• Open Circuit Output Voltage
vo = A vd
• Ideal Op-Amp
vo = ∞ (vd)
• Saturation in real Op-Amp
– An op-amp requires power supplies.
– Usually, equal and opposite voltages
are connect to the V+ and V-
terminals.
– Typical values are 5 to 24 volts.
– The power supply ground must be the
same as the signal ground.
• Above, +18V is connected to V+ and -18 V is connected to V-
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Open Circuit Output Voltage
• Real Op Amp
Voltage Range Output Voltage
Positive Saturation Avd > V+ vo ~ V+
Linear Region V- < Avd < V+ vo = A v d
Negative Saturation Avd < V- vo ~ V-
The voltage produced by the dependent voltage source inside the op amp is limited
by the voltage applied to the positive and negative rails.
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Voltage Transfer Characteristic
Range where
we operate the
op amp as an
amplifier.
vd
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Ideal Op-Amp
Because Ri is equal to ∞W,
the voltage across Ri is 0V.
i2 = 0 v1 = v 2
v2
vd = 0 V
i1 = 0
v1
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Almost Ideal Op Amp
• Ri = ∞ W
– Therefore, i1 = i2 = 0A
• Ro = 0 W
• Usually, vd = 0V so v1 = v2
– The op-amp forces the voltage at the inverting input terminal to
be equal to the voltage at the noninverting input terminal if there
is some component connecting the output terminal to the
inverting input terminal.
• Rarely is the op-amp limited to V- < vo < V+.
– The output voltage is allowed to be as positive or as negative as
needed to force vd = 0V.
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Example 01: Voltage Comparator…
is = 0 i1 = 0
i2 = 0
Note that the inverting input and non-inverting input
terminals have rotated in this schematic.
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…Example 01…
• The internal circuitry in the op-amp tries to
force the voltage at the inverting input to be
equal to the non-inverting input.
– As we will see shortly, a number of op-amp circuits
have a resistor between the output terminal and the
inverting input terminals to allow the output voltage
to influence the value of the voltage at the inverting
input terminal.
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…Example 01: Voltage Comparator
is = 0 i1 = 0
i2 = 0
When Vs is equal to 0V, Vo = 0V.
When Vs is smaller than 0V, Vo = V+.
When Vs is larger than 0V, Vo = V-.
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Electronic Response
• Given how an op-amp functions, what do you
expect Vo to be if v2 = 5V when:
1. Vs = 0V?
2. Vs = 5V?
3. Vs = 6V?
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Example 02: Closed Loop Gain…
if
is i1 = 0
v1
v2
i2 = 0
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…Example 02…
if
is i1
io
i2
For an almost ideal op amp, Ri = ∞ W and Ro = 0 W.
The output voltage will never reach V+ or V-.
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…Example 02…
if
Virtual ground
is i1
i2
The op amp outputs a voltage Vo such that V1 = V2.
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15
…Example 02…
is
i1 if
i
i2
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…Example 02: Closed Loop Gain
v1 0V A B
VS R1is C
vo R f i f
is i f i
vo / Vs R f / R1
AV R f / R1
This circuit is known as an inverting amplifier.
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Types of Gain
if
is i1
io
i2
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Types of Closed Loop Gain
Gain Variable Equation Units
Name
Voltage Gain AV vo/vs None or V/V
Current Gain AI io/is None or A/A
Transresistance Gain AR vo/is V/A or W
Transconductance AG io/vs A/V or W1
Gain
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Example 03: Closed Loop Gain with Real Op-Amp…
if
is i1
v1
v2
i2
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…Example 03
is = i1 + if
i = if
- i1 = i2
vd = v2 – v1 = Ri (- i1) = Ri (i2)
Vo = Avd - Ro(- i)
Vs = R1(is) – vd
Vs = R1(is) + Rf(if) + Vo
Vo /Vs = (-Rf/R1){Ab/[1 +Ab]}, where b = R1/(R1+Rf)
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Summary
• The output of an ideal op-amp is a voltage from a dependent
voltage source that attempts to force the voltage at the inverting
input terminal to equal the voltage at the non-inverting input
terminal.
– Almost ideal op-amp: Output voltage limited to the range between V+
and V-.
• Ideal op amp is assumed to have Ri = ∞ W and Ro = 0 W.
– Almost ideal op-amp: vd = 0 V and the current flowing into the output
terminal of the op-amp is as much as required to force v1 = v2 when V+<
vo< V-.
• Operation of an op-amp was used in the analysis of voltage
comparator and inverting amplifier circuits.
– Effect of Ri < ∞ W and Ro > 0 W was shown.
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Op-Amp Circuits
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Almost Ideal Op-Amp Model
Ri = ∞ W and Ro = 0 W
Linear Region:
When V+< vo< V- , vo is
determined from the closed
loop gain Av times v2 as
v1 = v2 (vd = 0 V).
Saturation:
When Av v2 ≥ V+, vo = V+.
When Av v2 ≤ V-, vo = V-.
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Example 04: Inverting Amplifier…
if
is i1 =
0
i
V+ = 15V
V- = -
i2 = 0 10V
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…Example 04…
if
is i1 =
0
i
i2 = 0
V+ = 15V
V- = -10V
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…Example 04…
• Closed loop gains are dependent on the values
of R1 and Rf.
– Therefore, you have to calculate the closed loop
gain for each new problem.
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…Example 04…
is i f i1 i2 i f
is VS / R1
if
i f Vo / R f
Av Vo Vs R f R1
is i1 = 0
R f 10kW
i
R1 1kW
i2 = 0
Av 10
vo
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…Example 04…
• Since AV = -10
– If Vs = 0V, V0 = -10(0V) = 0V
– If Vs = 0.5V, Vo = -10(0.5V) = -5V
– If Vs = 1V, Vo = -10(1V) = -10V
– If Vs = 1.1V, Vo = -10(1.1V) < V-, Vo = -10V
– If Vs = -1.2V, V0 = -10(-1.2V) = +12V
– If Vs = -1.51V, Vo = -10(-1.51V) > V+, Vo = +15V
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…Example 04
• Voltage transfer characteristic
Slope of the voltage transfer
characteristic in the linear
region is equal to AV.
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Example 05: Noninverting Amplifier…
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…Example 05…
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…Example 05…
V2 V1 VS
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…Example 05…
is VS R1
i f VS Vo R f
Vo VS R f i f
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...Example 05: Noninverting Amplifier…
i f is
Vo VS R f is
VS
Vo R f VS
R1
Vo Rf
Av 1
VS R1
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…Example 05…
• AV = +11
– If Vs = 0V, V0 = 11(0V) = 0V
– If Vs = 0.5V, Vo = 11(0.5V) = +5.5V
– If Vs = 1.6V, Vo = 11(1.6V) > V+,
Vo = +15V
– If Vs = -0.9V, V0 = 11(-0.9V) = -
9.9V
– If Vs = -1.01V, Vo = 11(-1.01V) > V+
Vo = +15V
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…Example 05
• Voltage transfer characteristic
Slope of the voltage transfer
characteristic in the linear
region is equal to AV.
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Example 06: Voltage Follower
A voltage follower is a
noninverting amplifier where
Rf = 0W and R1 = ∞W.
Vo /Vs = 1 +Rf/R1 = 1 + 0 = 1
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Example 07: Summing Amplifier…
V+ = 30V
V-=-30V
A summing amplifier is an inverting amplifier with multiple inputs.
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…Example 07…
if
iA i1 = 0
iB v1
i2 = 0
v2
iC
We apply superposition to obtain a relationship between Vo and
the input voltages.
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…Example 07…
A virtual ground
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…Example 07…
KCL :
i A iB iC i f
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…Example 07…
Note that the voltages at iC 0V 0V / RC
both nodes of RC are 0V. iC 0 A
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…Example 07…
i A iB iC i f
iA i f
i A VA 0V RA
i f 0V Vo R f
Rf
Vo VA
RA
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…Example 07…
i A iC 0
iB i f
iB VB 0V RB
i f 0V Vo R f
Rf
Vo VB
RB
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…Example 07…
i A iB 0
iC i f
iC VC 0V RC
i f 0V Vo R f
Rf
Vo VC
RC
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…Example 07
Rf Rf Rf
Vo VA VB VC
RA RB RC
10kW 10kW 10kW
Vo VA VB VC
5kW 2kW 4kW
Vo 2V A 5VB 2.5VC
Vo 2(1V ) 5(3V ) 2.5(2V )
Vo 12V
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Example 08: Difference Amplifier…
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…Example 08…
if
iA i1 = 0
v1
iB i2 = 0
iC v2
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…Example 08…
if
iA i1 =
0
v1
iB i2 =
0
iC v2 iB i2 iC
i2 0 A
iB iC
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…Example 08…
if
iA i1 =
0
v1
iB i2 =
0 RC
iC v2 v2 VB
RB RC
v2 v1
RC
v1 VB
RB RC
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…Example 08…
if
RC
v1 VB
iA RB RC
i A VA v1 RA
iA i f
i f v1 Vo R f
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…Example 08…
R f 1 RA R f Rf
Vo VB VA
RA 1 RB RC RA
30kW 1 6kW 30kW 30kW
Vo (3V ) (2V )
6kW 1 8kW 4kW 6kW
Vo 4V
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…Example 08
• If RA/Rf = RB/RC
Rf
Vo VB VA
RA
• And if RA = Rf
Vo VB VA
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Example 09: Cascading Op Amps…
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…Example 09…
• Treat as two separate amplifier circuits
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…Example 09…
1st Circuit 2nd Circuit
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…Example 09…
• It is a noninverting
amplifier.
Rf 1
Vo1 1 VS
R1
V Rf 1
AV 1 o1 1
VS R1
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…Example 09…
• It is a inverting
amplifier.
Rf 2
Vo V01
R2
Vo R f 2
AV 2
V01 R2
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…Example 09…
• The gain of the cascaded amplifiers is the
multiplication of the two individual amplifiers
Rf 2 Rf 2 Rf 2
Vo V01 1 VS
R2 R2 R1
AVtotal AV 1 AV 2
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Instrumentation amplifier
• This device allows precise amplification of
small voltage differences:
(a) The basic instrumentation amplifier. (b) Commonly used symbol.
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Summary
• The ‘almost ideal’ op amp model:
– Ri = ∞W.
• i1 = i2 = 0A; v1 = v2
– Ro = 0W.
• No power/voltage loss between the dependent voltage source and vo.
– The output voltage is limited by the voltages applied to the
positive and negative rails.
• V+ ≥ vo ≥ V-
• This model can be used to determine the closed loop
voltage gain for any op amp circuit.
– Superposition can be used to solve for the output of a
summing amplifier.
– Cascaded op amp circuits can be separated into individual
amplifiers and the overall gain is the multiplication of the
gain of each amplifier.
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Summary of Basic Op Amp Circuits
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Summary of Basic Op Amp Circuits
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Questions?
THANK YOU
Asst. Prof. Dr. Kamil ÇETİN
İzmir Katip Çelebi University
Department of Electrical&Electronics Engineering
[email protected] 80
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