Agricultural Science Year 1

SECTION

9 THREATS OF
CLIMATE CHANGE
AND MITIGATION
MEASURES
SECTION 9 THREATS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND MITIGATION MEASURES

Agriculture And Climate

Climate Variability, Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies

INTRODUCTION
Hello learner! You are welcome to section 9, and before we proceed to study what is in
this section, it is important to appreciate that the knowledge and skills about the threats
of climate change and its mitigation measures are crucial in agriculture and you need
to pay much attention to it. This section deals with climate change – its causes, effects
on crop growth and yield, as well as the conventional and indigenous strategies for
combating climate change. You need to have a good understanding of how agricultural
production might need to change because of the effects of climate change. This will
help you to make better-informed decisions about what to grow and measures to put
in place to ensure large yields and high productivity. You are expected to explain how
both climate change and its mitigation measures affect agricultural production. Issues
of climate change are inter-disciplinary in nature and may be studied in other areas
like Geography, Science and even Social Studies.

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain the Causes of Climate Change and Current World Disasters.

• Discuss increasing drought, pestilence and decreasing crop yields.
• Explain indigenous and conventional strategies for dealing with climate change and
climate variability.
• Discuss the effects of indigenous and conventional mitigation measures for combating
climate change on agricultural production.

Key Ideas
• Climate Variability: It is the way aspects of climate (such as temperature and
precipitation) differ from an average.
• Climate adaptation: This is the process of adjusting to the effects of climate change.
• Climate Mitigation: It is an action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that
cause climate change.
• Greenhouse gases: These are gases in the atmosphere that raise the surface temperature
of the Earth.
• Climate Mitigation Strategies: They are measures taking to reduce the effects of
climate change. E.g. Afforestation, carbon capture, conservation, renewable energy.
• Conventional responses to climate change: Conventional responses to climate

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change refer to strategies and actions that are commonly pursued by governments,
organisations, and individuals to address the challenges posed by global warming and to
adapt to the impacts of climate change.

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND CURRENT

WORLD DISASTERS
There is increasing evidence that the Earth’s climate is changing due to human
activities. Scientific evidence shows that life on our planet is in danger from climate
change. The atmosphere and oceans have become warmer, accompanied by a rise in sea
level, a strong decline in Arctic-sea ice and other climate-related changes. The impacts
of climate change on people and nature include unprecedented flooding, heat waves,
wildfires, and rising temperatures with accompanying damage costing billions of
United States dollars. The way forward requires society to apply scientific information
to make informed decisions about how to reduce the magnitude of climate change and
how to adapt to its impacts.

Basics Of Climate Change: Greenhouse Gases Affect

The Earth’s Energy Balance And Climate.
The Sun serves as the primary energy source for Earth’s climate. Some of the incoming
sunlight is reflected directly back into space, especially by bright surfaces such as ice
and clouds, and the rest is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface. Much
of the solar energy absorbed by the earth is re-emitted as heat in the form of longwave
or infrared radiation. The atmosphere absorbs and re-radiates heat, some of which
escapes to space. Any disturbance to this incoming and outgoing energy balance will
affect the climate.
If all the heat energy emitted from the earth’s surface passed through the atmosphere
directly into space, the earth’s average surface temperature would be tens of degrees
colder than observed. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere including, carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrous oxide plus water vapour, absorb and emit heat energy in all
directions (including downwards), keeping the Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere
warm (Figure 9.10), supporting both plants and animal life on earth. Adding more
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere enhances the effect, making the Earth’s surface
and lower atmosphere even warmer.

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Figure 9.1: Greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.

Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) are emitted from the Earth’s surface.
Human activities – especially the burning of fossil fuels (coal and petroleum products)
plus charcoal and wood, since the start of the Industrial Revolution, have increased
atmospheric CO2 concentrations by more than 40%. Other human activities such as
clearing forests for farming and animal rearing, also contribute to global warming.
Since 1900, the global average surface temperature has increased by about 1°C (1.8°F).
The atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have
increased significantly. The concentration of CO2 has since increased by over 40%,
methane by more than 150% and nitrous oxide by roughly 20%. Increases in all three
gases contribute to the Earth’s warming with the increase in CO2 playing the largest
role. This has been accompanied by the warming of the ocean, a rise in sea level, a
strong decline in Arctic Sea ice, widespread increases in the frequency and intensity
of heat waves and many other associated climate effects. Much of this warming has
occurred in the last five decades and is responsible for the observable climate change
being experienced today.
Since 1958, there has been a steady annual increase in CO2 concentration in the earth’s
atmosphere (Figure 9.2). The up-and-down saw-tooth pattern in Figure 9.2 reflects
seasonal changes in the release and uptake of CO2 by plants.

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Figure 9.2: Atmospheric CO2 concentration since 1958 from the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii
(black) and from the South Pole (red).

Some key causes of current world disasters due to

climate change
1. Rising temperatures: Global warming caused by the increased concentration
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide from burning
fossil fuels, leads to higher average temperatures. This contributes to heatwaves,
droughts, and wildfires, which can have devastating impacts on ecosystems,
agriculture, and human health.
2. Changing rainfall patterns: Climate change disrupts traditional precipitation
patterns, causing shifts in rainfall distribution and intensity. This can result in
both prolonged droughts and heavy rainfall events, leading to water scarcity or
flooding and landslides.
3. Melting of glaciers and polar ice: The rising temperatures cause the glaciers
and icebergs in the Arctic and Antarctic regions to melt, resulting in the rising
of the sea level.
4. Expansion of seawater: Rising temperatures cause the expansion of seawater,
further raising the sea level, and causing tremendous threats and damage to
coastal communities. Actual damage inflicted includes coastal erosion, storm
surges and flooding. This situation is being experienced along the coastal areas
of Ghana, particularly in the Keta area in the Volta region and Nkotompo in the
Western region.
5. Extreme weather events: Climate change intensifies the frequency and
severity of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons,
causing widespread devastation and loss of life and property.

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6. Ocean acidification: Increased carbon dioxide levels do not only contribute

to global warming, but also lead to ocean acidification. This impacts marine
ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, and threatens the livelihoods of communities
that depend on ocean resources.
7. Biodiversity loss: Climate change contributes to changes in ecosystems hence
habitat loss, leading to shifts in species distribution and increased risks of species
extinction.
8. Economic and social inequities: Vulnerable populations, particularly in
developing countries, are disproportionately affected by climate change disasters
due to their limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, and lack of adaptive
capacity. This can increase existing economic and social disparities.
9. Feedback loops: Some climate change impacts trigger feedback loops that
accelerate the process. For example, melting Arctic ice reduces the Earth’s
albedo (reflectivity), causing more sunlight to be absorbed by the darker ocean
waters, leading to further warming and ice melting.
Addressing the causes of current world disasters due to climate change requires global
efforts to
a. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
b. Promote the transition to renewable energy sources, and
c. Encourage enhanced adaptation and resilience measures, including promoting
sustainable land and water management practices.
International cooperation and policy interventions are crucial to mitigating the impacts
of climate change and minimising the occurrence and severity of climate-related
disasters.
Great, well done! Having gone through the content successfully, do the following
activities.

Activity 9.1

Browse through the Internet on the causes of climate change and their relationship
with current world disasters. Discuss your findings with a friend or friends.
Steps:
a. Search online on the “causes of climate change and their relationship with
current world disasters.”
b. Read carefully and take down relevant notes.
c. Discuss your findings with your friend or friends.

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Activity 9.2

Have a debate about the following statement “Human factors cause more climate
change and disasters than natural factors’’.
Steps:
a. Look for a friend.
b. Read about human and natural factors that cause climate change and disasters.
c. Select an option to speak for or against the motion.
d. Debate between the two of you.

INCREASING DROUGHT, PESTILENCE, AND

DECREASING CROP YIELDS
Increasing drought, pestilence, and decreasing crop yields are interconnected challenges
in agriculture that have significant implications for food security and livelihoods. There
are indigenous strategies for dealing with climate change and variability.
Indigenous communities have developed diverse strategies over generations to cope
with climate change and variability. These strategies are often based on traditional
knowledge, dependent on critical observation and deep understanding of local
ecosystems, and the interconnectedness between nature and human well-being.

Major Consequences of Climate Change

1. Increasing drought due to unreliable precipitation patterns and higher
temperatures:
a. Unreliable precipitation patterns cause more frequent and prolonged
droughts in certain regions or areas.
b. Higher temperatures contribute to increased evaporation, drying up of water
sources and soil moisture.
These have serious consequences for agriculture, as crops and ornamental
plants rely on adequate water availability to grow and thrive. Droughts lead
to reduced crop yields, livestock losses and sometimes total crop failure,
affecting food production and livelihoods.
2. Increasing incidence and severity of pests and diseases: Warmer
temperatures and changing weather patterns create favourable conditions for
the proliferation of pests and diseases that affect crops and livestock. Pests, such
as insects and pathogens (e.g., bacteria, viruses, and fungi), thrive in warmer
environments and expand their geographical range. Large infestations damage

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crops and livestock, reduce yields, and can lead to increased pesticide use. In
addition to crop and livestock losses, the reliance on pesticides can have negative
environmental and health impacts.
3. Declining crop yields: The combination of droughts and increased pest
pressure can collectively lead to a decline in crop yields. Changes in temperature
and rainfall can disrupt plant growth cycles, affecting flowering, pollination,
and fruiting. Extreme weather events such as heatwaves can damage crops and
stress plants. All these factors interact to reduce agricultural productivity and
can lead to food scarcity and higher prices.
4. Food insecurity: The consequences of increasing drought, pestilence and
decreasing crop yields harm food security. With less water available for
irrigation, reduced crop yields and losses due to pests, communities that rely
heavily on agriculture face challenges in ensuring an adequate and nutritious
food supply. Vulnerable populations, particularly in developing countries,
are disproportionately affected by these climate-induced changes, leading to
potential malnutrition and food insecurity.
Addressing these challenges requires adopting climate-resilient agricultural practices.
Farmers can implement water-efficient irrigation systems, grow drought-tolerant crop
varieties, and employ integrated pest management techniques. Early warning systems
for pest outbreaks and weather events can help farmers take preventive measures.
Improving soil health and implementing agroforestry practices can also enhance
ecosystem resilience.
Well done! Now carry out the activities below.

Activity 9.3

Browse the Internet and read about the following topics ‘The consequences
of climate change on crop yields and food security’ and “Effects of increasing
drought and pestilences due to climate change and crop yield” before the lesson.
Follow the steps below to achieve activity 9.3.
Steps:
a. Search online using any preferred search engine. Make sure that your data is
on.
b. Type “The consequences of climate change on crop yields’’.
c. Also type “Effects of increasing drought and pestilences due to climate change
and crop yield.”
d. Under each of them, read carefully about what you find and take down some
important points.
e. Discuss the findings with your friend.
f. Discuss, also, the future of food security in Ghana in a changing climate.

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Activity 9.4

Grow a vegetable crop on your school premises or at home. Subject them to

different watering regimes for about three weeks and study the development
patterns.
The steps below will guide you to grow a vegetable crop on your school premises
or at home.
Materials needed: Empty milk or milo tin, plastic containers or sacs, soil, water,
and viable vegetable seeds (such as cabbage, tomatoes, pepper, or carrots) and a
suitable shade.
Steps:
a. Fill two containers or sacs with the soil, preferably loamy soil, or any other
suitable substrate.
b. If metal or plastic containers are used, small holes must be created in them
before they are filled with soil. These holes are called “drainage holes” that
allow the excess water to drain away.
c. Sow some seeds of the selected vegetables in the two soil-filled containers or
sacs.
d. Add the same amount of water to the soil in both containers immediately after
sowing the seeds.
e. Place both containers with the sown seeds under a very good shade.
f. Subject the vegetable seedlings to different watering regimes for about three
weeks and study the development patterns. For example, add twice the
amount of water to one container and repeat this as necessary over the three-
week period.
g. Observe what happens after one to three weeks and record your observations
by recording changes in appearance, including height, number, and size of
leaves.
h. Share your observation with your friends and let them also tell you what they
have also done and observed.
Well done! I hope you and your friends have enjoyed this practical activity.
Project Work
Go to the website of the Ghana Meteorological Services to download temperature
and rainfall data for any region or city over the last 10 years and plot graphs for
the temperature and rainfall from the data.
Follow the steps below to perform the project work:

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Steps:
a. Get data online on “temperature and rainfall data for any region or city over
the last 10 years” from the Ghana Meteorological Services website.
b. Plot a graph of temperature against rainfall from the data obtained.
c. Discuss any trends that you have observed.

INDIGENOUS STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH

CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY
Climate variability is the annual or seasonal variation observed in the physical factors
of weather such as temperature and precipitation. The long-term persistence of these
variabilities leads to climate change.
Indigenous communities have developed diverse strategies over generations to cope
with climate change and variability. These strategies are often based on traditional
knowledge, dependent on critical observation and deep understanding of local
ecosystems, and the interconnectedness between nature and human well-being.

Some Examples of Indigenous Strategies for

Dealing with Climate Change and Variability
Include
1. Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK): Indigenous communities possess
a wealth of knowledge about their environment, including natural indicators for
predicting seasonal weather patterns, many of which are based on the flowering
of certain plants and the movement and presence of some animals, particularly
birds. This knowledge is passed down through generations and helps predict
and allows them to adapt to changing climatic conditions.
2. Traditional farming and agriculture: Indigenous farmers often employ
traditional agricultural practices that are well-adapted to local climates and
ecological conditions. This includes planting diverse crops on the same farm,
using crop rotation and selecting resilient crop varieties that are suited to specific
ecologies. Such farming practices ensure reduced damage by pests and diseases.
3. Crop diversity/biodiversity conservation: Indigenous farmers often
practice agro biodiversity by cultivating a variety of crops with different growth
requirements and resilience to various climatic conditions. This diversity ensures
food security, even when some crops are affected by extreme weather conditions
others survive and produce economic yields.
4. Territorial management: Many indigenous groups have developed intricate
land management practices that promote sustainable resource use. These

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practices involve rotational farming, controlled burning, and protection of

critical ecosystems to maintain biodiversity and resilience in the face of climate
change.
5. Water management techniques: Indigenous communities have developed
efficient water management techniques, such as building terraces, canals, and
reservoirs to capture and store water during rainy seasons for use during droughts
and managing irrigation systems sustainably. These methods help ensure a
steady water supply for agriculture and other needs. In some communities,
forests are preserved around rivers and other water bodies to prevent drying up
during the dry season. Farming close to these water bodies is prohibited thus
preventing the cutting down of trees around the water bodies and also reducing
silting.
6. Cultural fire management: Some indigenous communities use controlled
burning practices to prevent larger wildfires and promote the growth of certain
plants. Controlled burning reduces fuel loads, enhances soil fertility, and
maintains the health of ecosystems.
7. Nomadism: Nomadic and semi-nomadic indigenous groups adjust their
locations in response to changing climatic and environmental conditions by
moving with their herds or crops. This mobility allows them to access different
resources and adapt to shifts in vegetation and water availability.
8. Resilient livelihoods: Indigenous economies often incorporate a mix of
activities, such as fishing, hunting, and other crafts with their farming. This
diversity of livelihoods provides a buffer against the impacts of climate-related
disruptions on any single activity.
9. Cultural and spiritual practices: Indigenous cultures often have rituals
and ceremonies that are closely tied to natural phenomena. These practices
reinforce the connection between humans and nature and can foster a sense of
responsibility for environmental protection.
10. Sustainable resource use: Indigenous communities often adhere to principles
of sustainable resource use, ensuring that the environment is not overexploited
and that resources are managed in a way that allows for regeneration and
continuity. Their land stewardship practices involve responsible management
of land and natural resources to maintain ecological balance and ensure the
well-being of current and future generations.
11. Information sharing through storytelling: Indigenous communities use oral
traditions and storytelling to transmit knowledge about climate variability and
adaptation strategies. This allows their wisdom to be shared across generations.
Acknowledging and respecting indigenous knowledge and practices are essential for
developing effective and inclusive climate change adaptation strategies. Collaborating
with indigenous communities, incorporating their perspectives and supporting their
autonomy and rights are crucial steps in addressing climate change in a way that is
both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.
Congratulations! Now perform the activities below.

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Activity 9.5

Where possible, organise a panel discussion featuring guest speakers from

indigenous communities, researchers, and climate activists to share their
expertise on the role of indigenous knowledge in climate adaptation, focusing
on traditional practices, sustainable solutions, and the integration of indigenous
wisdom in modern climate resilience strategies.
Steps for the panel discussion:
Pre-panel activities
a. Before the guest speakers arrive, carry out research about how indigenous
communities use traditional methods to adapt to climate change.
b. Discuss findings with your group and prepare relevant questions for the guest
speakers. You could include the following questions:
i. What traditional practices have indigenous communities used to adapt
to changing climate conditions in your locality?
ii. How do indigenous farming techniques contribute to sustainable
agriculture and water conservation in the face of climate change?
iii. What are the challenges faced in preserving and passing down
indigenous knowledge related to environmental sustainability?
iv. How do indigenous communities build resilience against extreme
weather events such as droughts or floods?
v. What are the biggest challenges indigenous communities face due to
climate change, and how do they overcome these obstacles?
vi. How can young people from both indigenous and non-indigenous
backgrounds become more involved in applying traditional knowledge
to climate adaptation efforts?
Panel discussion
Listen carefully to the guest speakers, take notes, and ask questions during the
discussion.
Post-panel discussion
a. Reflect on the key insights and analyse how indigenous knowledge can be
applied to climate adaptation.
b. Write a report and present it to your teacher.

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Activity 9.6

Design and carry out a project where you visit local communities to explore and
learn about their indigenous strategies for combating climate change. Document
these strategies, discuss their effectiveness, and promote awareness and respect
for this traditional knowledge. Present your findings and insights through a group
report to share what you have learned and how these practices can help address
climate challenges.
Steps for the community engagement project:
a. Work in groups and plan a visit to the local communities and learn about their
strategies for dealing with climate change.
b. Develop a list of questions to be asked during your community visit.
c. Arrange with local communities for the visit. Prepare necessary materials,
such as notebooks and recording devices, for documenting information.
d. Visit the community, observe, and engage with members to learn about their
climate adaptation strategies. Record detailed notes and gather insights.
e. Review and analyse the information collected. Discuss within your group how
the indigenous strategies work and their impact on climate resilience.
f. Create a group report summarising your findings, including key strategies,
their effectiveness, and any challenges faced. Highlight how these practices
contribute to combating climate change.
g. Share stories or case studies from Indigenous communities that highlight
specific strategies they employ to combat the negative effects of climate
change.
h. Present your report to your class, explaining what you learned and how
indigenous knowledge can be integrated into broader climate adaptation
efforts.

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CONVENTIONAL RESPONSES TO CLIMATE

CHANGE
Conventional responses to climate change refer to strategies and actions that are
commonly pursued by governments, organisations, and individuals to address the
challenges posed by global warming and adapt to the impacts of climate change. These
responses often involve technological, policy and behavioural approaches.

Some key conventional responses to climate

change include:
1. Renewable energy transition: One of the primary conventional responses is
transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources such as solar, wind,
hydroelectric and geothermal power. This approach also involves adopting
cleaner energy sources, improving energy efficiency, implementing emission
reduction policies, and promoting renewable energy technologies. This shift
aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable energy
alternatives.
2. Energy efficiency improvements: Improving energy efficiency in various
sectors such as transportation, buildings, and industries. This includes measures
such as using energy-efficient appliances and implementing more efficient
transportation systems.
3. Afforestation and reforestation: Planting trees (afforestation) and restoring
degraded forests (reforestation) are important strategies for carbon trapping
and usage. In Ghana, tree seedlings are planted every year in the Green Ghana
Initiative to combat some aspects of climate change. Trees absorb carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere thus helping to mitigate its effects on climate change.
4. Policy frameworks and agreements: Governments and international bodies
work together to establish policies, regulations, and agreements to address
climate change. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement, for example, aim to limit global warming
to well below 20C above pre-industrial levels.
5. Carbon pricing and market mechanisms: Conventional responses include
implementing carbon pricing mechanisms such as taxing carbon or emissions
beyond a specified concentration. These measures force industries to reduce
emissions and invest in cleaner technologies.
6. Climate-resilient infrastructure: Building infrastructure that can withstand
the impacts of climate change, such as rising sea levels and extreme weather
events, is a crucial response. This includes constructing flood barriers and
sea defence walls, improving drainage systems, and designing more resilient
buildings.

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7. Public awareness and education: Raising awareness about climate change

and its impacts involves educational campaigns and initiatives that inform the
public, policymakers, and businesses about the importance of taking action.
8. Adaptation and disaster preparedness: This includes developing disaster
preparedness plans and enhancing early warning systems.
9. Sustainable agriculture and land use: Implementing sustainable agricultural
practices, such as no-till farming and agroforestry, can help reduce emissions
from agricultural machines and increase resilience to climate change.
10. Climate finance: Climate finance involves funding projects focused on climate
mitigation, adaptation, and technology transfer in developing countries.
11. Research and innovation: While conventional responses play a significant
role, there is also growing recognition of the importance of incorporating
indigenous knowledge in climate change strategies for a more holistic and
effective approach. While conventional responses have made significant strides
in addressing climate change, some critics argue that they may not be sufficient
to achieve the necessary emission below catastrophic levels. Transitioning to
more transformative approaches and exploring nature-based solutions are
gaining prominence as complementary strategies to conventional responses.
Well done! Now carry out the activities below.

Activity 9.7

Identify conventional climate-related initiatives or projects within your

community.
Steps for identifying and discussing climate initiatives:
a. Work with a friend or friends.
b. Carry out research to identify conventional climate-related initiatives or
projects happening in your community. You could use online resources,
community interviews, or local reports to gather information.
c. Organise your findings, noting key details such as the goals, methods, and
impacts of each initiative.
d. Present your findings to the larger class.

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Activity 9.8

Analyse conventional climate agreements and the challenges faced in

implementing the agreements.
Steps to follow in analysing climate agreements and challenges:
a. Browse the Internet to find out conventional climate agreements like the Paris
Agreement, Kyoto Protocol, or Africa’s regional agreements.
b. State the main strategies outlined in these agreements for mitigating climate
change, such as emission reduction targets, renewable energy adoption, or
deforestation prevention.
c. State the challenges faced by countries in implementing these agreements,
including financial, political, and social barriers.
d. Record your findings and share them with the rest of the class.

EFFECTS OF INDIGENOUS AND CONVENTIONAL

MITIGATION MEASURES FOR COMBATING
CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTION
Both indigenous and conventional mitigation measures for combating climate change
can have significant effects on agricultural production. However, their impacts differ
in terms of approach, scale, and outcomes.

Summary of Indigenous Mitigation Measures and

Their Effects on Agricultural Production
1. Traditional farming practices: Indigenous farming practices such as
mulching, cover cropping, bush fallowing and growing drought-tolerant crops
often prioritise sustainability, diversity, and resilience. This leads to better soil
health, reduced erosion, and enhanced water retention, positively impacting
agricultural productivity.
2. Agroforestry and biodiversity: Indigenous communities often practice
agroforestry, integrating trees with crops, which enhances ecosystem stability,
improves soil fertility, and provides additional income from non-timber forest
products.
3. Local seed varieties: Indigenous farmers often maintain a rich diversity of
traditional crop varieties adapted to local conditions. Seeds from locally adapted

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crop varieties are more resilient to climate fluctuations and contribute to larger
crop yields.
4. Water management techniques: Indigenous communities have developed
innovative water management systems such as rainwater harvesting, cover
cropping, crop selection and rotation, composting and mulching that optimise
water use making agriculture more resilient to changing rainfall patterns, with
a resultant yield assurance.
5. Community-based adaptation: Indigenous approaches emphasise collective
decision-making and adaptive capacity, which fosters community cohesion and
enhances resilience to climate-related challenges. These adaptation strategies
are planned and executed together by the community members. Some of the
community-based adaptation strategies are:
a. Replanting forests and restoring damaged ecosystems.
b. Diversifying crops so that they are better able to adapt to changing climates.
c. Investigating and developing innovative solutions to prevent and manage
natural catastrophes.

All these Indigenous mitigation measures enhance

agricultural production by:
1. Promoting sustainable practices.
2. Conserving biodiversity.
3. Increasing resilience to climate variability.
4. Diversifying farming systems.
5. Reducing vulnerability to climate extremes,
6. Stabilising and increasing yields.

Summary of Conventional Mitigation Measures and Their

Effects On Agricultural Production
1. Renewable energy transition: Conventional mitigation often focuses on
transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources e.g. solar energy, wind
energy, hydropower, and geothermal power. While this can reduce greenhouse
gas emissions, it may have indirect negative effects on agriculture through
changes in energy prices and land use for bioenergy crops.
2. Intensive agriculture practices: Some conventional mitigation strategies
prioritise intensive agricultural practices including livestock rearing to increase
food production. However, these approaches can lead to negative environmental
impacts, such as soil degradation and loss of biodiversity.
3. Afforestation and reforestation: Planting trees to capture/trap carbon
impacts agricultural land availability and positively affects the livelihoods of
communities that depend on those lands.

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4. Carbon pricing: The implementation of carbon pricing mechanisms may

increase production costs which would be added to commodities such as
equipment, tools, machinery, and fertilisers. This development will negatively
impact agricultural production.
5. Technological interventions: Conventional mitigation often involves
technological interventions, such as genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
or precision agriculture. The effects of these technologies on agricultural
production are the subject of ongoing debates.
Conventional mitigation measures, therefore, have mixed effects on agricultural
production. As some strategies prioritise large yields, long-term sustainability and
ecosystem health, some high-input practices increase vulnerability to climate shocks
and disruptions in resource availability.
Congratulations! Now that you have studied the effects of Indigenous and
conventional mitigation measures for combating climate change on agricultural
production, do the following activities below.

Activity 9.9

Browse the Internet, list and discuss the indigenous and conventional mitigation
measures for combating climate change. Present your findings to the rest of the
class.
To be able to achieve activity 9.9, follow the steps below.
Steps:
a. Search online on the “indigenous and conventional mitigation measures for
combating climate change” and read carefully.
b. Note down the most important points.
c. Discuss your findings with your friends.

Activity 9.10

Evaluate the impact of the indigenous and conventional mitigation measures for
combating climate change on agricultural production.
Follow the steps below to achieve activity 9.10.
Materials:
Notebook, pen, tablet, Agricultural Science Learning Material, and online
resources (FAO’s Climate -Smart Agriculture Sourcebook, UNDP’s Climate
Change Adaptation Portal)

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Steps:
a. Search online for some examples of indigenous and conventional mitigation
measures and read and take down relevant notes.
b. Evaluate the effectiveness of the mitigation measures using the following
criteria: environmental impact, economic feasibility, social acceptability, and
agricultural productivity.
c. Create a table in your notebook to compare the advantages and disadvantages
of indigenous and conventional mitigation measures.
d. Discuss your findings with a friend or friends.

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SECTION 9 THREATS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND MITIGATION MEASURES

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Describe the relationship between human activities and greenhouse gas

emissions.
2. Discuss how greenhouse gases trap heat and cause global warming.
3. Outline and explain the major consequences of climate change on crop yield.
4. Discuss the relationship between rising temperatures and reduced water
availability for agricultural activities.
5. Analyse the combined effects of increasing drought, pestilence, and decreasing
crop yields on local communities and their food systems.
6. Explain the indigenous strategies for combating climate change.
7. Evaluate the significance of indigenous knowledge in adapting to climate
change and variability.
8. Explain how renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, can be
utilised in Ghana to reduce the impacts of climate change. Provide specific
examples to support your explanation.
9. Evaluate the effectiveness of carbon pricing as a strategy to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions.
10. Explain the impacts of indigenous and conventional mitigation measures for
combating climate change on agricultural production.
11. How can traditional farming practices contribute to making crops more
resilient in the face of changing weather patterns?

19
SECTION 9 THREATS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND MITIGATION MEASURES

EXTENDED READING
Click on the link below to read more about climate change.
• https://science.nasa.gov/climate-change/effects/ Effects - NASA Science
• https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Malcolm-Cresser/publication/238091112_The_
Effects_of_Global_Climate_Change_on_Agriculture/links/02e7e532ca03f62d72000000/
The-Effects-of-Global-Climate-Change-on-Agriculture.pdf

REFERENCES
1. STEM Agricultural Science Curriculum
2. https://www.fao.org
3. https://aielandcorp.com/#home
4. Understanding climate variability and climate change Food and Agriculture Organization

GLOSSARY
Climate: This refers to the average weather condition of an area over some time.
Climate change: Refers to the long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns.
Drought: This refers to a period of drier than normal conditions.
Pestilence: This refers to a contagious or infectious epidemic disease that spreads rapidly and
widely.

20
Acknowledgements

List of Contributors
Name Institution

Rev. Emmanuel Asare O’Reilly SHS, Accra

Eric Amoah Achiase SHS

Stephen Gyempeh Islamic SHS, Kumasi

Abdulai S. Gong St. Vincent College of Education, Yendi