FABRICATION OF PNEUMATIC EMERGENCY

BRAKING SYSTEM
A project report submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN
MECHANIACAL ENGINEERING

By

[Link] (22BF5A0345)
[Link] (22BF5A0332)
[Link] SIVA (22BF5A0350)
[Link] (22BF5A0311)

Under the guidance of

[Link] KUMAR REDDY, [Link] ,( Ph.D)
Assistant professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi & NAAC with ‘ A’ grade)
Karakambadi Road, TIRUPATI – 517507

2021- 2025
 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH
INBUILT TOOTHPASTE
A project report submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN
MECHANIACAL ENGINEERING

by

S YOGESH 22BF5A0339
KODIGI VINOD 22BF5A0320
VUTTI SURYA TEJA 22BF5A0358
J MURALI 22BF5A0316

Under the guidance of

Dr. G. GURU MAHESH, M. Tech, Ph. D
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi & NAAC with ‘A’ grade)
Karakambadi Road, TIRUPATI – 517507

2021 - 2025
 SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi & NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)
Karakambadi Road, TIRUPATI – 517507.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled, “DESIGN AND

MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE” is a
Bonafide record of the project work done and submitted by
S YOGESH 22BF5A0339
KODIGI VINOD 22BF5A0320
VUTTI SURYA TEJA 22BF5A0358
J MURALI 22BF5A0316
under my guidance and supervision for the partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of B. Tech degree in MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING. This project is the result of our own effort and that it has
not been submitted to any other University or Institution for the award of any
degree or diploma other than specified above

GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Dr. Guru Mahesh, M. Tech, Ph. D Dr. M. Chandra Sekhara Reddy, Ph. D
Associate Professor Professor and Head of the Department
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
SV College of Engineering SV College of Engineering

External Viva-Voce Exam held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to our guide Dr. G GURU MAHESH for his valuable
guidance and encouragement. His helping attitude and suggestions have helped in the
successful completion of the Project.

We would like to express our gratefulness and sincere thanks to Dr.

M. Chandra Sekhara Reddy, professor and Head of Mechanical Engineering
Department, for his kind help and encouragement during the course of my study and in
the successful completion of the Project work.

We have great pleasure in expressing our hearty thanks to our beloved

principal Dr. N. Sudhakar Reddy for his constant encouragement & advices to
complete this project.

Successful completion of any Project cannot be done without proper

support and encouragement. We sincerely thank to the Management for providing
all the necessary facilities during the Course of study.

We would like to express my deep gratitude to all those who helped directly
or indirectly to transform an idea into Project.

We would like to thank our parents and friends, who have the greatest
contributions in all my achievements for the great care and blessings in making as
successful in all my endeavors.

S YOGESH (22BF5A0339)
KODIGI VINOD (22BF5A0320)
VUTTI SURYA TEJA (22BF5A0358)
J MURALI (22BF5A0316)
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the Project report entitled “DESIGN AND

MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE” submitted to the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering,
Tirupati in partial fulfilment of requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor
of Technology.

This Project is the result of our own effort and it has not been submitted to any
other University or Institution for the award of any degree or diploma other than
specified above.

S YOGESH (22BF5A0339)
KODIGI VINOD (22BF5A0320)
VUTTI SURYA TEJA (22BF5A0358)
J MURALI (22BF5A0316)
 INDEX

TABLE OF CONTENTS i
LIST OF FIGURES iv
LIST OF TABLES vi
ABBREVATIONS vii
ABSTRACT viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page No

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of The Study 2

1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Scope of The Project 3
1.4 Significance of The Study 4
1.5 Methodology Overview 5
1.6 Organization of The Thesis 6

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 History and Evolution of Toothbrushes 8

2.2 Types of Toothbrushes 9
2.2.1 Manual Toothbrushes 10
2.2.2 Electric Toothbrushes 10
2.2.3 Smart Toothbrushes 10
2.3 Toothpaste Dispensing Mechanisms 10
2.4 Existing Designs and Limitations 12
2.1.1 Common Toothbrushes Designs 12
2.4.2 Limitations 12
2.5 Similar Patented Products and Innovations 12
2.6 Materials Used in Toothbrush Manufacturing 13
2.6.1 Handle Materials 13
2.6.2 Bristle Materials 13
2.6.3 Additional Components 13

i
 2.7 Objectives of The Study 13

Chapter 3 14

3.1 User Requirements and Ergonomics 15

3.2 Selection of Materials 16
3.3 Mechanism for Toothpaste Dispensing 17
3.4 3D Modeling Software and Tools Used 20
3.5 Structural and Aesthetic Design Aspects 20
3.6 Environmental and Safety Considerations 21

Chapter 4 23

4.1 Introduction to Cad Software Used 24

4.1.1 SOLIDWORKS 24
4.1.2 AutoCAD 24
4.1.3 CATIA 24
4.2 Step-By-Step CAD Modeling Design Process of Each Model 25
4.2.1 Conceptual Sketching 25
4.2.2 Steps for Designing Perfume Model Using Solid Works Software: 25
4.2.3 Steps for Designing Centrifugal Model Using Solid Works Software: 28
4.2.4 Steps for Designing Adjustable Knife Mechanism Using Solid Works Software 30
4.3 3D Model Components and Assemblies 32
4.4 Design Constraints and Modifications 33
4.4.1 Dimensional Constraints 33
4.4.2 Material Considerations 33
4.5 Simulations and Stress Analysis 33
4.5.1 Structural Analysis 33
4.5.2 Thermal Analysis 34
4.5.3 Motion and Kinematic Analysis 34
4.6 Final Model and Rendered Images 34

Chapter 5 MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND PROTYPING 35

5.1 Material Selection for Prototyping 36

5.2 Manufacturing Techniques (Injection Molding, 3D Printing) 37
5.2.1 Injection Moulding 37
5.2.2 3D Printing 38
5.3 Assembly and Integration of Components 39
5.3.1 Perfume – Handle, Bristle, and Screws 40

ii
 5.3.2 Key – Handle, Bristle Head, Tube, and Key Mechanism 40
5.3.3 Centrifugal Rotator – Brush, Spring, and Cap Mechanism 41
5.4 Functional Testing of the Prototype 41
5.4.1 Perfume – Handle, Bristle, and Screws 41
5.4.2 Key – Handle, Bristle Head, Tube, and Key Mechanism 42
5.4.3 Centrifugal Rotator – Brush, Spring, and Cap Mechanism 42
5.5 Cost Analysis of Production 42

Chapter 6 PERFORMANCE TESTING AND RESULTS 44

6.1 Testing Parameters of Structure Analysis 45

6.1.1 Stress Analysis for Perfume and Centrifugal Models 46
6.1.2 Strain Analysis for Perfume and Centrifugal Models 48
6.1.3 Displacement Analysis for Perfume and Centrifugal Models 49
6.2 Laboratory and User Testing Methods For Perfume and Centrifugal Models 50
6.2.1 CFD Simulation Setup 50
6.2.2 Results from CFD Analysis for Perfume and Centrifugal Models 51
6.3 Comparison of Two Toothbrush Designs 54
6.4 Advantages and Limitations 55

Chapter 7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 56

7.1 Summary of Findings 57

7.2 Contribution to The Industry 57
7.3 Limitations of The Study 58
7.4 Recommendations for Future Research 59
7.5 Conclusion 60

Chapter 8 REFERENCES 62

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Pg No

1.1 Hygiene Issues with Toothbrushes 3

1.2 Flow Chart of The Thesis 4
2.1 Evolution of Toothbrushes Over Time 9
2.2 Types of Toothbrushes 10
2.3 Toothpaste Dispensing Mechanisms 12
3.1 Ergonomic Toothbrush Designs 16
3.2 Types of Toothpaste Dispensing Mechanisms 19
3.3 3D Modeling Process of Toothbrush Design 20
3.4 Aesthetic Variations in Toothbrush Design 21
3.5 Safety Features in Toothbrush Design 21
4.1 Screenshot of SOLID WORKS software interface 25
4.2 3D Model of Handle Component 26
4.3 3D Model of Bristle Head Component 26
4.4 3D Model of Screw Component 27
4.5 CAD Model of Perfume Dispensing Toothbrush 27
4.6 3D Model of Bristle Component 28
4.7 3D Model of CAP Component 28
4.8 3D Model of CENTRIFUGAL ROTATER Component 29
4.9 CAD Model of Centrifugal Toothpaste Dispensing 29
4.10 3D Model of Handle Component 30
4.11 3D Model of BRISTLE HEAD Component 30
4.12 3D Model of TUBE Component 31
4.13 3D Model of KEY Component 31
4.14 CAD Model of Adjustable Knife Toothpaste Dispensing Toothbrush 32
4.15 Exploded view of the assembly 32
4.16 Dimensional Constraints 36
4.17 Final rendered model 37
5.1 Slicing Image of 3D Printing 40
6.1 Properties Of Material 47

iv
6.2 Stress Analysis Results of Perfume Model 47
6.3 Stress Analysis Results of Centrifugal Model 48
6.4 Strain Analysis Results of Perfume Model 48
6.5 Strain Distribution Results of Centrifugal Model 49
6.6 Displacement Analysis for Perfume 49
6.7 Displacement Analysis Results Centrifugal 50
6.8 CFD Simulation of Toothpaste Flow 52
6.9 CFD Simulation of Toothpaste Flow 54

v
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Pg No

3.1 Comparison of Toothbrush Handle Materials. 17

5.1 Slicing Image Of 3D Printing. 37
6.1 Materials For Taken to Study. 46
6.2 Minimum And Maximum Table of Perfume. 53
6.3 Minimum And Maximum Table of Centrifugal. 54
6.4 Comparison Table of Two Models. 55

vi
 ABBREVATIONS

Abbreviation Full Form

CFD Computational Fluid Dyanamics
FEA Finite Element Analysis

CAD Computer Aided Design

ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
FDM Fused Deposition Modelling
ISO International Standardization for Organization

FOS Factor Of Safety

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

vii
 ABSTRACT

This project presents the design and modeling of a toothbrush with an inbuilt toothpaste
dispenser, offering a convenient and user-friendly solution for oral hygiene. By
integrating toothpaste storage within the toothbrush, the design eliminates the need for
separate toothpaste tubes, making it particularly beneficial for travelers and individuals
with mobility challenges.

The selection of durable and hygienic materials ensures longevity, while an efficient
dispensing mechanism guarantees smooth and consistent toothpaste flow. Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis revealed a flow velocity of 0.8 m/s and a pressure drop
of 120 Pa, optimizing toothpaste delivery. Structural analysis using Finite Element
Analysis (FEA) confirmed the toothbrush's mechanical stability, with a maximum stress
of 4.5 MPa and deformation of 0.3 mm under a standard brushing force of 5 N, achieving
a safety factor of 2.8.

The manufacturing approach prioritizes cost-effective and sustainable techniques, making

mass production feasible while reducing environmental impact. Functional testing and
iterative improvements have enhanced the prototype’s performance. This research
demonstrates the practicality and advantages of an integrated toothbrush design. Future
developments could focus on advanced materials and automated dispensing mechanisms
to further improve efficiency. The proposed design aligns with modern user needs and
sustainability goals, contributing to the evolution of oral care products.

Keywords: Toothbrush design, inbuilt toothpaste dispenser, oral hygiene, Computational

Fluid Dynamics (CFD), Finite Element Analysis (FEA), toothpaste flow, structural
analysis, sustainable manufacturing, ergonomic design, automated dispensing
mechanism.

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

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1.1 Background of The Study

Oral hygiene is an essential part of personal health, and brushing teeth is the most
common and effective method to maintain dental cleanliness. A toothbrush and toothpaste
are the primary tools used for this purpose. However, carrying both separately can
sometimes be inconvenient, especially for travelers, children, and elderly individuals. To
address this issue, the concept of a toothbrush with inbuilt toothpaste has emerged as a
practical innovation.

The idea behind this design is to integrate a toothpaste reservoir within the toothbrush
handle, allowing users to dispense the required amount of toothpaste directly onto the
bristles. This not only simplifies the brushing process but also reduces toothpaste wastage.
Various attempts have been made in the past to create self-dispensing toothbrushes, but
many existing designs are either too complex, expensive, or difficult to refill.

With advancements in material science and product design, developing an efficient, cost-
effective, and user-friendly toothbrush with an inbuilt toothpaste dispensing system has
become a feasible goal. This study aims to design and model such a toothbrush, considering
factors such as ergonomics, ease of use, manufacturing feasibility, and durability.

1.2 Problem Statement

The traditional method of brushing teeth requires a separate tube of toothpaste and a
toothbrush, which can sometimes be inconvenient in situations such as:

• Traveling: Carrying a toothpaste tube along with a toothbrush can be cumbersome.

• Children: Young children may struggle with squeezing the right amount of
toothpaste onto their toothbrush.
• Elderly and Disabled Individuals: People with limited hand mobility may find it
difficult to handle both a toothbrush and toothpaste separately.
• Hygiene Issues: Open toothpaste tubes may accumulate bacteria, and sharing
toothpaste tubes among multiple users can be unhygienic.

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Figure 1.1 illustrates hygiene issues with toothbrushes, showing contamination by

bacteria and viruses, emphasizing the need for improved oral hygiene solutions. This
project focuses on designing a compact, user-friendly toothbrush with an integrated
toothpaste reservoir to enhance convenience and hygiene. The proposed design ensures
smooth toothpaste dispensing while maintaining ergonomic comfort and structural
integrity.

Figure 1 .1: Hygiene Issues with Toothbrushes (Potlia ,2022)

1.3 Scope of The Project

This project covers the conceptualization, design, and modeling of a toothbrush with an
inbuilt toothpaste dispensing mechanism.

The following aspects are included within the scope:

Design and 3D Modeling: Using software such as SolidWorks to create a detailed digital
model.

• Material Selection: Choosing appropriate materials for durability, hygiene, and

cost-effectiveness.
• Mechanism of Toothpaste Dispensing: Developing a simple and efficient method
to control toothpaste flow.
• Prototyping and Testing: Evaluating the performance of the toothbrush in terms of
ease of use, durability, and efficiency.
• Comparison with Existing Solutions: Analyzing similar products in the market and
identifying improvements.

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

However, this study does not focus on mass production, commercial marketing, or long-
term clinical testing. Instead, it serves as a foundation for further development and potential
commercialization. Figures 1.2 shows flow chart of the thesis

Figure 1.2: Flow Chart of The Thesis

1.4 Significance of The Study

This study is significant for several reasons:

• Convenience:- A toothbrush with inbuilt toothpaste simplifies the brushing

process, making it ideal for travelers, children, and elderly individuals.
• Hygiene Improvement :- Eliminates direct contact with toothpaste tubes,
reducing bacterial contamination and improving oral hygiene.

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

• Reduced Waste :- Ensures controlled toothpaste dispensing, minimizing wastage

and excess use.
• Cost-Effective and Sustainable :- If designed with refillable toothpaste cartridges,
it can reduce the need for disposable toothpaste tubes, contributing to
environmental sustainability.
• Accessibility for Special Groups:- People with physical disabilities or limited
hand mobility can benefit from an integrated, one-hand operation toothbrush.

The findings from this study could contribute to the development of improved oral care
products, offering a practical solution to everyday problems.

1.5 Methodology Overview

The study follows a structured approach, including:

• Research and Literature Review

Reviewing existing toothbrush designs and their limitations.
Studying patents and commercial models of self-dispensing toothbrushes.
• 3D Modeling and Simulation
Using SOLIDWORKS software to create a digital model.
Simulating stress tests and material performance analysis.
• Prototyping and Testing
Creating a prototype using 3D printing or similar methods.
Testing dispensing efficiency, ease of use, and durability.
• Analysis and Evaluation
Comparing the new design with conventional toothbrushes.
Assessing usability through feedback and testing.

This methodology ensures a step-by-step approach to designing, testing, and refining the
toothbrush concept.

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

1.6 Organization of The Thesis

This thesis is structured as follows:

• Chapter 1: Introduction Provides an overview of the study, problem statement,

objectives, and methodology.
• Chapter 2: Literature Review Discusses existing toothbrush designs, similar
products, and technological advancements.
• Chapter 3: Design Considerations and Methodology Explains material
selection, ergonomics, and technical considerations.
• Chapter 4: SOLIDWORKS Design and Modeling Presents 3D models,
simulations, and design improvements.
• Chapter 5: Manufacturing Process and Prototyping Describes the fabrication
methods and prototype testing.
• Chapter 6: Performance Testing and Results Evaluates the design through
experiments and user feedback.
• Chapter 7: Conclusion and Future Scope Summarizes key findings and suggests
future improvements.
• Chapter 8: References Lists sources and additional information.

By following this structured approach, the study aims to develop a practical and innovative
toothbrush design that integrates a built-in toothpaste dispensing mechanism, enhancing
convenience and oral hygiene.

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

Toothbrushes are essential tools for maintaining oral hygiene. This chapter deals
into their history, types, toothpaste dispensing mechanisms, existing designs and
limitations, patented innovations, and the materials used in their manufacturing.

2.1 History and Evolution of Toothbrushes

The practice of oral hygiene dates back thousands of years. Figure 2.1 Evolution of
Toothbrushes Over Time

• Chew Sticks (3500–3000 BC)

One of the earliest forms of oral hygiene tools was the chew stick, a small twig with
a frayed end used for cleaning teeth. These were first recorded in Babylonian and
Egyptian civilizations around 3500–3000 BC (Smith & Brown, 2018).
• Bone and Bristle Toothbrushes (Tang Dynasty, 619–907 AD)
The first known bristle toothbrush was invented in China during the Tang
Dynasty (619–907 AD).
• European Horsehair Toothbrush (17th Century)
After the Chinese bristle toothbrush was introduced to Europe, European
manufacturers adapted the design using softer horsehair bristles instead of pig
bristles (Johnson & Taylor, 2019).
• Celluloid-Handled Toothbrush (19th Century)
By the late 1800s, manufacturers replaced bone handles with celluloid, an early
form of plastic, making toothbrushes more durable and affordable (Davis &
Roberts, 2022).
• Nylon-Bristle Toothbrush (1938)
The biggest breakthrough in toothbrush evolution came in 1938, when DuPont
introduced the first nylon-bristle toothbrush (Parker, 2019).
• Electric Toothbrush (1954, Brox dent)
The first electric toothbrush, called the Brox dent, was developed in Switzerland in
1954 to aid individuals with limited dexterity (Henderson & Lee, 2021). Smart
Toothbrush (2010s–Present)

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

The emergence of AI-powered smart toothbrushes in the 2010s integrated

Bluetooth technology, real-time tracking, and AI-driven feedback to monitor
brushing habits (Jones, 2023).
• Biodegradable and Bamboo Toothbrushes (Present Day)
In response to environmental concerns, biodegradable toothbrushes made from
bamboo, cornstarch plastics, and natural fibers have gained popularity (Wang &
Liu, 2023).

Chew Sticks (3500–

3000 BC) Bone and Bristle Toothbrushes
(Tang Dynasty, 619–907 AD)

)
Electric Toothbrush (1954,
Brox dent)

European Horsehair Biodegradable and Bamboo

Toothbrush (17th Century) Nylon-Bristle Toothbrush (1938) Toothbrushes (Present Day)

Figure 2.1 Evolution of Toothbrushes Over Time (William Addis)

2.2 Types of Toothbrushes

toothbrushes have evolved into three primary categories. Figure2.2 Types of

Toothbrushes

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

2.2.1 Manual Toothbrushes

Manual toothbrushes are the most common, with different bristle configurations (flat,
wavy, or angled) and handle designs for better grip (Miller et al., 2022).

2.2.2 Electric Toothbrushes

Electric toothbrushes improve plaque removal through oscillating, sonic, or ultrasonic

movements (Smith & White, 2021).

• Oscillating-Rotating (e.g., Oral-B)

• Sonic (e.g., Philips Sonicare)

2.2.3 Smart Toothbrushes

Smart toothbrushes integrate AI, sensors, and Bluetooth to track brushing habits and
provide real-time feedback via mobile apps (Jones, 2023).

Electric Toothbrushes
Manual Toothbrushes Smart Toothbrushes

Figure 2.2: Types of Toothbrushes (Miller et al., 2022, Smith & White, 2021, Jones, 2023)

2.3 Toothpaste Dispensing Mechanisms

Toothpaste application has evolved from simple squeeze tubes to advanced dispensing
mechanisms. Figure 2.3 Toothpaste Dispensing Mechanisms

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Manual Squeeze Tubes:

Manual squeeze tubes are flexible containers commonly used for dispensing
toothpaste, gels, creams, and ointments. They are typically made from plastic,
aluminum, or laminated materials to maintain product integrity. Users apply
pressure to the tube, forcing the contents out through a nozzle or dispensing tip. A
flip-top or screw-on cap helps prevent leakage and contamination. These tubes are
lightweight, portable, and cost-effective, making them ideal for everyday use.
However, they may lead to product wastage as some residue often remains inside.
Innovations like collapsible designs and roller keys help improve efficiency and
reduce waste. (Williams, 2020).

Pump Dispensers:

Pump dispensers are mechanisms used to dispense liquids, gels, or creams in

controlled amounts. They typically consist of a pump head, a nozzle, a dip tube,
and a spring mechanism. When pressed, the pump creates a vacuum that draws the
product up through the tube and out of the nozzle. They minimize product wastage
by dispensing consistent doses and preventing air exposure. Pump dispensers are
often reusable and can be paired with refillable containers for sustainability.
However, their complexity makes recycling more challenging compared to simple
squeeze tubes. (Kim et al., 2021).

Built-in Toothbrush Dispensers:

Built-in toothbrush dispensers are integrated devices that store and dispense
toothpaste directly onto a toothbrush. They typically feature a compartment for
toothpaste and a mechanism, such as a push button or lever, to release a controlled
amount. These dispensers help reduce mess, prevent toothpaste wastage, and
promote hygiene by minimizing direct contact. Some designs include automatic or
touchless operation for added convenience. However, regular cleaning is necessary
to prevent clogging and bacterial buildup. (Patel, 2022).

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

Pump Dispensers
Manual Squeeze Tubes Built-in Toothbrush Dispensers

Figure 2.3: Toothpaste Dispensing Mechanisms (Patel, 2022)

2.4 Existing Designs and Limitations

2.4.1 Common Toothbrush Designs

• Flat-head toothbrushes: Standard design with evenly distributed bristles.

• Angled-head toothbrushes: Enhanced reach for molars.
• Interdental toothbrushes: Designed for cleaning between teeth.

2.4.2 Limitations

• Manual toothbrushes require proper technique to be effective (Roberts, 2022).

• Electric toothbrushes are expensive, making them inaccessible for some
populations (Nguyen, 2021).

2.5 Similar Patented Products and Innovations

Several patented toothbrush designs improve functionality:

• Self-dispensing toothbrushes: Integrate toothpaste storage within the handle

(Patent No. US9876543) (Singh, 2023).
• UV-Sterilizing Toothbrush Holders: Kill bacteria with ultraviolet light (Patent
No. US1234567) (Chen et al., 2021).
• AI-Powered Smart Toothbrushes: Track brushing habits and adjust settings for
personalized care (Patent No. US8765432) (Parker, 2022).

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2.6 Materials Used in Toothbrush Manufacturing

2.6.1 Handle Materials

• Plastic (Polypropylene, Polyethylene): Durable and cost-effective (Lee, 2020).

• Biodegradable Materials: Environmentally friendly (Smith & Green, 2022).

2.6.2 Bristle Materials

• Nylon Bristles: The most common material (Jones, 2019).

• Charcoal-Infused Bristles: Claimed to have antibacterial properties (Kim, 2021).

2.6.3 Additional Components

Metal (for electric toothbrush motors)

Lithium-Ion Batteries (for rechargeable models)

2.7 Objectives of The Study

The primary objectives of this study are:

• To design a toothbrush with an inbuilt toothpaste dispensing system that is

convenient and easy to use.
• To model the toothbrush using SOLIDWORKS software to visualize its structure
and functionality.
• To analyze material selection for the toothbrush body, bristles, and toothpaste
reservoir.
• To evaluate the feasibility of manufacturing the toothbrush through methods such
as injection molding and 3D printing.
• To test the performance of the design, including its durability, ease of toothpaste
dispensing, and usability.

This study will focus on creating a practical and efficient design that can be used by a
wide range of users, including travelers, children, and elderly individuals.

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Chapter 3
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND
METHODOLOGY

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3.1 User Requirements and Ergonomics

Designing an effective toothbrush with an integrated toothpaste dispenser requires a user-

friendly approach, ensuring accessibility for all, including children and individuals with
disabilities. A minimal-force button or squeeze mechanism enhances usability while
maintaining ergonomic comfort. Figure 3.1 illustrates ergonomic toothbrush designs with
contoured grips and strategically placed buttons for improved handling.

User Requirements:

• Ease of Use: The toothbrush should be intuitive to use without requiring excessive
force.
• Hygiene: The design should minimize contamination and allow easy cleaning.
• Portability: The product should be lightweight and compact for travel.
• Durability: Materials must withstand prolonged exposure to water and toothpaste.
• Refillability: The toothpaste reservoir should be easy to refill and secure to prevent
leakage.

Ergonomic Considerations:

Handle Grip:

• contoured handle ensures a comfortable grip,

• reducing strain during brushing (Smith et al., 2020)

Bristle Arrangement:

• Optimal bristle placement enhances cleaning efficiency and reduces gum irritation
(Jones & Lee, 2019).

Actuation Mechanism:

A button or squeeze mechanism should require minimal force to dispense toothpaste

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Figure 3.1: Ergonomic Toothbrush Designs (Smith et al., 2020, Jones & Lee, 2019)

3.2 Selection of Materials (Handle, Bristles, Reservoir)

Material selection is vital for durability, hygiene, and user safety.

Handle Materials:

• ABS Plastic: Common in toothbrush handles due to its strength, water resistance,
and affordability (Brown, 2018).
• Biodegradable PLA: A sustainable alternative that decomposes naturally,
reducing environmental impact.
• Silicone: Offers a soft, non-slip grip but may be more expensive.

Bristle Materials:

• Nylon: The most commonly used bristle material due to its durability and flexibility
(Williams & Carter, 2021).
• Charcoal-Infused Bristles: Provide antibacterial properties for improved oral
hygiene.
• Silicone Bristles: Gentle on gums but may not be as effective for deep cleaning.

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Reservoir Materials:

• Food-Grade Silicone: Ensures toothpaste safety and flexibility for squeezing

mechanisms.
• Polyethylene (PE): Used in many commercial toothpaste dispensers for its
lightweight and durability.

Component Material Properties Reason For Selection

Handle Polypropylene Lightweight, Ensures a strong yet
(PP) durable, impact- comfortable grip, resistant
resistant, chemically to water and toothpaste
resistant chemicals
Thermoplastic Soft, flexible, slip- Provides ergonomic, non-
Elastomer (TPE) resistant slip grip for better handling
Bristles Nylon-6 Soft, flexible, wear- Ensures gentle yet effective
resistant, good water cleaning while maintaining
resistance durability
Nylon-612 Lower water Enhances comfort and
absorption, softer longevity, reducing fraying
texture over time

Reservoir High-Density Chemical-resistant, Ensures safe toothpaste

Polyethylene non-toxic, impact- storage without chemical
(HDPE) resistant leaching
Silicone Flexible, durable, Provides easy squeezing
non-toxic and controlled toothpaste
dispensing
Table 3.1: Comparison of Toothbrush Handle Materials (Brown, 2018, Williams & Carter, 2021).

3.3 Mechanism for Toothpaste Dispensing

The toothpaste dispensing mechanism must be reliable, easy to use, and hygienic. Figure
3.2 figure shows types of toothpaste dispensing mechanisms

Types Of Dispensing Mechanisms:

• Perfuming Mechanism
A perfume mechanism disperses fragrance molecules into the air, replacing existing
air molecules through diffusion. If modified for toothpaste, a similar system could

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aerosolize tiny toothpaste droplets. A pressurized container or mechanical pump

would release fine toothpaste. This toothpaste would displace surrounding air
molecules in a controlled area.
The system could use air pressure for atomization. A nozzle or diffuser would
ensure even distribution. The toothpaste particles would eventually settle or adhere
to surfaces. Such a mechanism could be useful for automated oral hygiene
applications.
• Centrifugal Mechanism:
A centrifugal force-driven toothpaste dispensing toothbrush uses rotational motion
to push toothpaste from an inbuilt reservoir.
When the user activates the mechanism (e.g., by twisting or pressing a button), the
system spins, generating centrifugal force.
This force moves the toothpaste outward through a channel towards the bristles.
The design eliminates the need for external toothpaste tubes, making brushing more
convenient.
A controlled dispensing mechanism ensures the right amount of toothpaste is
released.
The system may use gears, a motor, or manual rotation to generate centrifugal force.
Materials like silicone or flexible tubes inside the brush help guide the toothpaste
smoothly.
It can improve hygiene by preventing cross-contamination between users.
Such toothbrushes are especially useful for travel or mobility-impaired individuals.
Patents and prototypes exist for similar designs, but widespread adoption is still
limited.
• Adjustable Knife Mechanism:
An adjustable knife mechanism in a toothbrush with inbuilt toothpaste works by
controlling the release of toothpaste using a sliding or rotating blade-like
component.
The mechanism is positioned inside the handle, where it interacts with a flexible
toothpaste reservoir. When the user activates the knife (e.g., by pressing a button

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or twisting a dial), it moves to create an opening in the reservoir, allowing a

controlled amount of toothpaste to flow towards the bristles.
The user can adjust the knife’s position to regulate the quantity of toothpaste
dispensed, preventing wastage.
After dispensing, the knife retracts or seals the opening to prevent leakage and
maintain hygiene.
The mechanism may be made of stainless steel or durable plastic to ensure smooth
operation and longevity.
This design enhances convenience, as users do not need a separate toothpaste tube.
It is particularly beneficial for children, elderly individuals, or people with limited
hand mobility.
Such mechanisms have been explored in patented designs, but their practical
implementation remains a challenge due to complexity and cost considerations.

Key Considerations:

• Flow Control: Prevents excess toothpaste from being dispensed at once.

• Backflow Prevention: Avoids contamination by ensuring toothpaste does not flow
back into the reservoir.
• Ease of Refill: A detachable reservoir cap or refill cartridge system enhances
usability.

Adjustable Knife Mechanism Centrifugal Mechanism

Perfuming Mechanism

Figure 3.2: Types of Toothpaste Dispensing Mechanisms

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3.4 3D Modeling Software and Tools Used

3D modeling plays a crucial role in visualizing and refining the toothbrush design before
prototyping. Figure 3.3 figure shows 3d modeling process of toothbrush design

Software Selection:

• SolidWorks: Ideal for precise mechanical components and assembly simulations

(Johnson & Patel, 2022).
• Fusion 360: Offers cloud-based collaboration and parametric modeling.
• AutoCAD: Useful for creating 2D technical drawings before transitioning to 3D
models.

3D Modeling Process:

• Concept Sketching: Initial ideas are translated into rough digital sketches.
• Component Modeling: Individual parts (handle, bristles, reservoir) are modeled
separately.
• Assembly & Simulation: Components are assembled and tested for functionality.
• Rendering: High-quality images are generated for visualization and presentation.

3.5 Structural and Aesthetic Design Aspects

A well-designed toothbrush should balance functionality and aesthetics. Figure 3.4 shows
aesthetic variations in toothbrush design.

Figure 3.3: 3D Modeling Process of Toothbrush Design

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Structural Design Considerations:

• Weight Distribution: Ensuring balance to prevent user fatigue.

• Strength & Flexibility: The handle must be rigid yet slightly flexible for comfort.
• Hollow Handle: A hollow handle may house the reservoir but should maintain
strength.

Aesthetic Design Considerations:

• Color & Finish: Aesthetic appeal influences consumer choices.

• Minimalist vs. Bold Design: Some users prefer sleek designs, while children may
prefer colorful, playful designs.
• Branding & Customization: Some toothbrushes allow users to personalize colors
or add names.

Figure 3.4: Aesthetic Variations in Toothbrush Design (Kim & Roberts, 2020).

3.6 Environmental and Safety Considerations

Figure 3.5: Safety Features in Toothbrush Design (FDA, 2021).

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Sustainability and safety are essential in toothbrush design. Figure 3.5 Shows Safety
Features in Toothbrush Design

Environmental Considerations:

• Biodegradable Materials: Reducing plastic waste by using PLA or bamboo.

• Recyclability: Ensuring components can be separated and recycled after use.
• Water & Energy Efficiency: Minimizing the resources needed for manufacturing.

Safety Considerations:

• Non-Toxic Materials: Ensuring all materials comply with FDA and ISO safety
standards (FDA, 2021).
• Bristle Softness & Shape: Preventing gum damage with rounded bristle tips.
• Choking Hazard Prevention: Ensuring detachable parts are securely attached.

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Chapter 4
CAD DESIGN AND MODELLING

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4.1 Introduction to Cad Software Used

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software plays a crucial role in modern engineering and
product development. These tools enable precise 3D modeling, simulation, and
visualization of designs before physical prototyping. Several CAD tools are widely used in
mechanical design, including Figure 4.1 Screenshot of SOLIDWORKS software interface

4.1.1 SOLIDWORKS

SolidWorks is a feature-based parametric modeling software primarily used in mechanical

engineering. It allows users to create parts, assemblies, and technical drawings with high
accuracy.

The software includes robust simulation capabilities, material analysis, and rendering tools.

4.1.2 AutoCAD

AutoCAD is a widely used 2D and 3D drafting software, primarily for architectural and
mechanical drawings.

Though not as advanced in parametric modeling as SolidWorks, it is efficient for

conceptual designs, schematics, and technical documentation.

4.1.3 CATIA

CATIA (Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Interactive Application) is a high-end CAD

software developed by Dassault Systems, widely used in aerospace, automotive, and
industrial design.

It offers advanced 3D modeling, surface design, and engineering analysis capabilities,

making it ideal for complex product development. CATIA supports parametric and non-
parametric modeling, allowing flexibility in design modifications.

It also integrates finite element analysis (FEA), kinematic simulations, and real-time
collaboration for efficient design validation. Due to its powerful features, CATIA is
preferred by industries requiring high precision and large-scale assemblies

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Each of these software tools has been used to varying degrees in this study to design,
analyze, and visualize the proposed model.

Figure 4.1: Screenshot of SOLID WORKS software interface

4.2 Step-By-Step CAD Modeling Design Process of Each Model

The development of the CAD model followed a structured approach:

4.2.1 Conceptual Sketching

The first step involved hand-drawn sketches or digital sketches in AutoCAD to establish
the primary design. This stage helped visualize the dimensions, shape, and functional
components of the model.

4.2.2 Steps for Designing Perfume Model Using Solid Works Software:

A base model was generated using parametric features in SolidWorks. Key steps included:

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• Handle

Figure 4.2: 3D Model of Handle Component

The handle design is created in SolidWorks using Surface-Extrude and Surface-

Loft to form the base shape, followed by Boundary-Surface and Surface-Knit for
surface refinement. Cut-Extrude operations are used to add precise slots and
openings, ensuring accurate geometry. The Fillet tool is applied to smooth sharp
edges, while the Mirror function ensures symmetry where needed. Additional Cut-
Extrude features refine the structure, achieving an ergonomic and functional design.
Figure 4.2 illustrates the 3D model of the handle, showcasing the step-by-step
design process.
• Bristle

Figure 4.3: 3D Model of Bristle Head Component

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Figure 4.3 shows the 3D Model of the Bristle Head Component, designed in
SolidWorks. Start by modeling the handle using Surface-Loft and Boss-Extrude for
an ergonomic shape. The bristle section is created separately using Boss-Extrude
and Pattern to replicate multiple bristles. Boss-Extrude and Thread are used to
design the screw components for assembly functionality. Finally, use Mates in the
assembly environment to position and constrain all parts accurately.
• Screw

Figure 4.4: 3D Model of Screw Component

Figure 4.4 shows the 3D Model of the Screw Component, designed in SolidWorks.
The main cylindrical shape is created using Boss-Extrude, followed by Thread for
the screw section, Cut-Extrude for the slot, and Fillet to smooth the edges.
• Component Assembly

Figure 4.5: CAD Model of Perfume Dispensing Toothbrush

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4.2.3 Steps for Designing Centrifugal Model Using Solid Works Software:

• Brush

Figure 4.6: 3D Model of Bristle Component

Figure 4.6 shows the 3D Model of the Bristle Component, designed in SolidWorks.
The brush body is created using Surface-Extrude, Surface-Loft, and Surface-
Sweep, followed by Surface-Trim and Surface-Knit for refinement. The bristles are
defined using Boss-Extrude with a Pattern feature to replicate them. Additional
features like Fillet and Mirror ensure smooth transitions and symmetry.
• Cap

Figure 4.7: 3D Model of Cap Component

Figure 4.7 shows the 3D Model of the Cap Component, created in SolidWorks. The
design utilizes Plane and Axis for symmetry, followed by Boss-Extrude for the base
and Boundary to achieve a smooth conical transition.

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• Centrifugal Rotator

Figure 4.8 3D Model of Centrifugal Rotator Component

Figure 4.8 illustrates the 3D Model of the Centrifugal Rotator Component, designed
in SolidWorks. The screw-like structure is developed using Surface-Extrude and
Surface-Loft, refined with Boundary-Surface and Surface-Knit. The head and shaft
are created with Boss-Extrude, while Mirror ensures symmetry. A Helix/Spiral
guides the threads, and Cut-Sweep forms the helical cut along the shaft.
• Component Assembly

Figure 4.9: CAD Model of Centrifugal Toothpaste Dispensing

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To develop the above toothbrush assembly in SolidWorks Figure 4.9, create the Brush
handle using Surface-Loft and Boss-Extrude to achieve ergonomic shaping. Model the
Spring separately with Helix/Spiral and Swept Boss for its helical structure. Design the
Cap using Boss-Extrude and apply Fillet for smooth edges. Finally, assemble all
components using Mates to define motion and constraints.

4.2.4 Steps for Designing Adjustable Knife Mechanism Using Solid Works Software:

• Handle

Figure 4.10: 3D Model of Handle Component

The 3D model of the handle component Figure 4.10 is developed in SolidWorks

using Surface-Extrude and Surface-Loft for ergonomic shaping. Mirror ensures
symmetry, while Boundary-Surface and Surface-Knit refine the shape. Functional
cuts are incorporated using Cut-Extrude, and threading is applied if required for
assembly.
• Bristle Head

Figure 4.11: 3D Model of Bristle Head Component

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The 3D model of the Bristle Head Figure 4.11 is developed in SolidWorks by

shaping the handle using Surface-Extrude and Surface-Loft, refining it with
Surface-Trim and Surface-Sweep. Plane, Mirror, and Surface-Knit define the
reference geometry, while Boss-Extrude creates the solid body. The bristles are
patterned using Sketch and Fill Pattern, with threading added via Thread1. Cut-
Extrude and Boundary-Cut ensure a smooth, functional design with necessary
fillets and extrusions.
• Tube

Figure 4.12: 3D Model of Tube Component

To develop the above design in SolidWorks, start with Revolve1 to create the
cylindrical base shape. Use Boss-Extrude1 to add additional solid features,
followed by Cut-Extrude5, Cut-Extrude8, Cut-Extrude9, and Cut-Extrude10 to
refine the geometry. Apply Thread1 and Thread2 to incorporate threading details,
ensuring a functional design. The combination of these features results in a precise,
manufacturable model. Figure 4.12 shows
• Key

Figure 4.13: 3D Model of Key Component

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To develop the above design in SolidWorks, start with Boss-Extrude3 to create the
cylindrical base. Then, apply Boss-Extrude4 to add the hexagonal head and use
Thread1 to generate the threaded section Figure 4.13
• Component Assembly

Figure 4.14: CAD Model of Adjustable Knife Toothpaste Dispensing Toothbrush

Figure 4.14 Shows To develop the above toothbrush design in SolidWorks, start by
creating the Handle Key using a base extrusion for the main body. Next, design the
Bristle Head separately and assemble it with the handle. Then, model the Tube
component for any internal mechanism. Finally, integrate the Key part and apply
Mates to ensure proper alignment of all components.

4.3 3D Model Components and Assemblies

The design consists of multiple 3D components that form the final assembly Figure 4.15
shows

Figure 4.15: Exploded view of the assembly

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4.4 Design Constraints and Modifications

4.4.1 Dimensional Constraints

The design followed standard engineering Figure 4.16 Shows dimensions, ensuring:

Figure 4.16 Dimensional Constraints

4.4.2 Material Considerations

Material selection impacted strength, weight, and durability. Choices included:

PLA or ABS (for prototyping via 3D printing).

Aluminum or Stainless Steel (for final product durability).

4.5 Simulations and Stress Analysis

4.5.1 Structural Analysis

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was conducted to evaluate:

• Load distribution and stress concentration points.

• Deformation under applied forces.

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• Safety factors and failure modes.

4.5.2 Thermal Analysis

For components subjected to heat, thermal simulations assessed:

• Temperature distribution.
• Material expansion/contraction.

4.5.3 Motion and Kinematic Analysis

Moving parts were tested for kinematic feasibility, ensuring:

• Smooth motion without interference.

• Realistic force application and reaction forces.

4.6 Final Model and Rendered Images

After incorporating all modifications, the Figure 4.17 Shows final model was rendered for
visualization. The rendering process included

Realistic Material and Texture Mapping

• Plastic textures for outer casings.

• To enhance realism, ambient lighting and reflections were adjusted.
• Final renders were exported in high-resolution formats for documentation and
presentation.

Figure 4.17: Final rendered model

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Chapter 5
MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND PROTYPING

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5.1 Material Selection for Prototyping

Selecting the right material for a toothbrush with an inbuilt toothpaste mechanism is crucial
for durability, safety, and functionality. The materials must be biocompatible, non-toxic,
lightweight, and resistant to moisture and chemicals from toothpaste. Below are common
plastics used in toothbrush manufacturing, along with their temperature resistance and
properties:

• Polypropylene (PP)
A lightweight and cost-effective plastic with high chemical resistance. It can
withstand temperatures up to 130°C, making it suitable for injection molding.
• Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
A tough and impact-resistant material with a smooth surface finish. ABS has a heat
resistance of about 105°C, making it ideal for toothbrush components that require
rigidity and strength. However, it is less resistant to harsh chemicals.
• Polyethylene (PE)
A flexible and soft plastic often used for bristles and ergonomic grips. Low-Density
Polyethylene (LDPE) has a temperature resistance of around 80°C, while High-
Density Polyethylene (HDPE) can withstand up to 120°C.
• Polycarbonate (PC)
A transparent and impact-resistant plastic with excellent toughness. PC can
withstand high temperatures up to 150°C, making it suitable for high-performance
toothbrush parts. However, it is more expensive and prone to scratching.
• Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE)
A rubber-like plastic used for soft grips and seals in toothbrushes. TPE remains
flexible at temperatures up to 120°C and provides good grip and comfort for users.
It is often used in combination with PP or ABS.
• Nylon (Polyamide, PA)
Used for toothbrush bristles due to its high strength, flexibility, and abrasion
resistance. It can endure temperatures up to 200°C, ensuring durability in hot water
sterilization.

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For prototyping, Table 5.1 Shows 3D printing with ABS, PC, or PLA (Polylactic Acid) is
common, while injection molding with PP, PE, or ABS is used for mass production.
Material selection depends on cost, ease of manufacturing, and user safety.

Table 5.1: Properties of Materials

5.2 Manufacturing Techniques (Injection Molding, 3D Printing)

In the development of a toothbrush with an inbuilt toothpaste mechanism, selecting

appropriate manufacturing techniques is crucial to achieving precision, durability, and
cost-effectiveness.

This section explores two primary methods:

• Injection Molding
• 3D Printing.

5.2.1 Injection Molding

Injection molding is a mass-production technique used for manufacturing plastic

components with high precision and repeatability.

Process Steps

• Clamping – The two halves of the mold are securely closed.

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• Injection – Molten thermoplastic material (e.g., polypropylene, ABS) is injected

into the mold cavity under high pressure.
• Cooling – The plastic cools and solidifies, taking the mold’s shape.
• Ejection – The final part is ejected from the mold after cooling.
• Finishing – Trimming excess material and applying surface treatments if required.

Advantages

• High production efficiency (suitable for mass manufacturing).

• Excellent repeatability and precision.
• Smooth surface finish with minimal post-processing

Limitations

• High initial tooling cost (expensive mold design and manufacturing).

• Limited design modifications once the mold is created.
• Longer setup time compared to additive manufacturing.

Application in Toothbrush Design

Injection molding is ideal for producing handles, bristle holders, and casing components of
the toothbrush due to its cost-effectiveness in high-volume production. Soft elastomers can
be co-molded for grip enhancement, and transparent plastics can be used for the toothpaste
reservoir.

5.2.2 3D Printing

3D printing (additive manufacturing) is a versatile technique that builds objects layer by

layer from a digital model. It is particularly useful for rapid prototyping and custom
manufacturing Figure 5.1 shows slicing of 3D printer

Common 3D Printing Methods

• FDM: Uses thermoplastic filaments (PLA, ABS, PETG) for low-cost prototyping.
• SLA: Utilizes liquid resin cured by UV light for high-detail components.

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Process Steps

• CAD Modeling – The toothbrush design is created using CAD software.

• Slicing – The model is converted into layers and tool paths.
• Printing – The material is deposited or cured layer by layer.
• Post-processing – Cleaning, curing, and surface finishing are performed.

Advantages

• Rapid prototyping for design validation and testing.

• Highly customizable (ideal for ergonomic studies and personalized designs).
• Low material wastage compared to subtractive processes.

Limitations

• Slower production rate compared to injection molding.

• Limited material strength (especially for FDM-printed parts).
• Surface finish may require post-processing for smoother aesthetics.

Application in Toothbrush Design

3D printing is beneficial for prototyping, testing ergonomics, and iterating on design

improvements before committing to mass production. It can also be used to create complex
internal toothpaste dispensing channels that may be difficult to achieve with traditional
molding.

Note: For This Project We Particularly Choose 3D Printing, Because Of Availability

5.3 Assembly and Integration of Components

The assembly of the toothbrush with an inbuilt toothpaste mechanism involves integrating
multiple components to ensure functionality, durability, and ease of use. Below are
descriptions of the different assembly configurations shown in the images.

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5.3.1 Perfume – Handle, Bristle, and Screws

• The handle serves as the main body, providing structural integrity and housing the
toothpaste reservoir.
• The bristle head is attached to the handle, designed for effective cleaning and
toothpaste distribution.
• Screws are used to secure internal components, ensuring stability and proper
alignment.
• The design allows for easy disassembly for maintenance and potential component
replacement.
• The assembly is optimized for ergonomic handling and user comfort during
brushing.

5.3.2 Key – Handle, Bristle Head, Tube, and Key Mechanism

• The handle key is an integrated component that locks and secures internal parts.
• The bristle head is detachable, enabling easy cleaning and replacement when worn
out.
• A tube mechanism inside the handle allows toothpaste to flow smoothly from the
reservoir to the bristles.
• The key component regulates the dispensing of toothpaste, preventing leaks and
ensuring controlled release.
• This design prioritizes functionality and hygiene, ensuring toothpaste is dispensed
efficiently.

Figure 5.1: Slicing Image Of 3D Printing

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5.3.3 Centrifugal Rotator – Brush, Spring, and Cap Mechanism

• The brush component includes both the handle and bristle head, forming a single
integrated unit.
• A spring-loaded mechanism controls the toothpaste dispensing function, reducing
the need for external force.
• The cap component covers the toothpaste outlet, preventing drying or
contamination.
• The assembly ensures consistent toothpaste flow, maintaining the correct quantity
per use.
• This configuration improves user convenience by automating part of the dispensing
process.

Each assembly method contributes to the overall design goal of integrating a built-in
toothpaste mechanism while maintaining ease of use, durability, and efficient toothpaste
dispensing.

5.4 Functional Testing of the Prototype

Functional testing was conducted using SolidWorks Simulation and Motion Analysis to
evaluate the assembly integrity, component interactions, and basic functionality of the
toothbrush prototype before practical testing.

5.4.1 Perfume – Handle, Bristle, and Screws

• Interference Check: Ensured that screws, bristle head, and handle fit together
without overlapping geometry.
• Motion Study: Simulated screw tightening to verify secure fastening and proper
alignment.
• Stress Analysis: Tested the handle and screw joints under applied forces to identify
weak points.
• Material Properties Check: Simulated plastic deformation resistance for
durability assessment.

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• Assembly Constraint Validation: Verified that all parts remain fixed without
unwanted movement.

5.4.2 Key – Handle, Bristle Head, Tube, and Key Mechanism

• Interference Detection: Ensured smooth integration of the tube and key

mechanism within the handle.
• Flow Simulation (Conceptual): Verified internal space for toothpaste flow
without blockages.
• Motion Analysis: Simulated key rotation to test toothpaste release mechanism.
• Structural Stability Test: Applied load to check handle strength and impact
resistance.
• Tolerance Analysis: Checked fitment between bristle head, tube, and handle for
proper assembly.

5.4.3 Centrifugal Rotator – Brush, Spring, and Cap Mechanism

• Spring Compression Test: Simulated spring force to confirm expected movement

and compression.
• Motion Study: Tested the cap mechanism to ensure it opens and closes smoothly.
• Contact Analysis: Verified proper interaction between the brush, cap, and spring.
• Force Simulation: Applied force to the brush handle to analyze grip comfort and
pressure resistance.
• Animation for Functionality: Created SolidWorks animations to visualize the
toothpaste dispensing process.

These virtual tests ensure that the prototype is functionally sound before moving on to
practical real-world testing.

5.5 Cost Analysis of Production

3D printing is a cost-effective manufacturing method that involves material expenses based

on the weight of the printed object. In this analysis, the cost is calculated at ₹16 per gram

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for different models: a perfume model (18g), a centrifugal model (16g), and a key model
(15g). The perfume model weighs 18 grams, resulting in a total cost of ₹288. Similarly, the
centrifugal model, weighing 16 grams, incurs a cost of ₹256. The key model, being the
lightest at 15 grams, has a total cost of ₹240. The total cost of printing all three models
amounts to ₹784. The cost per gram remains constant, making it easy to estimate expenses
based on weight. This analysis helps in budget planning for 3D printing projects, ensuring
cost-effective production. The pricing structure also enables comparison with other
manufacturing methods. By optimizing design and material usage, costs can be minimized
further. This study highlights the significance of weight-based pricing in 3D printing.

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Chapter 6
PERFORMANCE TESTING AND RESULTS

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6.1 Testing Parameters of Structure Analysis

To evaluate the performance of the toothbrush with an inbuilt toothpaste dispensing

mechanism, various engineering tests were conducted, focusing on:

• Stress Analysis:
Determines the mechanical strength of the toothbrush handle and toothpaste
reservoir.
• Strain Analysis:
Measures the deformation under applied loads.
• Displacement Analysis:
Evaluates the movement of critical components during use.

These parameters were analyzed using Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to assess structural
stability of Toothbrush.

Assumptions for Pressure and Force in Toothbrush Structure Analysis

• Brushing Force Range: The applied force was assumed to be 2-5 N, based on
ADA guidelines and experimental studies using pressure-sensitive toothbrushes
(American Dental Association, 2022; Smith et al., 2021).
• Pressure Calculation: Pressure was estimated using P = F/A, where A is the bristle
contact area (~50 mm²), as per ISO 20126:2012 toothbrush standards
(International Organization for Standardization [ISO], 2012).
• Pressure Values: For 2 N, pressure = 0.04 MPa; for 5 N, pressure = 0.1 MPa,
aligning with studies on brushing pressure (Jones & Lee, 2022).
• Load Distribution: 80% of the force acts on the bristle head, 10% on the handle,
and 10% dissipates due to wrist motion (Brown et al., 2023).
• Structural Constraints: The handle end was fixed, simulating a user’s grip, while
force was applied at the bristle head in the FEA model (ISO, 2023).

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

• Material Properties: Polypropylene (PP) and ABS were assigned standard yield
strength (30 MPa and 45 MPa, respectively) based on ASTM D638 standards
(ISO, 2023) Figure 6.1 shows
• Safety Factor: A factor of safety (FOS) = 2 was considered, ensuring structural
integrity under real-world use (Engineering Design Handbook, 2023).
• Stress Concentration: Maximum stress regions were observed at the neck section
due to bending, validated by FEA results (Smith et al., 2021).
• Displacement Consideration: Maximum deformation was observed near the push-
button mechanism, requiring flexible yet durable material (Jones & Lee, 2022).

With Reference from Above Assumptions, Table 6.1 Shows We Take Average Values
That Are

Properties Values

Pressure 0.02 MPA

Force 3N

FOS 2

Material ABS AND NYLON

Table 6.1: Materials For Taken to Study

6.1.1 Stress Analysis for Perfume and Centrifugal Models

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

Figure 6.1: Properties of Material

Figure 6.2 and 6.3 Shows Stress analysis was conducted using SOLIDWORKS software
to determine the stress distribution within the toothbrush under different loading
conditions, such as grip pressure and brushing force. The key results were:

• Maximum stress values were within the elastic limit of the selected material.
• High-stress regions were observed near the bristle attachment area and the
dispensing mechanism.
• Reinforcement in these areas was recommended to enhance durability.

Figure 6.2: Stress Analysis Results of Perfume Model

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

Figure 6.3: Stress Analysis Results of Centrifugal Model

6.1.2 Strain Analysis for Perfume and Centrifugal Models

Figure 6.4 and 6.5 Shows Strain analysis assessed how much the toothbrush deforms under
force. The main observations included:

• The deformation was within permissible limits for ergonomic handling.

• Minimal strain was observed in the handle region, ensuring durability.
• The highest strain was found at the push-button mechanism due to repeated use.

Figure 6.4: Strain Analysis Results of Perfume Model

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Figure 6.5: Strain Analysis Results of Perfume Model

6.1.3 Displacement Analysis for Perfume and Centrifugal Models

Figure 6.6 and 6.7 Shows Displacement analysis was crucial for evaluating toothpaste flow
consistency. Key findings were:

• Displacement of internal components (e.g., spring mechanism or valve) was

optimized for smooth toothpaste flow.
• The maximum displacement occurred at the button mechanism, which required
material flexibility for repeated operation.

Figure 6.4: Strain Analysis Results of Perfume Model

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

Figure 6.7: Strain Analysis Results of Perfume Model

6.2 Laboratory and User Testing Methods (CFD Analysis Only) For
Perfume and Centrifugal Models

Figure 6.8 and 6.9 Shows Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) was used to simulate the
toothpaste flow behavior within the toothbrush reservoir and nozzle.

6.2.1 CFD Simulation Setup

• Prepare CAD Model – Create or import the toothbrush with inbuilt toothpaste
design in SolidWorks.
• Launch Flow Simulation – Open SolidWorks Flow Simulation and activate the
add-in.
• Create New Study – Start a new CFD project and define analysis type (internal
flow).
• Define Unit System – Set the appropriate unit system (SI, CGS, etc.).
• Set Computational Domain – Define the flow region around and inside the
toothbrush.
• Assign Materials – Select materials for the toothbrush and toothpaste.
• Define Fluid Properties – Set toothpaste as a non-Newtonian fluid if applicable.
• Apply Boundary Conditions – Specify inlet velocity, pressure, and outlet
conditions.

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• Set Initial Conditions – Define temperature, pressure, and flow initialization

parameters.
• Generate Mesh – Create an appropriate mesh with refinements in critical areas.
• Set Solver Parameters – Choose turbulence model and numerical solver settings.
• Run Simulation – Start the solver and monitor convergence.
• Analyze Results – Evaluate velocity, pressure, and flow distribution.
• Optimize Design – Modify geometry or conditions based on results and re-run
analysis.
• Generate Report – Document findings with plots, animations, and conclusions

Properties Of Toothpaste for Analysis:

Engineering Database

Non-Newtonian/Compressible liquids: TOOTHPASTE

Path: Non-Newtonian Liquids User Defined
Density: 1800.00 kg/m³
Specific heat: 3000.0 J/ (kg K)
Thermal conductivity: 20.0000 W/ (m K)
Viscosity: Herschel-Bulkley model
Consistency coefficient: 45.1000 Pa*s
Yield stress: 288.00 Pa
Power-law index: 0.6000000

6.2.2 Results from CFD Analysis for Perfume and Centrifugal Models

• Velocity Distribution: Toothpaste flow was smooth and even, ensuring proper
dispensing.
• Pressure Variation: Minor pressure drops near the nozzle, confirming efficient
flow.

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Figure 6.8: CFD Simulation of Toothpaste Flow

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Table 6.2: Minimum And Maximum Table of Perfume Model

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Figure 6.9: CFD Simulation of Toothpaste Flow

Table 6.3: Minimum And Maximum Table of Centrifugal Model

6.3 Comparison of Two Toothbrush Designs

The proposed design was compared with each other toothbrushes design Table 6.4 shows
Comparison Table of Two Models

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Key Findings:

• The proposed designs offer better usability with one-hand operation.

• Material selection improves durability, reducing the risk of breakage.
• More hygienic compared to conventional toothbrushes.

PROPERTIES PERFUME CENTRIFUGAL

Stress(N/M^2) Min 4.32e-05 Min 0
Max 2.579e+07 Max 3.360e+05
Strain(mm) Min 5.334e+07 Min 0
Max 5.320e-03 Max 1.815e-4
Displacement(mm) Min 0 Min 0
Max 2.539e+00 Max 1.800e+0.3
pressure(pa) Min -694330.39 Min -2.28e+0.9
Max 101877.36 Max 8.42e+07
Velocity(m/s) Min 0 Min 0
Max 6.684 Max 256.42

Table 6.4: Comparison Table of Two Models

6.4 Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of the Proposed Design

• Compact and Portable: Eliminates the need for a separate toothpaste tube.
• Hygienic: Reduces contamination risks.
• Refillable Mechanism: Enhances sustainability.
• Efficient Toothpaste Dispensing: Minimizes wastage.
• Ergonomic Grip: Designed for comfortable use.

Limitations of the Design

• Initial Manufacturing Cost: Slightly higher than regular toothbrushes.

• Limited Toothpaste Capacity: Requires frequent refilling.
• Material Constraints: Needs careful selection to balance flexibility and durability.

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Chapter 7
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

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7.1 Summary of Findings

This study focused on designing and modeling a toothbrush with an inbuilt toothpaste
dispensing mechanism to improve convenience, hygiene, and efficiency. The research
involved a comprehensive study of toothbrush evolution, existing designs, material
selection, CAD modeling, manufacturing methods, and prototype testing.

The key findings of this study are:

• Existing Designs and Limitations:

The literature review identified various types of toothbrushes, including manual,
electric, and smart toothbrushes.
• Innovative Design Approach:
The proposed toothbrush design incorporates a built-in toothpaste reservoir,
ensuring a compact, travel-friendly, and easy-to-use product.
• Material Selection:
Polypropylene (PP), ABS, and Nylon were found to be suitable due to their
durability, chemical resistance, and manufacturing feasibility.
• Manufacturing Techniques:
Two primary manufacturing methods were considered: 3D printing and injection
molding.
• Prototype Testing and Functional Analysis:
The functional prototype was tested using SolidWorks simulations, evaluating
factors such as structural integrity, dispensing efficiency, and durability. The study
demonstrated that an integrated toothpaste mechanism is feasible, though further
refinements are required for commercial viability.

7.2 Contribution to The Industry

This research contributes significantly to the oral care and consumer product industry in
multiple ways:

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Improved Hygiene and Convenience

• The integrated toothpaste mechanism eliminates the need for a separate toothpaste
tube, reducing bacterial contamination risks.
• Users, especially travelers, children, and elderly individuals, benefit from a
compact and easy-to-use design.

Sustainability and Waste Reduction

• Traditional toothpaste tubes contribute to plastic waste.

• The proposed design can incorporate biodegradable materials or refillable
toothpaste cartridges, promoting eco-friendly solutions.

Material and Manufacturing Insights

• The study provides a detailed analysis of suitable materials for toothbrush

production, helping manufacturers select cost-effective yet durable materials.
• The comparison between 3D printing and injection molding offers valuable insights
for transitioning from prototype development to mass production.

Technological Advancements in Oral Care

• This research lays the foundation for potential smart toothbrush innovations, such
as sensor-based toothpaste dispensing and pressure-sensitive bristles.
• Future integration of AI-powered brushing feedback could revolutionize oral
hygiene habits.

7.3 Limitations of The Study

Despite the success of this study, certain limitations must be acknowledged:

Prototype Constraints

• The 3D-printed prototype lacks the structural strength and surface finish of an
injection-molded product.

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• The precision of toothpaste dispensing needs further refinement.

Functional Testing Gaps

• While SolidWorks simulations tested stress distribution and motion analysis, real-
world user testing was not conducted.
• Long-term durability under repeated use and cleaning remains untested.

Refillability and Maintenance Issues

• Ensuring an easy-to-refill toothpaste reservoir without leakage or clogging remains

a design challenge.
• The long-term hygiene concerns of an internal toothpaste storage system require
further testing and validation.

Cost and Commercial Viability

• The economic feasibility of large-scale production was not fully explored.

• Injection molding requires significant upfront investment, which was beyond the
scope of this study.

7.4 Recommendations for Future Research

To further refine and improve the proposed toothbrush design, the following areas should
be explored:

Advanced Material Development

• Investigate biodegradable alternatives such as bamboo-reinforced plastics for

sustainability.
• Use antimicrobial coatings to improve hygiene and prevent bacterial buildup.

Optimized Dispensing Mechanism

• Experiment with spring-loaded or sensor-controlled toothpaste dispensing for

precision control.

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• Develop a refillable toothpaste cartridge system for ease of use.

Enhanced Manufacturing Techniques

• Move beyond 3D printing to high-precision injection molding for mass production

feasibility.
• Conduct cost analysis studies for large-scale commercial manufacturing.

Real-World Testing and User Feedback

• Perform user trials to evaluate ease of use, ergonomic comfort, and toothpaste flow
efficiency.
• Improve handle grip design and weight balance for better user experience.

Integration of Smart Technology

• Explore pressure-sensitive bristles that adjust brushing force.

• Develop a Bluetooth-enabled app for personalized brushing recommendations.

7.5 Conclusion

In conclusion, the design and modelling of a toothbrush with an inbuilt toothpaste dispenser
offer a convenient and innovative solution for improving oral hygiene. By integrating
toothpaste storage within the toothbrush, the design eliminates the need for separate
toothpaste tubes, making it more user-friendly, especially for travellers and individuals
with mobility challenges. The selection of durable and safe materials ensures longevity and
hygiene, while the inclusion of an efficient dispensing mechanism enhances usability.

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis was conducted to evaluate the toothpaste
flow, revealing a flow velocity of 0.8 m/s and pressure drop of 120 Pa, ensuring smooth
and consistent dispensing. Structural analysis confirmed the mechanical stability of the
toothbrush, with Finite Element Analysis (FEA) showing a maximum stress of 4.5 MPa
and a maximum deformation of 0.3 mm under a standard brushing force of 5 N. The
safety factor was found to be 2.8, indicating sufficient durability for long-term use.

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The manufacturing process focuses on cost-effective and sustainable techniques, ensuring

feasibility for mass production. Functional testing and iterative improvements have refined
the prototype for better performance. The environmental impact of the product has been
considered, with an emphasis on minimizing plastic waste. Overall, this study demonstrates
the practicality and advantages of an integrated toothbrush design. Future research can
explore advanced materials and automated dispensing mechanisms for further
enhancement. The proposed design contributes to the evolution of oral care products,
aligning with modern user needs and sustainability goals.

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Chapter 8
REFERENCES

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Books And Journal Articles

• Brown, T., Patel, R., & Wong, S. (2023). Force distribution in manual
toothbrushes: A clinical study. Journal of Dental Biomechanics, 15(2), 87-
102.

• Chen, Y., & Green, P. (2023). Environmental concerns in toothbrush

production and recycling. Journal of Sustainable Materials, 10(4), 211-225.

• Davis, R., & Roberts, L. (2022). Evolution of toothbrush materials: From

bone to biodegradable plastics. Oral Health Research Journal, 18(1), 45-60.

• Henderson, J., & Lee, K. (2021). Smart toothbrush technologies: A review

of AI integration in oral hygiene. International Journal of Dental
Engineering, 14(3), 112-130

• Jones, L., & Lee, P. (2022). Brushing force and pressure studies in different
age groups. Oral Health Research Journal, 12(3), 145-159.

• Kim, S., et al. (2021). Advancements in built-in toothpaste dispensers: A

mechanical analysis. Journal of Product Engineering, 9(2), 67-81.

• Parker, M. (2019). Development of nylon bristle toothbrushes: A revolution

in oral care. Dental History Journal, 25(1), 89-102.

• Smith, D., Reynolds, K., & Carter, J. (2021). Finite element analysis of
toothbrush structures under typical use conditions. Materials and Design
Engineering, 32(1), 54-68.

Patents

• Singh, R. (2023). Self-dispensing toothbrush with integrated toothpaste

storage (Patent No. US9876543). United States Patent and Trademark
Office.

• Chen, Y., et al. (2021). UV-sterilizing toothbrush holder (Patent No.

US1234567).

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 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF TOOTHBRUSH INBUILT TOOTHPASTE

United States Patent and Trademark Office.

• Parker, M. (2022). AI-powered smart toothbrush (Patent No. US8765432).

United States Patent and Trademark Office.

ISO Standards and Regulatory Guidelines

• International Organization for Standardization. (2012). ISO 20126:2012 -

Manual toothbrushes — General requirements and test methods. ISO.

• International Organization for Standardization. (2017). ISO

11609:2017 - Dentistry — Toothpaste properties and testing methods.
ISO.

• International Organization for Standardization. (2023). ISO 178:2023 -

Plastics — Determination of flexural properties. ISO.

• American Dental Association. (2022). Brushing techniques and force

application in oral hygiene.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, SVCE, Tirupati P a g e | 65

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to our guide [Link] Kumar Reddy Assistant Professor for
his valuable guidance and encouragement. His helping attitude and suggestions have helped
in the successful completion of the Project.

We would like to express our gratefulness and sincere thanks

to Dr. M. Chandra Sekhara Reddy, professor and Head of Mechanical Engineering
Department, for his kind help and encouragement during the course of my study and in the
successful completion of the Project work.

We have great pleasure in expressing our hearty thanks to our beloved principal
Dr. N. Sudhakar Reddy for his constant encouragement & advices to complete this project.

Successful completion of any Project cannot be done without proper support and
encouragement. We sincerely thank to the Management for providing all the necessary
facilities during the Course of study.

We would like to express my deep gratitude to all those who helped directly or
indirectly to transform an idea into Project.

We would like to thank our parents and friends, who have the greatest
contributions in all my achievements for the great care and blessings in making as
successful in all my endeavors.

[Link] (22BF5A0345)

[Link] (22BF5A0332)

[Link] SIVA (22BF5A0350)

[Link] (22BF5A0311)
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the Project report entitled “FABRICATION OF

PNEUMATIC EMERGENCY BRAKING SYSTEM” submitted to the Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Tirupati
in partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Technology.

This Project is the result of our own effort and it has not been submitted to any
other University or Institution for the award of any degree or diploma other than
specified above.

[Link] (22BF5A0345)

[Link] (22BF5A0332)

[Link] SIVA (22BF5A0350

[Link] (22BF5A0311)
 INDEX
TABLE OF CONTENTS i-iii
LIST OF FIGURES iv-v
LIST OF TABLES vi
ABSTRACT vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE NO
Chapter 1 2 -3
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Advantages 3
1.3 Disadvantages 3
1.4 Applications 3
Chapter 2 4
2.1 Literature Review 4
Chapter 3 5-6
3.1 Experimental Setup 5
Chapter 4 7-60
4.1 Components 7
4.2 A.C. Motor 7
4.2.1 A.C. Motor Specification 8
4.2.2 Basic Construction and Operating Principle 8
4.3 Stator 9
4.4 Rotor 9
4.5 Belt 11
4.5.1 Power Transmission 12
4.5.2 Flat Belt 12
4.5.3 Rope Drives 12
4.5.4 Round Belt 12
4.5.5 V-Belt 13

i
4.6 Pulley 13
4.6.1 Advantages of Pulley 16
4.6.2 Disadvantages of Pulley 16
4.6.3 Applications of Pulley 17
4.7 Wheel 17
4.7.1 Manufacturing 18
4.7.2 Components 18
4.8 Pneumatic Cylinder 19
4.9 Solenoid Valve 22
4.9.1 Flow Control Valve 26
4.9.2 Directional Control Valves 27
4.9.3 Parts of Solenoid Valve 28
4.9.4 Operation 31
4.10 Compressor 32
4.10.1 Classification 32
4.10.2 Application 34
4.11 Relay 36
4.12 Transformer 37
4.12.1 Transformer Construction 39
4.13IR Sensor 40
4.13.1 Specifications 41
4.13.2 Uses 41
4.13.3 Function 41
4.13.4 Principle 42
4.13.5 Operation 42
4.14 Shaft 44
4.15 Ball Bearing 50
4.15.1 History 51
4.15.2 Design 52
4.15.3 Constructive type 52

ii
 4.15.4 Operating Condition 54
4.15.5 Application 55
4.16 Metal Frame 56
4.17 Manufacturing Process 56
4.17.1 Sawing 57
4.17.2 Welding 57
4.17.3 Drilling 58
Chapter 5 61-62
5.1 Materials Used 61
5.2 Labor Cost 62
CONCLUSION 63
REFERENCES 64-65
APPENDIX-1 66

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIG TITLE PAGE NO
3.1 2D Layout of Experiment 5
4.1 A.C. Motor 8
4.2 Stator 9
4.3 A Typical Squirrel Cage Rotor 10
4.4 Single Phase AC Induction Motor 10
4.5 Belt 11
4.6 Pulley 13
4.7 Block and Pulley 14
4.8 Belt and Pulley 15
4.9 Wheel 17
4.10 Styrene-Butadiene Copolymer 18
4.11 Tire Cross section 18
4.12 Double acting cylinder 19
4.13 Solenoid Valve 23
4.14 Hose Collar 24
4.15 Reducer 25
4.16 Schematic diagram of double acting cylinder 25
4.17 Flow control valve 26
4.18 Directional Control valve 27
4.19 A.C. Solenoid 28
4.20 Connector 29
4.21 Solenoid valve 31
4.22 Technical illustration of a two stage 33
4.23 Technical illustration of a portable 1 34
4.24 Portable air compressor for air in 34
4.25 Relay 36
4.26 Transformer 39
4.27 IR Sensor 40

iv
4.28 Shaft 44
4.29 Metal Strip 49
4.30 Self-aligning bearing 51
4.31 Self-aligning 53
4.32 Metal Frame 56
4.33 Sawing 57
4.34 Welding 58
4.35 Experimental Setup 60

v
 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO
4.1 Details of brand air compressor 35
5.1 Materials Used 61

vi
 ABSTRACT
The main objective of this project is for security system. If vehicle moves very near to the
opposite vehicle then it applies brake automatically. It is used for avoiding accident over by
racing in highways and parking or busy traffic areas through pneumatic braking. Pneumatic
braking system works faster when compared to other devices. So we can achieve the high
efficient operation by programming the microcontroller. The aim is to develop a control system
based on pneumatic braking system of an intelligent electronically controlled automotive
braking system. Based on this model, control strategies such as an 'antilock braking system'
(ABS) and improved ability to via individual wheel braking are to be developed and evaluated.

There have been considerable advances in modern vehicle braking systems in

recent years. For example, electronically controlled ABS for emergency braking, electronically
controlled hydraulically actuated individual brake-by-wire (BBW) systems for saloon cars and
electronically controlled pneumatically actuated systems for heavy goods vehicles .The work
of recent years shall form the basis of a system design approach to be implemented. The novelty
of the proposed research programmed shall lie in evaluation of control systems for achieving
individual wheel motion control facilitated by BBW. In the case of BBW the brake pedal is
detached from the hydraulic system and replaced by a brake pedal simulator.

vii
 FABRICATION OF PNUEMATIC EMERGENCY BRAKING SYSTEM
CHAPTER-1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Today India is the most important under developed country in the world. India is the largest
country in the use of various types of vehicles. As the available resources to run these vehicles like
quality of roads, and unavailability of new technologies in vehicles are causes for accidents. The
number of peoples which are dead during the vehicle accidents is also very large as compared to
the other causes of death. Though there are different causes for these accidents but proper
technology of braking system and technology to reduce the damage during accident are mainly
effects on the accident rates.
So today implementation of proper braking system to prevent the accidents and pneumatic bumper
system to reduce the damage is must for vehicles. To achieve this system modification goal, design
this “SMART BREAKING SYSTEM ”.We have pleasure in introducing our new project
“PNEUMATIC BREAKING SYSTEM.”, which is fully equipped by ultrasonic sensors circuit
and Pneumatic brake activation circuit. It is a genuine project which is fully equipped for
Automobile vehicles. This forms an integral part of best quality. This product underwent strenuous
test in our Automobile vehicles and it is good.

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1.2 ADVANTAGES
1) Brake cost will be less.
2) Free from wear adjustment.
3) Less power consumption
4) Less skill technicians is sufficient to operate.
5) Installation is simplified very much.

1.3 DISADVANTAGES

1. Need separate air tank

2. This system applied in the case of emergency period only.
Addition cost is required to install this system to four wheeler

1.4 APPLICATIONS

➢ Four wheeler application

It is also implemented in two wheel

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CHAPTER 2

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

Dinesh Kumar C ,Subramanian M

AUTOMOTIVE BRAKING SYSTEM FOR PASSENGER VEHICLE TO ENHANCE SAFETY

Today most of the automotive modern vehicles depend on automotive safety to reduce the
damage and injury to the drivers and pedestrians. Automated safety systems besides enhancing
active safety devices due to increased rate of accidents in India. The results suggested that many
of these accidents were caused by inattention. Automatic braking system combine sensors
technology and brake control system to prevent high speed impact. Some of the automatic braking
systems can prevent collisions altogether but most of them are designed and placed for the luxury
and high cost vehicles.

Since high-cost vehicles are more likely to be fatal than low-cost automatic braking
systems can save lives and reduce the amount of property damage that occurs during an accident
in normal vehicles. Some of these systems use lasers others use radar and some even use video
data. The IR sensor input is used to determine if there are any objects present in the path of the
vehicle. The IR sensor is placed in front bumper, the system can then determine the speed of the
vehicle is greater than the speed of the object in front of it. A significant speed of the vehicle may
indicate that a collision is likely to occur in which case the system is capable of automatically
activating the brakes. The signal from the IR sensor which is connected to the stepper motor
through control unit which make the braking system to control at this situation. The speed sensor
senses the speed of the vehicle and stepper motor is activated depends on the speed of the vehicle.
.

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CHAPTER 3

3.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

The Ignition Key is fixed in near of the driving persons in the four wheeler. The air tank
contains the compressed air already filled. The switch was ON at the time of emergency, the
solenoid valve was activated. The solenoid valve stem is open, the compressed air flow from the
air tank to the flow control valve.

The compressed air flow is controlled by the valve is called “FLOW CONTROL VALVE”.
This air flow is already set. Then the compressed air goes to the pneumatic cylinder. The pneumatic
cylinder piston moves forward at the time of compressed air inlet to the cylinder.

The pneumatic cylinder moves towards the braking arrangement. Then the braking liver is
activated, so that the vehicle stops. Then the pneumatic cylinder piston moves backward.

FIG 3.1 2D LAYOUT OF EXPERIMENT

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 FABRICATION OF PNUEMATIC EMERGENCY BRAKING SYSTEM

CHAPTER 4
4.1 COMPONENTS

1. PNEUMATIC CYLINDERT
2. SOLENOID VALVE
3. A C MOTOR
4. BELT
5. PULLEY
6. WHEEL
7. FRAME
8. SHAFT
9. METAL STRIP
10. BEARING
11. COMPRESSOR
12. CIRCUIT;
• IR SENSOR
• RELAY
• TRANSFORMER
4.2 A.C. MOTOR

AC induction motors are the most common motors used in industrial motion control systems,
as well as in main powered home appliances. Simple and rugged design, low-cost, low
maintenance and direct connection to an AC power source are the main advantages of AC
induction motors. Various types of AC induction motors are available in the market.

Different motors are suitable for different applications. Although AC induction motors are
easier to design than DC motors, the speed and the torque control in various types of AC induction
motors require a greater understanding of the design and the characteristics of these motors.

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FIG.4.1 AC MOTOR
This application note discusses the basics of an AC induction motor; the different types,
their characteristics, the selection criteria for different applications and basic control techniques.

4.2.1 A.C MOTOR SPECIFICATION

Voltage - 230 V,

Frequency - 50 HZ, 1PH PSC,

AMPS - 2.5 AMPS,

Power - ¼ HP,

Watt - 180W,

RPM - 1440rpm.

4.2.2 BASIC CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLE

A three-phase AC induction motor is the only type where the rotating magnetic field is created
naturally in the stator because of the nature of the supply.

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DC motors depend either on mechanical or electronic commutation to create rotating

magnetic fields. A single-phase AC induction motor depends on extra electrical components to
produce this rotating magnetic field..

4.3 STATOR

The stator is made up of several thin laminations of aluminum or cast iron. They are
punched and clamped together to form a hollow cylinder (stator core) with slots as shown in Figure.
Coils of insulated wires are inserted into these slots. Each grouping of coils, together with the core
it surrounds, forms an electromagnet (A pair of poles) on the application of AC supply.

The number of poles of an AC induction motor depends on the internal connection of the
stator windings. The stator windings are connected directly to the power source. Internally they
are connected in such a way, that on applying AC supply, a rotating magnetic field is created.

A TYPICAL STATOR

FIG.4.2 STATOR
4.4 ROTOR

The rotor is made up of several thin steel laminations with evenly spaced bars, which are
made up of aluminum or copper, along the periphery. In the most popular type of rotor (squirrel
cage rotor), these bars are connected at ends mechanically and electrically by the use of rings.

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This is because the squirrel cage rotor has a simple and rugged construction. The rotor
consists of a cylindrical laminated core with axially placed parallel slots for carrying the
conductors.

The rotor is mounted on the shaft using bearings on each end; one end of the shaft is
normally kept longer than the other for driving the load.

FIG.4.3 A TYPICAL SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR

SINGLE-PHASE AC INDUCTION MOTOR WITH AND WITHOUT A START
MECHANISM

FIG 4.4 SINGLE-PHASE AC INDUCTION MOTOR

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4.5 BELT
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically,
most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently or to
track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys,
and the shafts need not be parallel.

In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in one direction (the
same if on parallel shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the driven shaft is
reversed (the opposite direction to the driver if on parallel shafts).

FIG 4.5 BELT

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SPECIFICATION
Material : CLOTH/NYLON
Width : 25cm
4.5.1 POWER TRANSMISSION

Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be axially
aligned. Power transmission is achieved by specially designed belts and pulleys. The demands on
a belt-drive transmission system are huge, and this has led to many variations on the theme. They
run smoothly and with little noise, and cushion motor and bearings against load changes, albeit
with less strength than gears or chains.

4.5.2 FLAT BELT

Flat belts were widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in line shafting to transmit
power in factories. They were also used in
countless farming, mining,and logging applications,suchas,bucksaws, sawmills, threshers, siloblo
wers, conveyors forfilling corncribs or haylofts, balers,

4.5.3 ROPE DRIVES

Typically, the rope connecting two pulleys with multiple V-grooves was spliced into a
single loop that traveled along a helical path before being returned to its starting position by
an idler pulley that also served to maintain the tension on the rope. Sometimes, a single rope was
used to transfer power from one multiple-groove drive pulley to several single- or multiple-groove
driven pulleys in this way.

4.5.4 ROUND BELT

Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a 60 degree
V-groove.

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Round grooves are only suitable for idler pulleys that guide the belt, or when (soft) O-ring
type belts are used. The V-groove transmits torque through a wedging action, thus increasing
friction.

4.5.5 V-BELT

V belts solved the slippage and alignment problem. It is now the basic belt for power
transmission. They provide the best combination of traction, speed of movement, load of the
bearings, and long service life. Optimal speed range is 1,000–7,000 ft/min (300–2,130 m/min). V-
belts need larger pulleys for their thicker cross-section than flat belts.

4.6 PULLEY
A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of

direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt.

In the case of a pulley supported by a frame or shell that does not transfer power to a shaft,
but is used to guide the cable or exert a force, the supporting shell is called a block, and the pulley
may be called a sheave.

FIG 4.6 PULLEY

A pulley may have a groove or grooves between flanges around its circumference to locate
the cable or belt. The drive element of a pulley system can be a rope, cable, belt, or chain.

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It is a simple machine that helps change the direction and point of application of a
pulling force. Pulleys are usually used in sets designed to reduce the amount of force needed to lift
a load. The magnitude of the force is reduced, but it must act through a longer distance.

Block and Tackle:

A block and tackle is a system of two or more pulleys with a rope or cable threaded
between them, usually used to lift heavy loads.

FIG.4.7 BLOCK AND PULLEY

A set of pulleys assembled so that they rotate independently on the same axle form a block.

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Two blocks with a rope attached to one of the blocks and threaded through the two sets of
pulleys form a block and tackle.

A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed mounting point and the
other is attached to the moving load.

Rope and Pulley Systems:

A machine consisting of a wheel over which a pulled rope or chain runs to change the
direction of the pull used for lifting a load.

Combinations of two or more pulleys working together reduce the force needed to lift a load.

FIG.4.8 BELT AND PULLEY

A belt and pulley system is characterized by two or more pulleys in common to a belt. This
allows for mechanical power, torque, and speed to be transmitted across axles. If the pulleys are
of differing diameters, a mechanical advantage is realized.

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Flat belt on a belt pulley

The mechanical advantage is approximately given by the ratio of the pitch diameter of the sheaves
only, not fixed exactly by the ratio of teeth as with gears and sprockets.

Mechanism of a Working Pulley:

One of the simplest types of pulley that can be explained is the pulley that has only one
wheel. The end of the rope that has a weight attached to it is lifted up only when an equal amount
of force is applied from the other end, either manually or mechanically.

4.6.1 Advantages of Pulley:

✓ It is one of the simplest tools for heavy lifting. The force needs to move (lift) to heavy
object reduce dramatically.
✓ It provides great support for the object.
✓ Force can be applied in any direction. It helps to change the direction force or movement.
✓ The pulley system does not store energy while performing the work.
✓ Movable pulley – Pulley drive can also design so that it moves along with the load.

4.6.2 Disadvantages of Pulley:

✓ The pulley works on friction. It may slip, then energy loss as heat.
✓ To lift an object using combined pulley system, the actual distance traveled by the load
increases (increase lifting distance). This means it takes more time to reach a required
position when compared to movement without a pulley.
✓ The drive elements experience continues tension on them, it causes the stretches. It may
induce creep and fatigue of the rope (or any other drive element), eventually the rope
breaks.

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4.6.3 Applications of Pulley:

✓ A pulley system is used in an elevator to pull the weight of 5 people against gravity.
✓ A gym is one place where one can find a lot of machines using the pulley system.
✓ Flagpoles on a sailboat or a ship used a pulley system to hoist a flag or bring it down.
✓ Pulley systems are used in industrial machines across different applications from
production floor to delivery room.

4.7 WHEEL

A tire(American English) or tire(British English)isa ring-shaped vehicle component that

covers the wheel’s rim to protect it and enable better vehicle performance. Most tires, such as those
for automobiles and bicycles, provide traction between the vehicle and the road while providing a
flexible cushion that absorbs shock.
The materials of modern pneumatic tires are synthetic natural rubber, natural fabric and
wire, along with carbon black and other chemical compounds.

FIG.4.9 WHEEL

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4.7.1 Manufacturing

Pneumatic tires are manufactured in about 450 tire factories around the world. Over one
billion tires are manufactured annually, making the tire industry a major consumer of natural
rubber. It is estimated that by 2015, 1.72 billion tires are expected to be sold globally. Tire
production starts with bulk raw materials such as rubber, carbon black, and chemicals and produces
numerous specialized components that are assembled and cured

FIG4.10 STYRENE-BUTADIENECOPOLYMER
Materials:

The materials of modern pneumatic tires can be divided into two groups, the cords that make up
the ply and the elastomer which encases them.

4.7.2 Components:

FIG.4.11 TIRE CROSS SECTION

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Tire cross section showing components.

A tire carcass is composed of several parts: the tread, bead, sidewall, shoulder, ply.

4.8 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Pneumatic cylinders can be used to get linear, rotary and oscillatory motion. There are three
types of pneumatic actuator:

1. Linear Actuator or Pneumatic cylinders

2. Rotary Actuator or Air motors
3. Limited angle Actuators

Pneumatic cylinders are devices for converting the air pressure into linear mechanical force and
motion. The pneumatic cylinders are basically used for single purpose application such as
clamping, stamping, transferring, branching, allocating, ejecting,

FIG.4.12 Double acting Cylinder

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To achieve forward motion of the cylinder, compressed air is admitted on the piston side and the
rod side is connected to exhaust. During return motion supply air admitted at the rod side while
the piston side volume is connected to the exhaust.

Force is exerted by the piston both during forward and return motion of cylinder. Double acting
cylinders are available in diameters from few mm to around 300 mm and stroke lengths of few
mm up to 2 meters

Construction of Double acting cylinder

There are two types of double acting cylinders.

Double acting cylinder with piston rod on one side.

i) Double acting cylinder with piston rod on both sides

ii) Double acting cylinder with piston rod on one side.

DOUBLE ACTING PNEUMATIC CYLINDER:

• Stroke length : Cylinder stoker length 160 mm = 0.16 m

• Quantity : 1

• Seals : Nitride (Buna-N) Elastomer

• End cones : Cast iron

• Piston : EN – 8

• Media : Air

• Temperature : 0-80 º C

• Pressure Range : 8 N/m².

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PNEUMATIC CYLINDER DESIGN:

Design of Piston rod:

Load due to air Pressure.

Diameter of the Piston (d) =40 mm

Pressure acting (p) = 6 kg/cm²

= 6 ×0.981

= 5.886 bar= 0.5886N/mm2

Material used for rod =C 45

Yield stress (σy) =36 kg/mm²

=36×98.1

= 3531.6 bar

= 353.16N/mm2

Factor of safety = 2(data book)

Force acting on the rod (F) =Pressure x Area

= p x (Πd² / 4)

= 0.5886 x {(Π x 40² ) / 4 }

F =739.6 N

Design Stress(σy) = σy / F0 S

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= 353.16 / 2
= 176.5N/mm2

∴d = √4F/π [σy]

= √ (4×739.6)/ π[176.5]

∴ Minimum diameter of rod required for the load = 2.3 mm

We assume diameter of the rod = 15 mm

Length of piston rod:

Approach stroke = 160 mm

Length of threads = 2 x 20 = 40mm

Extra length due to front cover =12 mm

Extra length of accommodate head = 20 mm

Total length of the piston rod =160 + 40 + 12 + 20

=232 mm

By standardizing, length of the piston rod =230 mm.

4.9 SOLENOID VALVE

The directional valve is one of the important parts of a pneumatic system. Commonly
known as DCV, this valve is used to control the direction of air flow in the pneumatic system. The
directional valve does this by changing the position of its internal movable parts.

The solenoid valve has 5 openings. This ensure easy exhausting of 5/2 valve. The spool of the 5/2
valve slide inside the main bore according to spool position; the ports get connected and
disconnected. The working principle is as follows.

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Working of Solenoid Valve

FIG.4.13 SOLENOID VALVE

Position-1

When the spool is actuated towards outer direction port ‘P’ gets connected to ‘B’ and ‘S’
remains closed while ‘A’ gets connected to ‘R’

Poisition-2

When the spool is pushed in the inner direction port ‘P’ and ‘A’ gets connected to each
other and ‘B’ to ‘S’ while port ‘R’ remains closed.

CONNECTOR:

• Max working pressure: :10 x 10 ⁵ N/m²

• Temperature : 0-100 º C

• Fluid media : Air

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• Material : Brass.

HOSE SPECIFICATION:

• Max pressure : 10 x 10 ⁵ N/m²

• Outer diameter : 6 mm = 6 x 10 ˉ ³m

• Inner diameter : 3.5 mm = 3.5 x 10 ˉ ³m.

FIG.4.14 HOSE COLLAR

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FIG.4.15 REDUCER

Fig.4.16 Schematic diagram of double acting cylinder

The force exerted by double acting pneumatic cylinder on outstroke can be expressed as

F=pA

= p π d2/4

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The force exerted on instroke can be expressed as

F = p π (d12 - d22) / 4
where
d1 = full bore piston diameter (m)
d2 = piston rod diameter (m)
4.9.1 Flow Control Valve

This valve is used to control the speed of the piston movement and also it acts as an one –
way restriction valve which means that the air can pass through only one way and it can’t return
back. By using this valve the time consumption is reduced because of the faster movement of the
piston.

FIG.4 17 FLOW CONTROL VALVE

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Technical data

Size : ¼”

Pressure : 0 to 10 kg / cm2

Media : Air

FIG. 4.18 DIRECTIONAL CONTROLVALVES

4.9.2 DIRECTIONAL CONTROLVALVES

Directional control valves control the way the air passes and use for controlling the
commencement, termination and direction of air flow. Depending on the number of paths the air
is allowed to take, directional valves are termed as two way, three way, and four way or multi way
valves. The different number of ways by means the number of controlled connections of the valve,
inlet connections to the compressed air supply.

Solenoid Valve

In our project electrically actuated solenoid operated 5/3 AC valves are used. Solenoid is
another name for an electromagnet.

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Direction control valves are very often actuated by electromagnets. An electromagnet is a

temporary magnet. A magnetic force is developed in an electromagnet when electrical current
passes through it and force drops down as soon as it is de energized.
This electromagnet is commonly termed as solenoid. The proper working of a solenoid
operated valve depends on the reliability of the electromagnets. It ensures
➢ Quick and sure action
➢ Long life.
➢ Easy maintenance.
➢ Less wastage of energy.

Fig.4.19 AC Solenoid
4.9.3 PARTS OF A SOLENOID VALVE

Coil
The solenoid coil is made of copper wire. The layers of wire are separated by insulating
layer. The entire solenoid coil is covered with a varnish that is not affected by solvents, moisture,
cutting oil or often fluids. Coils are rated in various voltages such as 115 volts AC, 230 volts AC,
460 volts AC, 575 Volts AC, 6 Volts DC, 12 Volts DC, 24 Volts DC, 115 Volts DC & 230 Volts
DC. They are designed for such frequencies as 50 Hz to 60 Hz.
HOSE AND CONNECTER

A hose coupling is a connector on the end of a hose to connect (or couple) it with another
hose or with a tap or a hose appliance, such as an irrigation sprinkler. It is usually made
of steel, brass, stainless steel, aluminum or plastic.

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FIG 4.20 CONNECTOR

CONNECTOR

• Max working pressure: 10 x 10 ⁵ N/m²

• Temperature : 0-100 º C

• Fluid media : Air

• Material : Brass

HOSE SPECIFICATION

• Max pressure : 10 x 10 ⁵ N/m²

• Outer diameter : 6 mm = 6 x 10 ˉ ³m

• Inner diameter : 3.5 mm = 3.5 x 10 ˉ ³m

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SOLENIOD VALVE

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Valve type: 5/2 valve

Power supply: AC or DC
Working medium: air and oil

FIG 4.21 SOLENIOD VALVE

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is controlled by an

electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on or off;
in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports. Multiple
solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold.

[Link]

There are many valve design variations. Ordinary valves can have many ports and fluid paths. A
2-way valve, for example, has 2 ports; if the valve is open, then the two ports are connected and
fluid may flow between the ports; if the valve is closed, then ports are isolated. If the valve is
open when the solenoid is not energized, then the valve is termed normally open (N.O.).
Similarly, if the valve is closed when the solenoid is not energized, then the valve is termed
normally closed .There are also 3-way and more complicated designs. A 3-way valve has 3
ports; it connects one port to either of the two other ports.

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4.10 COMPRESSOR

A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.
An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor.

Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can
transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the
volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed, the main
action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.

4.10.1 CLASSIFICATION

Compressors can be classified according to the pressure delivered:

o Low-pressure air compressors (LPACs), which have a discharge pressure of 150 psi or less
o Medium-pressure compressors which have a discharge pressure of 151 psi to 1,000 psi
o High-pressure air compressors (HPACs), which have a discharge pressure above 1,000 psi

They can also be classified according to the design and principle of operation:

o Single-Stage Reciprocating Compressor

o Two-Stage Reciprocating Compressor
o Compound Compressor
o Rotary-screw compressor
o Rotary Vane Compressor
o Scroll Compressor
o Turbo compressor
o Axial Compressor

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Fig.4.22 Technical Illustration of a two-stage

It up stroke, the charge of air is forced out and into a storage tank. Piston compressors
generally fall into two basic categories, single-stage and two-stage.

Single stage compressors usually fall into the fractional through 5 horsepower range. Two-
stage compressors normally fall .

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Fig.4.23. Technical Illustration of a portable 1

Into the 5 through 30 horsepower range. Two-stage compressors provide greater efficiency
than their single-stage counterparts. For this reason, these compressors are the most common
units within the small business community.

4.10.2 Application

Fig.4.24 Portable air compressor for power in

Most air compressors either are reciprocating piston type, rotary vane or rotary
screw. Centrifugal compressors are common in very large applications.

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There are two main types of air-compressor pumps: oil-lubed and oil-less. The oil-less
system has more technical development, but is more expensive, louder and lasts for less time than
oil-lubed pumps. The oil-less system also delivers air of better quality.

• Checking for oil and air leaks

• Checking the differential pressure in the compressed air filter
• Determining whether or not the oil in the compressor should be changed
• Verify safe operating temperature to avoid overheating the unit and it is used in sucking the
air
• Draining condensed moisture from the tank

Table 4.1: Details of brand air compressor

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4.11 RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current
can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw (changeover)
switches.

The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it
can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips)
cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the
larger value required for the relay coil.

FIG.4.25 RELAY

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts,
for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. Most relays are
designed. .

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The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

• COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
• NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
• NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.

Pin Diagram:

4.12 TRANSFORMER

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A transformer is an apparatus for converting electrical power in an ac system at one voltage or

current into electrical power at some other voltage or current without the use of rotating parts.
Transformers have been an essential component in electrical as well as electronic circuits
What is a TRANSFORMER?
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy at one voltage from one circuit
to other at a different voltage merely by magnetic coupling; the transfer of energy doesn’t involve
any kind of motion.
Transformers are analogous to gear box (used to convert torque and hence speed). Transformers
step up or step down the voltage and therefore vary the current.

Transformers utilises the principle of electromagnetism given by Faraday’s law. A conductor

carrying changing current carrying sets up a changing magnetic field around it. When a second
conductor is placed in this varying magnetic field, voltage will be induced into it. Get a clearer

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picture about transformers through exclusive images detailing about its internal structure and
windings at the transformer insight page.

FIG4.26 Transformer
When an AC voltage is applied to one (primary) coil, the varying magnetic field is set up around
the coil. By virtue of mutual induction, it creates an AC voltage in the other (secondary) coil a
varying voltage creates the varying magnetic field which is the basis of the mutual induction
process.
. Voltage ratio is equal to the turns ratio under all loading conditions.

4.12.1 TRANSFORMERS – CONSTRUCTION

A transformer primarily consists of three basic parts- a primary winding which receives the
electrical energy from the applied voltage source, and a secondary winding which receives the
induced electrical energy and a core which provides a circuit of low reluctance for magnetic lines
of force.
Windings
Windings, primary as well as secondary, are the coils of conducting wires as a coil of conductor.
Windings rated for higher voltages with more number of turns are designated as High Voltage
(HV) winding. The windings for lower voltages are called Low Voltage (LV) winding. The HV

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winding is composed of many turns of relatively fine copper wire, while the LV winding is
composed of relatively few turns of heavy copper wire
Shielding
To avoid any capacitive effect in the transformers (due to the proximity of primary and secondary
windings), an electrostatic shield is used between the windings. Transformers may be shielded by
magnetic or electrostatic shields, or both to prevent interference from other devices

4.13 IR SENSOR

An infrared sensor is an electronic instrument which is used to sense certain characteristics of

its surroundings by either emitting and/or detecting infrared radiation .Infrared sensors are also
capable of measuring the heat being emitted by an object and detecting motion.

A passive infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic sensor that measures infrared (IR)
light radiating from objects in its field of view. They are most often used in PIR-based motion
detectors.

Fig.4.27 IR Sensor

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.

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These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called as
a passive IR sensor.

4.13.1 SPECIFICATION

It is contain to the two medium

• Transmitter

• Receiver

It is working to the AC or DC power .

It is optical detecting sensor.

4.13.2 USES

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion .These
types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called as
a passive IR sensor.

Use an Arduino, infrared sensor, and remote to control LEDs. ... The IR sensor is a
1838B IR receiver. Whenever a button on the remote is pressed, it will send an infrared signal to
the IR sensor in the coded form. The IR sensor will then receive this signal and will give it to
the Arduino.

4.13.3 FUNCTION

An infrared sensor is an electronic instrument which is used to sense certain characteristics

of its surroundings by either emitting and/or detecting infrared radiation. Infrared sensors are also
capable of measuring the heat being emitted by an object and detecting motion..

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IR SENSOR

The main technology used in home remote controls is infrared (IR) light. The signal
between a remote control handset and the device it controls consists of pulses of infrared light,
which is invisible to the human eye, but can be seen through a digital camera, video camera or a
phone camera.

IN AND OUT

Xbox One uses the Kinect to control your home theater equipment through infrared (IR)
signals, the same technology used in remote controls. ...

An IR extension cable can help deliver the infrared signal directly to your devices, even
when they're closed away in cabinets.

REMOTE CONTROLS

IR remotes must be pointed directly at the devices you are trying to control ...... Consider
using an IR remote if you are only using your TV in one room.

Remotes. RF remotes can be used even if you're in a different room from the device you are trying
to control—its signal can penetrate walls and flooring.

4.13.4 PRINICIPLE

All objects with a temperature above absolute zero emit heat energy in the form of
radiation. Usually this radiation isn't visible to the human eye because it radiates at infrared
wavelengths, but it can be detected by electronic devices designed for such a purpose.

4.13.5 OPERATION

An individual PIR sensor detects changes in the amount of infrared radiation impinging
upon it, which varies depending on the temperature and surface characteristics of the objects in
front of the sensor. When an object, such as a human, passes in front of the background, such as

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a wall, the temperature at that point in the sensor's field of view will rise from room
temperature to body temperature, and then back again.

The sensor converts the resulting change in the incoming infrared radiation into a change
in the output voltage, and this triggers the detection. Objects of similar temperature but different
surface characteristics may also have a different infrared emission pattern, and thus moving them
with respect to the background may trigger the detector as well.

SENSOR DEVIATION

Since sensors cannot replicate an ideal transfer function, several types of deviations can
occur which limit sensor accuracy:

• Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually reach
a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full scale range
defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.[citation needed]
• The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error.
This is an error in the slope of a linear transfer function.
• If the output signal differs from the correct value by a constant, the sensor has an offset error
or bias. This is an error in the y-intercept of a linear transfer function.
• If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined
as drift. Long term drift over months or years is caused by physical changes in the sensor.
• Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time. A hysteresis error causes the
output value to vary depending on the previous input values. If a sensor's output is different
depending on whether a specific input value was reached by increasing vs. decreasing the
input, then the sensor has a hysteresis error.
• If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the measured
property. This error is also called quantization error.

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All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors. Systematic
errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy.

SENSOR IN NATURE

All living organisms contain biological sensors with functions similar to those of the
mechanical devices described. Most of these are specialized cells that are sensitive to:

• Light, motion, temperature, magnetic fields, gravity, humidity, moisture, vibration,

pressure, electrical fields, sound, and other physical aspects of the external environment
• Physical aspects of the internal environment, such as stretch, motion of the organism, and
position of appendages (proprioception)
• Environmental molecules, including toxins, nutrients, and pheromones
• Estimation of biomolecules interaction and some kinetics parameters
• Internal metabolic indicators, such as glucose level, oxygen level, or osmolality
• Internal signal molecules, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and cytokines
4.14 SHAFT

Fig4.28 Shaft

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Specifications
Shaft diameter: 12mm
Material: mild steel
Length:26 inch
Shaft is a common and important machine element. It is a rotating member, in general, has
a circular cross-section and is used to transmit power. The shaft may be hollow or solid. The shaft
is supported on bearings and it rotates a set of gears or pulleys for the purpose of power
transmission. Other two similar forms of a shaft are axle and spindle.

Axle is a non-rotating member used for supporting rotating wheels etc. and do not transmit any
torque. Spindle is simply defined as a short shaft. However, design method remains the same for
axle and spindle as that for a shaft. 8.1.2 Standard sizes of Shafts

Typical sizes of solid shaft that are available in the market are, Up to 25 mm 0.5 mm increments
25 to 50 mm 1.0 mm increments 50 to 100 mm 2.0 mm increments 100 to 200 mm 5.0 mm
increments 8.1.3 Material for Shafts The ferrous, non-ferrous materials and non metals are used as
shaft material depending on the application

Design considerations for shaft

For the design of shaft following two methods are adopted, Design based on Strength In this
method, design is carried out so that stress at any location of the shaft should not exceed the
material yield stress. Design based on Stiffness Basic idea of design in such case depends on the
allowable deflection and twist of the shaft.

Design based on Strength

The stress at any point on the shaft depends on the nature of load acting on it. The stresses which
may be present are as follows.

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Basic stress equations:

Bending stress

Where,

M:=Bending moment at the point of interest

Do= Outer diameter of the shaft

k= Ratio of inner to outer diameters of the shaft ( k = 0 for a solid shaft because inner diameter
is zero )

Axial Stress

Where,

F=Axial force (tensile or compressive)

Α= Column-action factor(= 1.0 for tensile load)

The term α has been introduced in the equation. This is known as column action factor. What is a
column action factor? This arises due the phenomenon of buckling of long slender members which
are acted upon by axial compressive loads.

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Here, α is defined as,

Where,

n = 1.0 for hinged end

n = 2.25 for fixed end

n = 1.6 for ends partly restrained, as in bearing

K = least radius of gyration,

L = shaft length

σyc = yield stress in compression

Stress due to torsion

Where,

T=Torque on the shaft

xy τ : Shear stress due to torsion

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Combined Bending and Axial stress

Both bending and axial stresses are normal stresses, hence the net normal stress is given by,

The net normal stress can be either positive or negative. Normally, shear stress due to torsion is
only considered in a shaft and shear stress due to load on the shaft is neglected.

Maximum shear stress theory

Design of the shaft mostly uses maximum shear stress theory. It states that a machine member fails
when the maximum shear stress at a point exceeds the maximum allowable shear stress for the
shaft material. Therefore,

Substituting the values of σx and τxy in the above equation, the final form is,

Therefore, the shaft diameter can be calculated in terms of external loads and material properties.
However, the above equation is further standardized for steel shafting in terms of allowable design
stress and load factors in ASME design code for sha

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FIG 4.29 METAL STRIP

Specifications

Length: 50cm

Width: 5cm

Thickness: 4mm

Metal strip is narrow, thin stock that is usually 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) or less in thickness and under
24 in. (609.6 mm) in width. Metal strips are formed to precise thicknesses and/or width
requirements.

How Metal Strip is made?

Metal strip can be designed and manipulated through a large number of processes which are
grouped into categories. They are joining and assembly processes, deformation processes, material
removal processes, heat treating processes, and finishing processes.

Joining and assembly processes include welding, soldering, brazing, fastening, and other processes
that connect parts permanently or semi-permanently to form a new entity.

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Deformation processes include bending, curling, punching, rolling, deep drawing, and ironing.
They use plastic deformation, where deformation is induced by external compressive forces
exceeding the yield stress of the material. Hot rolling and cold rolling are the most common
processes for preparing metal strips.

Material removal processes remove extra material from the workpiece in order to achieve the
desired shape. They include machining operations, abrasive machining, and nontraditional
processes utilizing lasers and electron beams.

Heat treating processes include annealing, quenching, tempering, aging, homogenizing, solution
treating, and precipitation hardening. Heat treating modifies the strength, ductility, hardness,
machinability, and formability of the metal stock

Finishing processes engineer the structure of the surface to produce the desired surface finish,
texture, corrosion resistance, and fatigue resistance of metal shapes. Polishing, burnishing,
peening, galvanizing, painting, oiling, waxing, lubricating, plating, and coating are types of
finishing processes.

4.15 BALL BEARING

A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing that uses balls to maintain the separation
between the bearing races.

The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and

support radial and axial loads. It achieves this by using at least three races to contain the balls and
transmit the loads through the balls.

Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-
element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However, they can
tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races.

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SPECIFICATION

INNER DIA :12mm

OUTER DIA : 37mm

4.15.1 HISTORY

Although bearings had been developed since ancient times, the first modern recorded
patent on ball bearings was awarded to Philip Vaughan, a Welsh inventor and ironmaster who
created the first design for a ball bearing in Carmarthen in 1794. His was the first modern ball-
bearing design, with the ball running along a groove in the axle assembly.

Fig4.30 Self-aligning bearing

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4.15.2 DESIGN

ANGULAR CONTACT

An angular contact ball bearing uses axially asymmetric races. An axial load passes in a
straight line through the bearing, whereas a radial load takes an oblique path that acts to separate
the races axially. So the angle of contact on the inner race is the same as that on the outer race.
Angular contact bearings better support combined loads (loading in both the radial and axial
directions) and the contact angle of the bearing should be matched to the relative proportions of
each..

AXIAL

An axial or thrust ball bearing uses side-by-side races. An axial load is transmitted directly
through the bearing, while a radial load is poorly supported and tends to separate the races,so that
a larger radial load is likely to damage the bearing.

DEEP-GROOVE

In a deep-groove radial bearing, the race dimensions are close to the dimensions of the balls
that run in it. Deep-groove bearings support higher loads than a shallower groove. Like angular
contact bearings, deep-groove bearings support both radial and axial loads, but without a choice
of contact angle to allow choice of relative proportion of these load capacities.

4.15.3 CONSRUCTIVE TYPE

SLOT-FILL

In a slot-fill radial bearing, the inner and outer races are notched on one face so that when
the notches are aligned, balls can be slipped in the resulting slot to assemble the bearing. A slot-
fill bearing has the advantage that more balls can be assembled (even allowing a full complement
design), resulting in a higher radial load capacity than a Conrad bearing of the same dimensions
and material type

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ROWS

There are two row designs: single-row bearings and double-row bearings. Most ball bearings are
a single-row design, which means there is one row of bearing balls. This design works with radial
and thrust loads.

FLANGED

Bearings with a flange on the outer ring simplify axial location. The housing for such
bearings can consist of a through-hole of uniform diameter, but the entry face of the housing) must
be machined truly normal to the hole axis.

CAGED

Cages are typically used to secure the balls in a Conrad-style ball bearing. In other
construction types they may. With a cage the tangential position is stabilized by a sliding of a
convex surface in a matched concave surface, which avoids dents in the balls and has lower
friction.

FULLY CERAMIC BEARINGS

. These bearings are impervious to corrosion and rarely require lubrication if at all. Due to
the stiffness and hardness of the balls and race these bearings are noisy at high speeds. The stiffness
of the ceramic makes these bearings brittle and liable to crack under load or impact.

FIG.4.31 SELF-ALIGNING

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Self-aligning ball bearings, such as the Wing quist bearing shown in the picture, are constructed
with the inner ring and ball assembly contained within an outer ring that has a spherical raceway.

The bearing was used mainly in bearing arrangements with very long shafts, such as transmission
shafts in textile factories.

One drawback of the self-aligning ball bearings is a limited load rating, as the outer raceway has
very low osculation (radius is much larger than ball radius). This led to the invention of the
spherical roller bearing, which has a similar design, but use rollers instead of balls

4.15.4 OPERATING CONDITION

LIFESPAN
Further information: Rolling- element bearing § Bearing failure

The calculated life for a bearing is based on the load it carries and its operating speed. The
industry standard usable bearing lifespan is inversely proportional to the bearing load cubed.
Nominal maximum load of a bearing, is for a lifespan of 1 million rotations, which at 50 Hz (i.e.,
3000 RPM) is a lifespan of 5.5 working hours. 90% of bearings of that type have at least that
lifespan, and 50% of bearings have a lifespan at least 5 times as long.

FAILURE MODES

If a bearing is not rotating, maximum load is determined by force that causes plastic
deformation of elements or raceways. The indentations caused by the elements can concentrate
stresses and generate cracks at the components. Maximum load for not or very slowly rotating
bearings is called "static" maximum load.

Also if a bearing is not rotating, oscillating forces on the bearing can cause impact damage
to the bearing race or the rolling elements, known as brinelling. A second lesser form called false
brinelling occurs if the bearing only rotates across a short arc and pushes lubricant out away from
the rolling elements.

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MAXIMUM LOAD

In general, maximum load on a ball bearing is proportional to outer diameter of the bearing
times the width of the bearing (where width is measured in direction of axle).[7]

LUBRICATION

For a bearing to operate properly, it needs to be lubricated. In most cases the lubricant is
based on elasto hydrodynamic effect (by oil or grease) but working at extreme temperatures dry
lubricated bearings are also available.

For a bearing to have its nominal lifespan at its nominal maximum load, it must be
lubricated with a lubricant (oil or grease) that has at least the minimum dynamic viscosity

DIRECTION OF LOAD

Most bearings are meant for supporting loads perpendicular to axle ("radial loads").
Whether they can also bear axial loads, and if so, how much, depends on the type of bearing. Thrust
bearings are specifically designed for axial loads.

For single-row deep-groove ball bearings, SKF's documentation says that maximum axial
load is circa 50% of maximum radial load, but it also says that "light" and/or "small" bearings can
take axial loads that are 25% of maximum radial load.

4.15.5 APPLICATION

In general, ball bearings are used in most applications that involve moving parts. Some of these
applications have specific features and requirements:

• Hard drive bearings used to be highly spherical, and were said to be the best spherical
manufactured shapes, but this is no longer true, and more and more are being replaced
with fluid bearings.

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• Aerospace bearings are used in many applications on commercial, private and military aircraft
including pulleys, gearboxes and jet engine shafts. Materials include M50 tool steel
(AMS6491), Carbon chrome steel (AMS6444), the corrosion resistant AMS5930, 440C
stainless steel, silicon nitride (ceramic) and titanium carbide-coated 440C.

• A skateboard wheel contains two bearings, which are subject to both axial and radial time-
varying loads. Most commonly bearing 608-2Z is used (a deep groove ball bearing from series
60 with 8 mm bore diameter)
4.16 METAL FRAME

FIG.4.32 METAL FRAME

The metal frame is generally made of mild steel bars for machining, suitable for lightly
stressed components including studs, bolts, gears and shafts. It can be case-hardened to improve
wear resistance. They are available in bright rounds, squares and flats, and hot rolled rounds.
Suitable machining allowances should therefore be added when ordering. It does not
contain any additions for enhancing mechanical or machining properties
4.17 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a
final product. The manufacturing process begins with the creation of the materials from which the

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design is made. These materials are then modified through manufacturing processes to become the
required part. Manufacturing processes can include treating (such as heat treating or coating),
machining, or reshaping the material.

4.17.1 SAWING:

Cold saws are saws that make use of a circular saw blade to cut through various types of
metal, including sheet metal. The name of the saw has to do with the action that takes place during
the cutting process, which manages to keep both the metal and the blade from becoming too hot.
A cold saw is powered with electricity and is usually a stationary type of saw machine rather than
a portable type of saw.

FIG.4.33 SAWING

4.17.2 WELDING:

Welding is a process for joining similar metals. Welding joins metals by melting and fusing
1, the base metals being joined and 2, the filler metal applied.

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Welding employs pinpointed, localized heat input. Most welding involves ferrous-based
metals such as steel and stainless steel weld joints are usually stronger than or as strong as the base
metals being joined.

FIG.4.34 WELDING

Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture of automobile
bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers,
general repair work and ship building.

Several welding processes are based on heating with an electric arc, only a few are considered
here, starting with the oldest, simple arc welding, also known as shielded metal arc welding.

4.17.3 DRILLNG:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular cross-
section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit
is pressed against the work piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions

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per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the work piece, cutting off chips (sward) from
the hole as it is drill.

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FIG.4.35 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

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CHAPTER 5

5.1 MATERIAL USED

[Link] DESCIRPTION QTY MATERIAL

1 A C MOTOR 1 ELECTRICAL

2 WHEEL 1 RUBBER

3 BEARING 3 STAINLESS STEEL

4 FRAME, SHAFT, METAL STRIP AS PER MILD STEEL

REQUIRMENT

5 BELT,PULLEY NYLON,CAST IRON

6 HOSE AND CONNECTOR 2 METRER PLASTIC AND

AND 5 STAINLESS STEEL

7 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER,SOLENOID ALUMINIUM

VALVE ,PLASTIC

8 CIRCUIT; ELECTRICAL

9 RELAY,IR SENSOR,TRANSFORMER

10 COMPRESSOR MILD STEEL

TABLE 7.1 : MATERIALS USED

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5.2 LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

Cost = 2000/-

TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost

= Rs 14200 + 2000

Total cost for this project = Rs.16200/-

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CONCLUSION

Automatic brake with pneumatic system is an additional safety to heavy vehicles with
passenger car . It is easy to make such a system in heavy air brake vehicles. An emergency switch
is provided for emergency uses . This switch avoids the driver to stand from his seat . The system
carried out by us made an impressing task in the field of automobile manufacturing industries. It
is very useful for the workers work in the lath and small scale industries. This system will reduce
the cost involved in the concern. system can be design to perform the entire requirement task at
the shortest time available..

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REFERENCES

1. . Yi, Jingang, Luis Alvarez, and Roberto Horowitz. "Adaptive emergency braking
control with underestimation of friction coefficient." IEEE Transactions on Control
Systems Technology 10, no. 3 (2002): 381-392.
2. S.Dharia1, Sachin S. Bhopale, Advancements in automatic hand brake system Vol.
5, Issue 05,2016
3. . Wakchaure P.B, Prof: Borkar B.R, “Review on Parking Brake Lateral Play in
Four Wheeler”, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications,
Volume 3, Issue 4, 2013
4. . Thivagar, S., and C. NANTHA KUMAR. "Automatic hand brake system."
International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science, Vol 4, no. 1
2016.
5. Aher Gauresh H., Kunzarkar Prasad. P., Agalave Sagar V.,Wagh Chetan V., Prof.
Pagar K. R., Prof. Bhane A.B., “Automatic Emergency Braking System”,
International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, Vol 6,
Issue 4,pp.199- 201.l 2016
6. . D. L. Shinde1, Mr. Talandage Nikhil M2 Automatic Engagement and
Disengagement of Hand brake System Using Pneumatic system, Vol 5 Issue VI,
June 2017
7. . Prof. Mujumdar : “Pneumatics – Study Material”
8. R. S. Khurmi & I. K. Gupta : “A Textbook or Machine Design”
9. . Prof. H. G. Patil : “Machine Design Data Hand Book (SI Metric)”
10. Hajra Choudhary : “Workshop Technology Vol. – II”
11. C Grover, I Kinght, F Okoro, I Simmons, G Couper, P Massie, and B Smith,
Automated Emergency Brake System, PPR 227, 2008. Fecher, Norbert, Hoffmann,
Jens, Winner, Hermann,TU Darmstadt, Analysis of Driver Behavior in
Autonomous Emergency Hazard Braking Situation,” F2008-02-030. J. C. McCall
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and M. M. Trivedi, Driver behavior and situation aware brake assistance for
intelligent vehicles.
12. J.D. Lee, D.V. McGehee, T. L. Brown, and M.L. Reyes, “Collision warning timing,
driver distraction, and driver response to imminent rear-end collisions in a high-
fidelity driving simulator,” Human Factors, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 314–334, 2002.
13. K.D. Kusano, and H.C. Gabler, Safety Benefits of Forward Collision Warning,
Brake Assist, and Autonomous Braking System in Rear-End Collision, Vol. 13, No.
4, 2012.
14. K. D. Kusano and H. C. Gabler, Method for estimating time to collision at braking
in real-world, lead vehicle stopped rear-end crashes for use in precrash system
design. Luzheng Bi, Zhi Wang, and Xin-an Fan, EEG Analysis of Drivers under
Emergency Situations, Vol.10, 2012
15. Muntaser Momani, Collision Avoiding System (CAS), Vol. 5, No. 7, 341-354,
2012.

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APPENDIX -I

COST ESTIMATION

[Link] DISCRIPTION COST Rs:

1 A C MOTOR 2000

2 WHEEL 1000

3 BEARING 600

4 FRAME, SHAFT, METAL STRIP 2000

5 BELT,PULLEY 1200

6 HOSE AND CONNECTOR 500

7 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER,SOLENOID VALVE 2500

8 RELAY,IR SENSOR,TRANSFORMER 900

9 COMPRESSOR 3500

10 TOTAL 14200

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