República de Honduras

Secretaría de Educación
Dirección Departamental de Educación de Francisco
Morazán
Colegio Profesional Unión Magisterial de Honduras
“COPRUMH”

Preparatory Course for the Teaching Contest 2022

Made by: Lic. Nillson Reyes
English Teacher

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 Index

1. Chapter I – Grammar ……………………………………………………………………… 3

• Possessives ……………………………….……………………………………………. 4
✓ Nouns …………………………………………………………………………...… 4
✓ Pronouns ………………………………………………………………………... 7
✓ Adjectives ……………………………………………………….……………. 11
• Adjectives ………………………………………………………………….…………. 14
• Verb Tenses ……………………………………………………………………….…. 20
• Comparative and Superlative Adjectives ……………….……..………. 38
• Reflexive and Object Pronouns ………………………………….…………. 46
2. Chapter II - Morpho-syntaxis ………………………………………………………… 51
• Bound Morphemes ……………………………………………………………….. 52
• Sentence Construction ………………………………………………………….. 56
• Relative Clauses ……………………………………………………………………. 59
• Passive Voice ……………………………………………………………………...… 62
3. Chapter III – Methodology …………………………………………………………..… 65
• Methods and Approaches ……………………………………………………… 66
4. Chapter IV - Phonetics and Phonology ………………………………………….. 80
• Ways and Points of Articulation ……………………………………………. 81
5. Chapter V – Literature ………………………………………………………………….. 87
• Reading Comprehension ………………………………………………………. 88
• Literary Features ………………………………………………………………….. 91

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 Chapter I
Grammar

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 What are Possessive Nouns?
A Possessive Noun is a noun indicating ownership (or possession) by ending 's or just an apostrophe.

Examples of Possessive Nouns

Here are some examples of Possessive Nouns (shaded):

• a dog's bone
• a man's jacket
• a lion's mane

The examples above are obviously about possession (i.e., ownership). They refer to "the bone of the
dog," "the jacket of the man," and "the mane of the lion." However, possessive nouns are not always
so obviously about possession. Look at these examples of possessive nouns:

• a book's pages
• a day's pay
• a week's worth
• the stone's throw
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Sometimes, possessive nouns are clearly not about possession. Look at these examples:

• The Children's Minister (This is a minister for children's affairs. The minister does not belong to
the children.)
• Rembrandt's paintings (These are paintings by Rembrandt. He does not own them.)

So, in order to say that possessive nouns indicate possession, you have to accept a broad scope for
the word "possession."

Using Apostrophes to Form Possessive Nouns

Type Example of Type Possessive Noun Comment

Singular dog's dinner Add 's for a singular possessor (in

Dog
Noun dog's dinners this case, a dog).
dogs' dinner
Plural Noun Dogs Add ' for a plural possessor
dogs' dinners

Singular Chris' hat

Add 's or ' for a singular possessor
Noun ending Chris or
that ends -s. You have a choice.
-s Chris's hat

Plural Noun Add 's for a plural possessor that

People People's rights
not ending -s does not end -s.

Possessive Nouns in Time Expressions

Possessive Nouns are common in time expressions (or "temporal expressions" as they're also
known). For example:

• A day's salary
• Two days' salary
• Three years' insurance

Similarly, Possessive Nouns are used for other measurements unrelated to time. For example:

• Five dollars' worth

• A stone's throw away

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 Why are Possessive Nouns Important?

1. Get your apostrophe placement right by spotting the possessor.

Looking at the above table showing the rules for placing apostrophes, you'd think that the rules
were complicated. They're not. Here's a simple rule that works for every type of noun:
Simple Rule for Apostrophe Placement
Everything to the left of the apostrophe is the possessor (i.e., the possessive noun).

2. Get your apostrophe placement right by understanding the history of

possessive nouns.
In old English, the possessive form was created by adding "-es" to the end of the noun,
regardless of whether it was singular or plural or how it ended. It was a 100% rule — just add "-
es." Then, inevitably, people starting getting lazy. They realized that all they needed to make a
noun sound possessive was the "s" sound. So, they used as few letters as possible to retain the
"s" sound and then replaced any missing letters from the original "-es" with an apostrophe. (NB:
Let's not forget that the main function of apostrophes is to replace missing letters. So, really, the
apostrophes in possessive nouns are performing their original function.)
Here are some examples:
✓ Dog > Doges > dog's bone (Replace the "e," but keep the "s" for the sound.)
✓ Dogs > Dogses > dogs' bone (Replace the "es." We already have an "s" sound.)
✓ Charles > Charleses > Charles' house (Replace the "es." We already have an "s" sound.)
✓ Charles > Charleses > Charles's house (Replace the "e," but keep the "s," if you want
another "s" sound, i.e., you say "Charlesiz" and not "Charles.")
✓ Children > Childrenes > Children's toys (Replace the "e," but keep the "s" for the sound.)

3. Forming the possessive form surnames is no different to any other noun.

The possessive form of a family name is formed like any other noun. However, there is often
confusion (especially with a surname ending "-s") because the plural itself can look awkward.
For example:
✓ The Joneses live on the corner. ("Joneses" is the plural of "Jones." Once this bit is clear,
the rest is easy.)
✓ The Joneses' house is on the corner. ("Joneses'" is the possessive form of "Joneses." It
follows the standard rules.)

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 What are Possessive Pronouns?
A Possessive Pronoun is a word that replaces a noun (or a noun phrase) and shows ownership. The
possessive pronouns are "mine," "yours," "his," "hers," "ours," and "theirs."

Examples of Possessive Pronouns

Here are some examples in Possessive Pronouns (highlighted) in quotations.

• Humans are the only animals that have children on purpose with the exception of guppies, who
like to eat theirs. (Satirist P J O'Rourke) (Here, "theirs" replaces the noun phrase "guppies'
children.")
• A wife should no more take her husband's name than he should hers. My name is my identity
and must not be lost. (Rights campaigner Lucy Stone) (Here, "hers" replaces the noun phrase
"wife's name.")

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 • People who have given us their complete confidence believe that they have a right to ours. The
inference is false, a gift confers no rights. (Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche) (Here, "ours"
replaces the noun phrase "our complete confidence.")
• I always check if the art across the street is better than mine. (Artist Andy Warhol) (Here, "mine"
replaces the noun phrase "my art.")

Possessive Determiners are also Classified as Pronouns

The possessive determiners "my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," and "their" (called possessive
adjectives in traditional grammar) are also classified as Possessive Pronouns because they too
replace nouns and show ownership. (They are said to be "pronominal," i.e., having the traits of a
pronoun.) Look at this example:

• Is that the Queen's hat? No, it's her crown.

(The possessive determiner "her" replaces the noun phrase "the Queen." That's why possessive
determiners are classified as pronouns.)

Possessive Pronouns (Absolute Possessive Pronouns and Possessive

Determiners)
Here is a list of personal pronouns with their corresponding possessive determiners and possessive
pronouns:

Personal Possessive Determiner (Possessive

Possessive Pronoun
Pronoun Adjective)

mine
my
I This house is bigger
This house is bigger than my house.
than mine.

your yours
you
Is this your wallet? Is this yours?

his his
he
Use his car tomorrow morning. Use his tomorrow morning.

her hers
she
I like her painting. I like hers.

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 it I can see its fin. [not used]

our ours
we
You can use our lawnmower. You can use ours.

theirs
their
they
Did they show you their plan?
Did they show you theirs?

Why are Possessive Pronouns Important?

Here are three noteworthy points related to possessive pronouns ("yours," "hers," etc.) and possessive
determiners ("your," "its," etc.).

1. Don't put an apostrophe in "yours," "hers," "ours," or "theirs."

By far the most common mistake related to possessive pronouns is including an apostrophe with
"yours," "hers," "ours," or "theirs." There are no apostrophes in any possessive pronouns.
✓ There are gods above gods. We have ours, and they have theirs. That's what's known as
infinity. (French poet Jean Cocteau)

2. Don't confuse a possessive determiner with an identical-sounding contraction.

Grammar mistakes with possessive determiners are rare, but spelling mistakes with possessive
determiners are common. Given how common these determiners are, misspelling them
(particularly if you make a habit of it) will smash your credibility. There are four common spelling
mistakes with possessive determiners, but fixing all four is easy because they're all made the
same way – by confusing the possessive determiner with an identical-sounding contraction.

The contraction "it's" is not a possessive. "It's" is a contraction of "it is" or "it has." This is a 100%
rule. If you can't expand your "it's" to "it is" or "it has," then it's wrong.
✓ A country can be judged by the quality of it's proverbs.
To some extent, this mistake is understandable because apostrophes are used for possession
(e.g., "the dog's nose"). But "it's" has nothing to do with possession. No, really, it doesn't.
The same is true for "you're" (a contraction of "you are"), they're (a contraction of "they are") and
"who's" (a contraction of "who is" or "who has"). Do not confuse these with "your," "their" or
"there," or "whose."
✓ Even if you fall on you're face, you're still moving forward.
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 (The first "you're" is wrong. The second is correct.)
✓ Forgive your enemies, but never forget there names.
✓ Never go to a doctor who's office plants have died.
If you've used an apostrophe, test your apostrophe by expanding your word back into two words.
If you can't, the apostrophe version is wrong.

3. There's no gender-neutral singular possessive determiner that can be used for people.
The possessive determiner "his" is used for males. Similarly, "her" is used for females. That's all
fine. The problem is that the gender-neutral "its" can't be used for people. That gives us a
problem. Look at this example:
✓ Each student must take his invite to the receptionist.
(What if the students aren't all male?)
Using "his" to denote "his/her" is outdated. Here are two good alternatives:

(Alternative 1) Reword your sentence to make it all plural.

✓ All students must take their invites to the receptionist.
(Alternative 2) Use "their" instead of "his."
✓ Each student must take their invites to the receptionist.
The lack of a gender-neutral singular possessive determiner for people has forced us to treat
"their" as singular as well as plural.

What are Possessive Adjectives?

The Possessive Adjectives are my, your, his, her, its, our, their, and whose. A possessive adjective
sits before a noun (or a pronoun) to show who or what owns it.

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NB: Since the 1960s, Possessive Adjectives have increasingly been called "possessive determiners."
Both terms are still in common use. "Possessive adjective" is currently about twice as popular as
"possessive determiner."

Real-Life Examples of Possessive Adjectives

In the examples below, the possessive adjectives are shaded and the nouns being modified are bold.
The table also shows how each possessive adjective corresponds to a personal pronoun.

Personal Possessive
Example
Pronoun Adjective

I do not choose that my grave should be dug while I am still

I my
alive. (Queen Elizabeth I)

If you want peace, you don't talk to your friends. You talk
you your
to your enemies. (South African cleric Desmond Tutu)

If a man could have half of his wishes, he would

he his
double his troubles. (Founding Father Benjamin Franklin)

She got her looks from her father. He's a plastic surgeon.
she her
(Comedian Groucho Marx)

Worry never robs tomorrow of its sorrow. It only saps today

it its
of its joy. (Author Leo Buscaglia)

How we spend our days is how we spend our lives. (Author

we our
Annie Dillard)

Men are like steel. When they lose their temper, they
they their
lose their worth. (Martial artist Chuck Norris)

The key is to keep company only with

who whose people whose presence calls forth your best. (Greek
philosopher Epictetus)

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Here is a list of personal pronouns with their corresponding possessive adjectives and possessive
pronouns, i.e., their possessive forms.

Possessive Form
Personal Pronoun
Possessive Adjective Possessive Pronoun

I my mine

you your yours

he his his

she her hers

it its [not used]

we our ours

they their theirs

who whose whose

Why are Possessive Adjectives Important?

Grammar mistakes with Possessive Adjectives are rare. However, spelling mistakes with
possessive adjectives are common. There are four common spelling mistakes with possessive
adjectives.

1. Don't write "it's" when you mean "its" (or vice versa)
The contraction "it's" has nothing to do with possession, i.e., it is not a possessive adjective. "It's"
is short for "it is" or "it has." This is a 100% rule. If you can't expand your "it's" to "it is" or "it has,"
then it's wrong.
✓ A country can be judged by the quality of it's proverbs.
To some extent, this mistake is understandable because apostrophes are used for possession
(e.g., the dog's nose). But, "it's" has nothing to do with possession. No, really, it doesn't.

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 2. Don't write "you're" when you mean "your" (or vice versa).
"You're" is short for "you are." This is a 100% rule. If you can't expand your "you're" to "you are,"
then it's wrong.
✓ Even if you fall on you're face, you're still moving forward.
(The first "you're" is wrong. The second is correct.)

3. Don't confuse "there," "they're", and "their."

"They're" is short for "they are." This is a 100% rule. If you can't expand your "they're" to "they
are," then it's wrong. "There (just like the word "here") is a place. It's also used in expressions
like "There are dragons" or "There's an issue."
✓ Forgive your enemies, but never forget there names.

4. Don't write "who's" when you mean "whose" (or vice versa).
"Who's" is short for "who is" or "who has." This is a 100% rule. If you can't expand your "who's
to "who is" or "who has," then it's wrong.
✓ Never go to a doctor who's office plants have died.

What are Adjectives?

Adjectives are words that describe people, places, or things. "Old," "green," and "cheerful" are
examples of adjectives. (It might be useful to think of adjectives as "describing words.")
Here are some examples of adjectives in sentences:

• John is a tall man.

• New York is a busy city.
• This is a tasty apple.

Adjective Before the Noun

An adjective usually comes directly before the noun it describes (or "modifies," as grammarians say).

• old man
• green coat
• cheerful one

("One" is a type of pronoun. Pronouns are words that replace nouns. So, adjectives can modify
pronouns too.) When adjectives are used like this, they're called attributive adjectives.
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 Adjective After the Noun
An adjective can come after the noun.

• Jack was old.

• It looks green.
• He seems cheerful.

In the three examples above, the adjectives follow linking verbs ("was," "looks," and "seems") to
describe the noun or pronoun. (When adjectives are used like this, they're called predicate
adjectives.)

Adjective Immediately After the Noun

Sometimes, an adjective comes immediately after a noun.

• the Princess Royal

• time immemorial
• body beautiful
• the best seats available
• the worst manners imaginable

When adjectives are used like this, they're called postpositive adjectives. Postpositive adjectives are
more common with pronouns.

• someone interesting
• those present
• something evil

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 Descriptive Adjectives and Determiners
All the adjectives we've seen so far have been descriptive adjectives. A descriptive adjective will
usually fit into one of the following categories:

Category Example

Appearance attractive, burly, clean, dusty

Color azure, blue, cyan, dark

Condition absent, broken, careful, dead

Personality annoying, brave, complex, dizzy

Quantity ample, bountiful, countless, deficient

Sense aromatic, bitter, cold, deafening

Size and Shape angular, broad, circular, deep

Time ancient, brief, concurrent, daily

Nouns Used as Adjectives

Many words that are usually nouns can function as adjectives. For example:

• autumn colors
• boat race
• computer shop

Here are some real-life examples:

• Not all face masks are created equal. (Entrepreneur Hannah Bronfman)

• You cannot make a revolution with silk gloves. (Premier Joseph Stalin)

When used like adjectives, nouns are known as attributive nouns.

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 Participles Used as Adjectives
Formed from a verb, a Participle is a word that can be used as an adjective. There are two types of
participles:

• The Present Participle (ending -"ing")

• The Past Participle (usually ending -"ed," -"d," -"t," -"en," or -"n")

Here are some examples of participles as adjectives:

• The most exciting phrase to hear in science, the one that heralds new discoveries, is not
"Eureka!" but "That's funny." (Writer Isaac Asimov)
• Always be wary of any helpful item that weighs less than its operating manual. (Author Terry
Pratchett)
• While the spoken word can travel faster, you can't take it home in your hand. Only
the written word can be absorbed wholly at the convenience of the reader. (Educator Kingman
Brewster)
• We all have friends and loved ones who say 60 is the new 30. No, it's the new 60. (Fashion
model Iman)

Infinitives Used as Adjectives

An Infinitive Verb (e.g., "to run," "to jump") can also function as an adjective.

• No human creature can give orders to love. (French novelist George Sand) (Here, the infinitive
"to love" describes the noun "orders.")
• Progress is man's ability to complicate simplicity. (Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl)

(An infinitive will often head its own phrase. Here, the infinitive phrase "to complicate simplicity"
describes the noun "ability.")

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 The Order of Adjectives
When two or more adjectives are strung together, they should be ordered according to the following
list:

Placement Type of Adjective Examples

Article a, an, the

1 Demonstrative Determiner this, that, those, these
Possessive Determiner my, your, his, our

2 Quantity one, three, ninety-nine

3 Opinion or Observation beautiful, clever, witty, well-mannered

4 Size big, medium-sized, small

5 Physical Quality thin, lumpy, cluttered

6 Shape square, round, long

7 Age young, middle-aged, old

8 Color red, blue, purple

9 Origin or Religion French, Buddhist

10 Material metal, leather, wooden

11 Type L-shaped, two-sided, all-purpose

Purpose mixing, drinking, cooking

12
Attributive Noun service, football, head

Here is an example of a 14-adjective string (shaded) that is ordered correctly:

• my two lovely XL thin tubular new white Spanish metallic hinged correcting knee braces.

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 Adjective Phrases
In real-life sentences, adjectives are often accompanied by modifiers like adverbs (e.g., "very,"
"extremely") and prepositional phrases (e.g., "...with me," "...about the man"). In other words, an
adjective (shown in bold) will often feature in an "adjective phrase" (shaded).

• My bankers are very happy with me. (The popstar formerly known as Prince) (In this example,
the adjective phrase describes "bankers.")
• The dragonfly is an exceptionally beautiful insect but a fierce carnivore. (Here, the adjective
phrase describes "insect.")

Adjective Clauses
The last thing to say about adjectives is that clauses can also function as adjectives. With an adjective
clause, the clause is linked to the noun being described with a relative pronoun ("who," "whom,"
"whose," "that," or "which") or a relative adverb ("when," "where," or "why"). Like all clauses, it will have
a subject and a verb.

• The people who make history are not the people who make it but the people who make it and
then write about it. (Musician Julian Cope)
• I live in that solitude which is painful in youth but delicious in the years of maturity. (Physicist
Albert Einstein) (It can start getting complicated. In the adjective clause above, "painful in youth"
and "delicious in the years of maturity" are adjective phrases.)

Why Are Adjectives Important?

1. Reduce your word count with the right adjective.
Try to avoid using words like "very" and "extremely" to modify adjectives. Pick better adjectives.
✓ very happy boy > delighted boy
✓ very angry > livid
✓ extremely posh hotel > luxurious hotel
✓ really serious look > stern look
2. Reduce your word count by removing adjectives.
Picking the right noun can eliminate the need for an adjective.
✓ whaling ship > whaler
✓ disorderly crowd > mob
✓ organized political dissenting group > faction

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You can also reduce your word count by removing redundant adjectives.

✓ joint cooperation > cooperation

✓ necessary requirement > requirement
✓ handwritten manuscript > manuscript
3. Avoid incomprehensible strings of "adjectives."
In business writing (especially with technical subjects), it is not unusual to encounter strings of
attributive nouns. In each example below, the attributive-noun string is shaded.
✓ Factor in the service level agreement completion time. (Difficult to understand)
✓ Engineers will install the email retrieval process improvement software. (Difficult)
✓ He heads the network services provision team. (Difficult)
✓ The system needs a remote encryption setting reset. (Difficult)
To avoid such barely intelligible noun strings, do one or all of the following:
✓ Completely rearrange the sentence.
✓ Convert one of the nouns to a verb.
✓ Use hyphens to highlight the compound adjectives.
4. Don't complete a linking verb with an adverb.
Most writers correctly use an adjective after a linking verb.
✓ It tastes nice. It smells nice. It seems nice. By Jove, it is nice.
There's an issue though. For some, the linking verb "to feel" doesn't feel like a linking verb and,
knowing that adverbs modify verbs, they use an adverb.
✓ I feel badly for letting you down. ("Badly" is an adverb. It should be "bad.")
✓ Bad service and food tasted awfully. (Title of an online restaurant review by
"Vanessa") ("Awfully" is an adverb. It should be "awful.")
5. Use postpositive adjectives for emphasis.
Putting an adjective immediately after a noun (i.e., using the adjective postpositively) is a
technique for creating emphasis. (The deliberate changing of normal word order for emphasis is
called anastrophe.)
✓ I suppressed my thoughts sinful and revengeful.
✓ The sea stormy and perilous steadily proceeded.

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 Verb Tenses
Verbs come in three tenses: past, present, and future. The past is used to describe things that have
already happened (e.g., earlier in the day, yesterday, last week, three years ago). The present tense is
used to describe things that are happening right now, or things that are continuous. The future tense
describes things that have yet to happen (e.g., later, tomorrow, next week, next year, three years from
now).

The following table illustrates the proper use of verb tenses:

Simple Present Simple Past Simple Future

I will read as much as I can this

I read nearly every day. Last night, I read an entire novel.
year.

Present Continuous Past Continuous Future Continuous

I am reading Shakespeare at I was reading Edgar Allan Poe I will be reading Nathaniel
the moment. last night. Hawthorne soon.

Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect

I have read so many books I I had read at least 100 books by I will have read at least 500 books
can’t keep count. the time I was twelve. by the end of the year.

Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Future Perfect Continuous

I had been reading for at least a I will have been reading for at
I have been reading since I
year before my sister learned to least two hours before dinner
was four years old.
read. tonight.

Simple Present Tense

The simple present is a verb tense with two main uses. We use the simple present tense when an
action is happening right now, or when it happens regularly (or unceasingly, which is why it’s
sometimes called present indefinite). Depending on the person, the simple present tense is formed
by using the root form or by adding ‑s or ‑es to the end.

Examples:

• I feel great!
• Pauline loves pie.

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 • I’m sorry to hear that you’re sick.

The other is to talk about habitual actions or occurrences.

Examples:

• Pauline practices the piano every day.

• Ms. Jackson travels during the summer.
• Hamsters run all night.

How to Form the Simple Present

In the simple present, most regular verbs use the root form, except in the third-person singular (which
ends in -s).

• First-person singular: I write

• Second-person singular: You write
• Third-person singular: He/she/it writes (note the ‑s)
• First-person plural: We write
• Second-person plural: You write
• Third-person plural: They write

For a few verbs, the third-person singular ends with -es instead of -s. Typically, these are verbs whose
root form ends in -o, -ch, -sh, -th, -ss, -gh, or -z.

• First-person singular: I go
• Second-person singular: You go
• Third-person singular: He/she/it goes (note the ‑es)
• First-person plural: We go
• Second-person plural: You go
• Third-person plural: They go

For most regular verbs, you put the negation of the verb before the verb, e.g. “She won’t go” or “I don’t
smell anything.”

The verb to be is irregular:

• First-person singular: I am
• Second-person singular: You are
• Third-person singular: He/she/it is

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 • First-person plural: We are
• Second-person plural: You are
• Third-person plural: They are

How to Make the Simple Present Negative

The formula for making a simple present verb negative is do/does + not + [root form of verb]. You
can also use the contraction don’t or doesn’t instead of do not or does not.

• Pauline does not want to share the pie.

• She doesn’t think there is enough to go around.
• Her friends do not agree.

To make the verb to be negative, the formula is [to be] + not.

• I am not a pie lover, but Pauline sure is.

• You aren’t ready for such delicious pie.

How to Ask a Question

The formula for asking a question in the simple present is do/does + [subject] + [root form of verb].

• Do you know how to bake a pie?

Common Verbs in the Simple Present

Infinitive I, You, We, They He, She, It

to ask ask / do not ask asks / does not ask
to work work / do not work works / does not work
to call call / do not call calls / does not call
to use use / do not use uses / does not use
to have have / do not have has / does not have

The Verb To Be in the Simple Present

Infinitive I You, We, They He, She, It

to be am / am not are / are not is / is not

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 Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect tense refers to an action or state that either occurred at an indefinite time in the
past (e.g., we have talked before) or began in the past and continued to the present time (e.g., he has
grown impatient over the last hour). This tense is formed by have/has + the past participle.

The construction of this verb tense is straightforward. The first element is have or has, depending on
the subject the verb is conjugated with. The second element is the past participle of the verb, which is
usually formed by adding -ed or -d to the verb’s root (e.g., walked, cleaned, typed, perambulated,
jumped, laughed, sautéed) although English does have quite a few verbs that have irregular past
participles (e.g., done, said, gone, known, won, thought, felt, eaten).

These examples show how the present perfect can describe something that occurred or was the state
of things at an unspecified time in the past.

• I have walked on this path before.

• We have eaten the lasagna here.

Keep in mind that you can’t use the present perfect when you are being specific about when the action
happens.

• I have put away all the laundry.

• I have put away all the laundry at 10:00 this morning.

You can use the present perfect to talk about the duration of something that started in the past is still
happening.

• She has had the chickenpox since Tuesday.

Present Continuous Tense

The Present Continuous verb tense indicates that an action or condition is happening now,
frequently, and may continue into the future.

The Present Continuous Formula: to be [am, is, are] + verb [present participle]

• Aunt Christine is warming up the car while Scott looks for his new leather coat.
• They are eating at Scott’s favorite restaurant today, Polly’s Pancake Diner.

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The Present Continuous (Present Progressive) tense is a way to convey any action or condition that
is happening right now, frequently, and may be ongoing. It adds energy and action to writing, and its
effect helps readers understand when the action is happening.

But what I really want to convey is how the event unfolded, showing the action as it is happening:

• They are sitting at Scott’s favorite booth, the one with the sparkling red plastic seats. (For how
long? We don’t know, but we do know they are sitting there now.)
• The waiter is standing behind the counter right now with a notepad in his hand and pencil
behind his ear. (Will he ever make it over to the booth? Probably, but not now.)
• “Are you waiting to open your presents after you eat your pancakes?” said Aunt Christine,
taking a sip from her root beer. (Here the present continuous is being used in question form.)

From this narrative point of view, the action is immediate and continuous; there’s momentum.
Sometimes writers use this tense to add suspense or humor in fictional pieces.

The Present Continuous Formula

To form the present continuous, follow this formula:

• To Be [Am, Is, Are] + Verb [Present Participle]

When to Use the Present Continuous Tense

Use the present continuous tense with the appropriate “to be” verb and a dynamic verb.
A dynamic verb shows action and/or process. For example:

• Scott’s little sister is arriving at the diner two hours late because her roller-derby team, Chicks
Ahoy, won the national championships early today. As she is walking into Polly’s Pancake
Diner, she is yelling goodbye to her friends outside, and Scott hopes she doesn’t cause a
scene since she is always embarrassing him in public.

When not to Use the Present Continuous Tense

Do not use the Present Continuous Tense with stative verbs. Stative verbs show a state of being that
does not show qualities of change. These verbs can stay in the simple present. For example,

• Aunt Christine is preferring the maple walnut pancakes over the banana peanut butter ones
that Scott loves.
• Aunt Christine prefers the maple walnut pancakes over the banana peanut butter ones that
Scott loves.
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Here, the stative verb to prefer shows opinion, and therefore should not be conjugated into the present
continuous. Stative verb categories include emotion (to love), possession (to belong), and thoughts (to
recognize), and none of these should use the present continuous form.

The Exception to the Rule

Some verbs can be both dynamic and stative! Think about the verbs to be and to think. In its dynamic
form, the verb to be can show action:

• Sarah, Scott’s little sister, is being bold by ordering the jalapeno-chipotle pancakes.

But in its stative form, the verb to be is awkward if conjugated in the present continuous.

• Sarah is being a tall teenager, who loves her food spicy and her sports dangerous.
• Sarah is a tall teenager, who loves her food spicy and her sports dangerous.

Here are some more examples:

• The waiter thinks Scott should save room for pumpkin pie. (Stative and in the simple present)
• The waiter is thinking about getting a new job that requires less human interaction, like a
veterinarian. (Dynamic and in the present continuous)

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

The present perfect continuous tense (also known as the present perfect progressive tense) shows that
something started in the past and is continuing at the present time. The present perfect continuous is
formed using the construction has/have been + the present participle (root + -ing).

• I have been reading War and Peace for a month now.

In this sentence, using the present perfect continuous verb tense conveys that reading War and Peace
is an activity that began sometime in the past and is not yet finished in the present (which is
understandable in this case, given the length of Tolstoy’s weighty to me).

Recently and lately are words that we often find with verbs in the present perfect continuous tense.

• Mia has been competing in flute competitions recently. (And she will continue to do so.)
• I haven’t been feeling well lately. (And I am still sick now.)
• Recently, I’ve been misplacing my wallet and keys. (Because I sure don’t know where they
are.)

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Of course, not all verbs are compatible with continuous action. Some examples of such verbs are to
be, to arrive, and to own.

• I have been owning my Mazda since 2007.

• I have owned my Mazda since 2007. (Present Perfect Tense)
• Gus has been being late for work recently.
• Gus has been late for work recently. (Present Perfect Tense)

Simple Past Tense

The simple past is a verb tense that is used to talk about things that happened or existed before now.
Imagine someone asks what your brother Wolfgang did while he was in town last weekend.

• Wolfgang entered a hula hoop contest.

• He won the silver medal.

The simple past tense shows that you are talking about something that has already happened. Unlike
the past continuous tense, which is used to talk about past events that happened over a period of time,
the simple past tense emphasizes that the action is finished.

• Wolfgang admired the way the light glinted off his silver medal.

You can also use the simple past to talk about a past state of being, such as the way someone felt
about something. This is often expressed with the simple past tense of the verb to be and an adjective,
noun, or prepositional phrase.

• Wolfgang was proud of his hula hoop victory.

• The contest was the highlight of his week.

How to Formulate the Simple Past

For regular verbs, add -ed to the root form of the verb (or just -d if the root form already ends in an e):

• Play→Played
• Type→Typed
• Listen→Listened
• Push→Pushed
• Love→Loved

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For irregular verbs, things get more complicated. The simple past tense of some irregular verbs looks
exactly like the root form:

• Put→Put
• Cut→Cut
• Set→Set
• Cost→Cost
• Hit→Hit

For other irregular verbs, including the verb to be, the simple past forms are more erratic:

• See→Saw
• Build→Built
• Go→Went
• Do→Did
• Rise→Rose
• Am/Is/Are→Was/Were

The good news is that verbs in the simple past tense (except for the verb to be) don’t need to agree
in number with their subjects.

• Wolfgang polished his medal. The other winners polished their medals too.

How to Make the Simple Past Negative

Fortunately, there is a formula for making simple past verbs negative, and it’s the same for both regular
and irregular verbs (except for the verb to be). The formula is did not + [root form of verb]. You can
also use the contraction didn’t instead of did not.

• Wolfgang did not brag too much about his hula hoop skills. Wolfgang’s girlfriend didn’t
see the contest.

For the verb to be, you don’t need the auxiliary did. When the subject of the sentence is singular,
use was not or wasn’t. When the subject is plural, use were not or weren’t.

• The third-place winner was not as happy as Wolfgang. The fourth-place winner wasn’t happy
at all. The onlookers were not ready to leave after the contest ended. The
contestants weren’t ready to leave either.

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 How to Ask a Question
The formula for asking a question in the simple past tense is did + [subject] + [root form of verb].

• Did Wolfgang win the gold medal or the silver medal?

• Where did Wolfgang go to celebrate?
• Did the judges decide fairly, in your opinion?

When asking a question with the verb to be, you don’t need the auxiliary did. The formula is was/were
+ [subject].

• Was Wolfgang in a good mood after the contest?

• Were people taking lots of pictures?

Common Regular Verbs in the Past Tense

Common Irregular Verbs in the Past Tense

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 Past Perfect Tense
The Past Perfect, also called the pluperfect, is a verb tense used to talk about actions that were
completed before some point in the past.

• We were shocked to discover that someone had graffitied “Tootles was here” on our front door.
We were relieved that Tootles had used washable paint.

The Past Perfect Tense is for talking about something that happened before something else. Imagine
waking up one morning and stepping outside to grab the newspaper. On your way back in, you notice
a mysterious message scrawled across your front door: Tootles was here. When you’re telling this story
to your friends later, how would you describe this moment? You might say something like:

• I turned back to the house and saw that some someone named Tootles had defaced my front
door!

In addition to feeling indignant on your behalf, your friends will also be able to understand that Tootles
graffitied the door at some point in the past before the moment this morning when you saw his
handiwork, because you used the past perfect tense to describe the misdeed.

The Past Perfect Formula

The formula for the past perfect tense is had + [past participle]. It doesn’t matter if the subject is
singular or plural; the formula doesn’t change.

When to Use the Past Perfect

So, what’s the difference between past perfect and simple past? When you’re talking about some
point in the past and want to reference an event that happened even earlier, using the past perfect
allows you to convey the sequence of the events. It’s also clearer and more specific. Consider the
difference between these two sentences:

• We were relieved that Tootles used washable paint. We were relieved that Tootles had
used washable paint.

It’s a subtle difference, but the first sentence doesn’t tie Tootles’ act of using washable paint to any
particular moment in time; readers might interpret it as “We were relieved that Tootles was in the
habit of using washable paint.” In the second sentence, the past perfect makes it clear that you’re
talking about a specific instance of using washable paint.

Another time to use the past perfect is when you are expressing a condition and a result:
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 • If I had woken up earlier this morning, I would have caught Tootles red-handed.

The past perfect is used in the part of the sentence that explains the condition (the if-clause).

Most often, the reason to write a verb in the past perfect tense is to show that it happened before other
actions in the same sentence that are described by verbs in the simple past tense. Writing an entire
paragraph with every verb in the past perfect tense is unusual.

When Not to Use the Past Perfect

Don’t use the Past Perfect when you’re not trying to convey some sequence of events. If your friends
asked what you did after you discovered the graffiti, they would be confused if you said:

• I had cleaned it off the door.

They’d likely be wondering what happened next because using the past perfect implies that your action
of cleaning the door occurred before something else happened, but you don’t say what that something
else is. The “something else” doesn’t always have to be explicitly mentioned, but context needs to make
it clear. In this case there’s no context, so the past perfect doesn’t make sense.

How to Make the Past Perfect Negative

Making the past perfect negative is simple! Just insert not between had and [past participle].

• We looked for witnesses, but the neighbors had not seen Tootles in the act. If Tootles had not
included his own name in the message, we would have no idea who was behind it.

How to Ask a Question

The formula for asking a question in the past perfect tense is had + [subject] + [past participle].

• Had Tootles caused trouble in other neighborhoods before he struck ours?

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 Common Regular Verbs in the Past Perfect Tense

Common Irregular Verbs in the Past Perfect Tense

*The past participle of “to get” is “gotten” in American English. In British English, the past participle is
“got.”

Past Continuous Tense

The Past Continuous Tense, also known as the past progressive tense, refers to a continuing action
or state that was happening at some point in the past. The past continuous tense is formed by
combining the past tense of to be (i.e., was/were) with the verb’s present participle (-ing word).

There are many situations in which this verb tense might be used in a sentence. For example, it is
often used to describe conditions that existed in the past.

• The sun was shining every day that summer.

• As I spoke, the children were laughing at my cleverness.
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It can also be used to describe something that was happening continuously in the past when
another action interrupted it.

• The audience was applauding until he fell off the stage.

• I was making dinner when she arrived.

The past continuous can shed light on what was happening at a precise time in the past.

• At 6 o’clock, I was eating dinner.

It can also refer to a habitual action in the past.

• She was talking constantly in class in those days.

One final caution: Though the irregularities are few, not every verb is suited to describing a
continuous action. Certain verbs can’t be used in the past continuous tense. One common example is
the verb to arrive.

• At noon, he was arriving.

• At noon, he arrived.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

The Past Perfect Continuous Tense (also known as the past perfect progressive tense) shows that
an action that started in the past continued up until another time in the past. The past perfect continuous
tense is constructed using had been + the verb’s present participle (root + -ing).

Unlike the present perfect continuous, which indicates an action that began in the past and continued
up to the present, the past perfect continuous is a verb tense that indicates something that began in
the past, continued in the past, and also ended at a defined point in the past.

• He had been drinking milk out the carton when Mom walked into the kitchen.
• I had been working at the company for five years when I got the promotion.

When, for, since, and before are words that you may see used alongside the past perfect continuous tense.

• Martha had been walking three miles a day before she broke her leg.
• The program that was terminated had been working well since 1945.
• Cathy had been playing the piano for 35 years when she was finally asked to do a solo with the
local orchestra.
• He had been throwing rocks at her window for five minutes before she finally came out on the
balcony and said, “Hey, Romeo.”

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 Simple Future Tense
The Simple Future is a verb tense that’s used to talk about things that haven’t happened yet.

• This year, Jen will read War and Peace.

• It will be hard, but she’s determined to do it.

Use the simple future to talk about an action or condition that will begin and end in the future.

How to Form the Simple Future

The formula for the simple future is will + [root form of verb].

• I will learn a new language.

• Jen will read that book.
• My brothers will sleep till noon if no one wakes them up.
• You will see what I mean.

It doesn’t matter if the subject is singular or plural; the formula for the simple future doesn’t change.

But…

There is another way to show that something will happen in the future. It follows the formula [am/is/are]
+ going to + [root form verb].

• I am going to learn a new language.

• Jen is going to read that book.
• My brothers are going to sleep till noon if no one wakes them up.
• You are going to see what I mean.

The “going to” construction is common in speech and casual writing. Keep in mind though that it’s on
the informal side, so it’s a good idea to stick to the will + [root form] construction in formal writing.

How to Make the Simple Future Negative

To make the simple future negative, the formula is will + not + [root form].

• Jen will not quit before she reaches her goal. Make sure you arrive on time tomorrow because
the bus will not wait for you. He will not say anything bad about his boss. I will not finish my
homework in time for class.

Using the “going to” construction, the formula is [am/is/are] + not + going to + [root form].

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 • Jen is not going to quit before she reaches her goal. Make sure you arrive on time tomorrow
because the bus is not going to wait for you. He is not going to say anything bad about his
boss. I am not going to finish my homework in time for class.

How to Ask a Question

To ask a question in the simple future, the formula is will + [subject] + [root form].

• Will Jen finish War and Peace over the summer? Will I have the discipline to study Spanish
every day? What will you buy with the money you found?

The formula for the “going to” construction is [am/is/are] + [subject] +going to + [root form].

• Is Jen going to finish War and Peace over the summer? Am I going to have the discipline to
study Spanish every day? What are you going to buy with the money you found?

Common Verbs in the Simple Future

The “Going to” Construction

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 Future Perfect Tense
The Future Perfect is a verb tense used for actions that will be completed before some other point in
the future.

• The parade will have ended by the time Chester gets out of bed. At eight o’clock I will have
left.

The Future Perfect Tense is for talking about an action that will be completed between now and some
point in the future. Imagine that your friend Linda asks you to take care of her cat for a few days while
she goes on a trip. She wants you to come over today at noon so she can show you where to find the
cat food and how to mash it up in the bowl just right so that Fluffy will deign to eat it. But you’re busy
this afternoon, so you ask Linda if you can come at eight o’clock tonight instead.

• “No, that won’t work! At eight o’clock I will have left already,” she says.

What does the future perfect tell us here? It tells us that Linda is going to leave for her trip some time
after right now, but before a certain point in the future (eight o’clock tonight). She probably shouldn’t
have waited until the last minute to find a cat sitter.

The Future Perfect Formula

The formula for the future perfect tense is pretty simple: will have + [past participle]. It doesn’t matter
if the subject of your sentence is singular or plural. The formula doesn’t change.

When to Use the Future Perfect Tense

Sometimes, you can use the future perfect tense and the simple future tense interchangeably. In
these two sentences, there is no real difference in meaning because the word before makes the
sequence of events clear:

• Linda will leave before you get there.

• Linda will have left before you get there.

But without prepositions such as before or by the time that make the sequence of events clear, you
need to use the future perfect to show what happened first.

• At eight o’clock Linda will leave. (This means that Linda will wait until 8 o’clock to leave.) At
eight o’clock Linda will have left. (This means Linda will leave before 8 o’clock.)

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 When not to Use the Future Perfect Tense
The Future Perfect Tense is only for actions that will be complete before a specified point in the future.
In other words, the action you’re talking about must have a deadline. If you don’t mention a deadline,
use the Simple Future Tense instead of the Future Perfect Tense.

• Linda will leave.

• Linda will have left.

The deadline can be very specific (eight o’clock) or it can be vague (next week). It can even depend on
when something else happens (after the parade ends). It just has to be some time in the future.

How to Make the Future Perfect Negative

Making a negative future perfect construction is easy! Just insert not between will and have.

• We will not have eaten breakfast before we get to the airport tomorrow morning.
• They will not have finished decorating the float before the parade.

You can also use the contraction won’t in the place of will not.

• They won’t have finished decorating the float before the parade.

How to Ask a Question with the Future Perfect Tense

The formula for asking a question in the Future Perfect Tense is will + [subject] + have + [past
participle]:

• Will you have eaten lunch already when we arrive?

• Will they have finished decorating the float before the parade?

Prepositional Phrases that Often Go with the Future Perfect

• By this time next week, Linda will have left for her trip.
• Three days from now, we will have finished our project.
• At midnight, the party will have ended.
• Will you have eaten already?
• Chester will not have arrived by the time the parade is over.
• When I travel to France, I will have been to ten countries.
• My sister will have cleaned the bathroom before the party.
• As soon as someone buys this chair, I will have sold all the furniture I wanted to get rid of.
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 Future Perfect Continuous Tense
The Future Perfect Continuous, also sometimes called the Future Perfect Progressive, is a verb
tense that describes actions that will continue up until a point in the future. The future perfect continuous
consists of will + have + been + the verb’s present participle (verb root + -ing).

When we describe an action in the Future Perfect Continuous Tense, we are projecting ourselves
forward in time and looking back at the duration of that activity. The activity will have begun sometime
in the past, present, or in the future, and is expected to continue in the future.

• In November, I will have been working at my company for three years.

• At five o’clock, I will have been waiting for thirty minutes.
• When I turn thirty, I will have been playing piano for twenty-one years.

Nonaction Verbs do not Use the Future Perfect Continuous

Remember that nonaction verbs like to be, to seem, or to know are not suited to the Future Perfect
Continuous Tense. Instead, these verbs take the future perfect tense, which is formed with will + have
+ past participle.

• On Thursday, I will have been knowing you for a week.

• On Thursday, I will have known you for a week.
• I will have been reading forty-five books by Christmas.
• I will have read forty-five books by Christmas.

What Are Comparatives?

A comparative is the form of adjective or adverb used to compare two things.

Examples of Comparatives
Here are some examples of comparatives (comparatives shaded):
• Mark is taller. (taller = comparative of the adjective tall)
• Mark listens more attentively these days. (more attentively = comparative of the
adverb attentively)
• When you hire people who are smarter than you are, you prove you are smarter than they are.
(R H Grant) (smarter = comparative of the adjective smart)
• Nothing is impossible. Some things are just less likely than others. (Jonathan Winters) (less
likely = comparative of the adverb likely)

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 Degrees of Comparison
This information is about Comparatives (also called the "comparative degree" or the "second degree
of comparison"), but every adjective or adverb can be written in one of three degrees:

• The Positive Degree. The positive degree offers no comparison. It just tells us about the
existence of a quality (e.g., nice, nicely).
• The Comparative Degree. The comparative degree (or comparative) compares two things to
show which has the lesser or greater degree of the quality (e.g., nicer, more nicely).
• The Superlative Degree. The superlative degree (or superlative) compares more than two
things to show which has the least or greatest degree of the quality (e.g., nicest, most nicely).

Forming Comparatives
Often, the Comparative Form of an adjective or adverb can be formed by adding the suffix -er or by
placing more (or less) before.

Here are some examples:

Example Word Type Formed Comparative

small adjective add -er smaller

quickly adverb precede with more more quickly

quickly adverb precede with less less quickly

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However, it is a little more complicated than just adding -er or using more. There is more on this to
come.

Forming Comparatives and Superlatives

It makes sense to learn about comparatives and superlatives at the same time because they are
both about making comparisons.

• A comparative is known as the second or the middle degree of comparison (for adjectives and
adverbs).
• A superlative is known as the third or the highest degree of comparison (for adjectives and
adverbs).

Comparative Suplerlative
Word (or second degree of (or third degree of
comparison) comparison)

When an adjective or an adverb ends with a single consonant, add -er or -est.

big bigger biggest

(adjective)

soon sooner soonest

(adverb)

When an adjective or an adverb ends -y, drop the -y and add -ier (for the comparative) and -iest (for
the superlative):

dry drier driest

(adjective)

silly sillier silliest

(adjective)

early earlier earliest

(adverb)

When an adjective or an adverb ends -e, drop the -e and add -er (for the comparative) and -est (for
the superlative):

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 pale paler palest
(adjective)

free freer freest

(adverb)

When an adjective or an adverb has more than one syllable (but beware exceptions
like silly and early), place more in front (for the comparative) and most in front (for the superlative):

attractive more attractive most attractive

(adjective)

angrily more angrily most angrily

(adverb)

There are a few irregular ones too. You just have to learn these. It's worth it. Most of them are very
common words:

good better best

(adjective)

bad worse worst

(adjective)

well better best

(adverb)

badly worse worst

(adverb)

little less least

(adverb and adjective)

much more most

(adverb and adjective)

far farther or further farthest or furthest

(adverb and adjective)

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 Why are Comparatives Important?
Below are the three most problematic issues related to comparatives.

1. Do not form double comparatives.

The rules for forming a comparative are above. Only apply one of the rules for each adjective
or adverb. In other words, do not apply two of the rules. If you do (e.g., by using
"more" and adding "-er"), you will form a so-called double comparative, which is a serious
grammar error. For example:
✓ David is more taller.
✓ He can run more faster.
✓ She was more prettier.
As a comparative can also be formed by adding the word "less," this mistake can be made with
"less" too. For example:
✓ David was less smarter than John.
Of note, forming double comparatives is far more common in speech than in writing.

2. Use the comparative degree not the superlative degree when comparing two things.
Use a comparative not a superlative when comparing just two things. For example:
✓ Of the two, select the most appropriate hat. ("More suitable hat" would be correct.)
Often, the number of things being compared isn't known.
✓ Janet is the most suitable candidate. (Reading this, we'd assume there were more than
two candidates. If there were just two, it should say "more suitable.")

3. Be careful with adjectives that already express the highest degree.

Some argue that adjectives like dead and unique already express the quality to the highest
degree and therefore should not have a comparative or a superlative form. So, if you write
"deader" or "most unique," make sure you can justify it. The following four adjectives attract the
most criticism:
✓ Dead (Can something be deader or deadest?)
✓ Single (Can something be more or most single?)
✓ Unique (Can something be more or most unique?)
✓ Instantaneous (Can something be more or most instantaneous?)

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 What are Reflexive Pronouns?
The Reflexive Pronouns are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
and themselves. (These words can be either reflexive pronouns or emphatic pronouns.

A Reflexive Pronoun is used when something does something to itself. For example:

• John pinched himself. (The reflexive pronoun himself tells us that John did something
to John.)

Compare the example above with this:

• John pinched his sister. (There is no reflexive pronoun in this example. John did something to
someone else, not to himself.)

Easy Examples of Reflexive Pronouns

Below are some examples of reflexive pronouns. Using a reflexive pronoun means you do not have to
repeat the subject (shown here in bold). (Repeating the subject would be clumsy.)

• Alison still does not trust herself. (Alison does not trust Alison.)
• The members argued amongst themselves for an hour. (The members argued amongst the
members.)
• We often ask ourselves why we left London. (We often ask us.)

(Note: The subject is known as the antecedent of the Reflexive Pronoun.)

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 Identifying Reflexive Pronouns
In most sentences, somebody does something to someone else. For example:

• I like him.
• He spoke to her.
• She thumped him.
• The dog bit her.

However, sometimes people (or things) do things to themselves, and this is when you can
use myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves as Reflexive
Pronouns. For example:

• I like myself.
• He spoke to himself.
• She thumped herself.
• The dog bit itself.

Real-Life Examples of Reflexive Pronouns

Here are some real examples of Reflexive Pronouns:

• We forfeit three-fourths of ourselves in order to be like other people. (Arthur Schopenhauer,

1788-1860)
• If the world should blow itself up, the last audible voice would be that of an expert saying it
can't be done. (Peter Ustinov, 1921-2004)

Note: Sometimes, the subject can be implied. For example:

• The ability to delude yourself may be an important survival tool. (Jane Wagner)
• Never express yourself more clearly than you are able to think. (Danish physicist Niels Bohr)

These could also have been written:

• The ability of you to delude yourself may be an important survival tool.

• [You should] never express yourself more clearly than you are able to think.

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 Why Reflexive Pronouns Are Important
1. Do not use a reflexive pronoun if the subject is not doing something to itself.
The most common mistake involving reflexive pronouns is using one when the subject of the
verb is not doing something to itself. For example:
✓ He did it to myself.
These are correct:
✓ I did it to myself.
✓ He did it to himself.
Most often, writers make this mistake because they think myself sounds more formal than me.
✓ He insulted the doctor and myself.
✓ Please pass any comments to the director or myself.
(This example has an implied subject. "Please [will you] pass any comments to the
director or myself."
Remember that you cannot be the antecedent of myself. Only I can be the antecedent
of myself.)
Here are better versions:
✓ He insulted the doctor and me. (But a little awkward sounding)
✓ Please pass any comments to the director or me. (But a little awkward sounding)
Even though the two examples above are correct, they grate on the ear a little, and this doubtless
contributes to writers feeling the urge to replace me with myself. Putting me first takes the edge
off that ear-grating.
✓ He insulted me and the doctor. (And nicer on the ear)
✓ Please pass any comments to me or the director. (And nicer on the ear)
Ironically, lots of people who mistakenly use myself, yourself, etc. do so believing a reflexive
pronoun sounds more highbrow than the correct personal pronoun (me, you, etc.). This has
given rise to the term "übercorrect" grammar, which includes the use of incorrect terms like
"between you and I" and "from my wife and I".

2. Don't write hisself.

Don't write hisself or hiself...ever. The reflexive pronoun for he is himself. There is no such
word as hisself or hiself.

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 What are Objective Personal Pronouns?
The Objective Personal Pronouns are "me," "you," "him," "her," "it," "us," "them," and "whom."

Objective Personal Pronouns are used when a pronoun is an object in sentence. There are three
types of objects:

1. Direct Object. The direct object is the thing being acted on by the verb. For example:
✓ They caught her last week.
("Her" is the direct object of the verb "caught." "Her" is an objective personal pronoun. It
is the objective-case version of the subjective personal pronoun "she.")
2. Indirect Object. The indirect object of a sentence is the recipient of the direct object. For
example:
✓ I sent him a letter.
("Him" is the indirect object of the verb "sent", i.e., the recipient of "a letter," which is the
direct object. "Him" is the objective-case version of "he.")
3. Object of a Preposition. The object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun governed by a
preposition. For example:
✓ It is a donation from them.
("Them" is the object of the preposition "from." "Them" is the objective-case version of
"they.")

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Objective personal pronouns are personal pronouns in the objective case. The objective case contrasts
with the subjective case, which is used to show the subject of a verb. Here are two more examples to
highlight this point:

• They know him.

("They" is the subjective case. "Him" is the objective case.)
• He knows them.
("He" is the subjective case. "Them" is the objective case.)

Examples of Objective Personal Pronouns as Direct Objects

Here are some examples of objective personal pronouns as direct objects:

• Democracy is the name we give the people whenever we need them.

• To obtain a man's opinion of you, make him mad. (Judge Oliver Wendell Holmes)
(In this example, "you" is also an objective personal pronoun. It's an object of preposition. See
below.)
• I'm a godmother. That's a great thing to be, a godmother. She calls me God for short. That's
cute. I taught her that. (Comedian Ellen DeGeneres)
(In this example, "her" is also an objective personal pronoun. It's an indirect object. See below.)

Examples of Objective Personal Pronouns as Indirect Objects

Here are some examples of objective personal pronouns as indirect objects:

• Everybody likes a kidder, but nobody lends him money. (Playwright Arthur Miller)
• The true measure of a man is how he treats someone who can do him absolutely no good.
(Writer Samuel Johnson)
• I'm a godmother. That's a great thing to be, a godmother. She calls me God for short. That's
cute. I taught her that. (Comedian Ellen DeGeneres)
(In this example, "me" is also an objective personal pronoun. It's a direct object. See above.)

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 Examples of Objective Personal Pronouns as the Objects of
Prepositions
Here are some examples of objective personal pronouns as the objects of prepositions (prepositions in
bold):

• All the world's a stage and most of us are desperately unrehearsed. (Dramatist Sean O'Casey)
• To obtain a man's opinion of you, make him mad. (Judge Oliver Wendell Holmes)
(In this example, "him" is also an objective personal pronoun. It's a direct object. See above.)
• Whenever I hear anyone arguing for slavery, I feel a strong impulse to see it
tried on him personally. (President Abraham Lincoln)

Not All the Pronouns Change Their Forms

Objects (i.e., direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions) are always in the objective
case. In English, this only affects pronouns (but not all pronouns). Here is a table:

Subjective Pronoun Objective Pronoun Comment

I me

you you No change

he him

she her

it it No change

we us

they them

who whom More on who & whom

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 Why are Objective Personal Pronouns Important?
1. This is essential for learning a foreign language.
In English, only some pronouns change when they're used as objects. In other words, only
words like "I," "he," "she," "we," and "they" change to "me," "him," "her," "us," and "them."

Even though using the objective personal pronouns might come naturally in English, that is
usually far from true when learning a foreign language (especially as their articles ("a," "an,"
"the") and adjectives are likely to change too when they're used as objects). For example:

Language Subjective Case Objective Case

I have one small dog.

English one small dog
(There is no change.)

Ich habe einen kleinen Hund.

German ein kleiner Hund
(The article and adjective change if it's an object.)

Imam jednog malog psa.

Bosnian jedan mali pas
(The article, adjective, and noun change if it's an object.)

2. Don't confuse "who" and "whom."

Use "whom" if it's an object. For example:
✓ You've hired whom?
(Here, "whom" is a direct object.)
✓ You sent whom a message?
("Whom" is an indirect object.)
✓ The spotlight was on whom?
("Whom" is the object of a preposition.)
Use "who" if it's a subject. For example:
✓ Who paid Anthony?
(Here, "who" is the subject of the verb "paid.")

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 Top Tip
"Who" is to "whom" as "he" is to "him".
Here are some examples with each type of object:

Direct Object Indirect Object Object of a Preposition

He told him his story. They sat with him?
She saw him. He told whom his story? They sat with who?
She saw whom? He told he his story. They sat with whom?
He told who his story?

4. "I" can't be an object.

"I" cannot be an object (a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition). Be
particularly careful when using a term like "my wife and I" or "between you and me."
✓ They invited my wife and I.
✓ They invited me and my wife.
It doesn't matter how highbrow "my wife and I" sounds. If you've used it as an object, it's wrong.
You should be using "me and my wife" (it sounds more natural that way around).
✓ Between you and I, I think it's a joke.
✓ Between you and me, I think it's a joke.
"Between you and I" is always wrong. Always.

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 Chapter II
Morpho Syntaxis

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 What are Bound Morphemes?
A Bound Morpheme is a word element that cannot stand alone as a word, including both prefixes and
suffixes. Free morphemes, by contrast, can stand alone as a word and cannot be broken down further
into other word elements.

Attaching a bound morpheme to a free morpheme, such as by adding the prefix "re-" to the verb "start,"
creates a new word or at least a new form of a word, in this case, "restart." Represented in sound and
writing by word segments called morphs, bound morphemes can further be broken down into two
categories, derivational and inflectional morphemes.

Hundreds of bound morphemes exist in the English language, creating near-infinite possibilities for
expanding unbound morphemes—commonly referred to as words—by attaching these elements to
preexisting words.

Inflectional vs. Derivational Morphemes

Inflectional Morphemes influence the base words to signal a change in quantity, person, gender, or
tense while leaving the base word's class unchanged. Inflectional morphemes are considered more
predictable because there are only eight in the closed set of accepted inflectional morphemes, which
include the pluralizing "-s," the possessive "-'s," the third-person singular "-s," the regular past tense "-
ed," the regular past participle "-ed," the present participle "-ing," the comparative "-er," and the
superlative "-est."

By contrast, Derivational Morphemes are considered lexical because they influence the base word
according to its grammatical and lexical class, resulting in a larger change to the base. Derivational
morphemes include suffixes like "-ish," "-ous," and "-y," as well as prefixes like "un-," "im-," and "re-."

Often, these additions change the part of speech of the base word they're modifying—though that is
not necessarily always the case—which is why derivational morphemes are considered less predictable
than inflectional morphemes.

Forming Complex Words

Bound Morphemes attach to free morphemes to form new words, often with new meanings.
Essentially, there's no limit to the number of bound morphemes you can attach to a base word to make
a more complex word. For instance, "misunderstanding" is already a complex word formed from the
base "understand," wherein "mis-" and "-ing" are bound morphemes that are added to change both the
meaning of understanding ("mis-" means "not") and the verb tense ("-ing" makes the verb into a noun).

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In the same way, you could continue to add more bound morphemes to the beginning of the word to
make it even more complex and once again alter its meaning, though this has the potential to result in
a convoluted word that's hard to understand. Such is the case with words like "antiestablishmentism,"
whose four bound morphemes change the original word "establish," which means "to form," into a word
that now means "the belief that systemic structures of power are implicitly wrong."

Affixes
An "affix" is a bound morpheme that occurs before or after a base. An affix that comes before a base
is called a "prefix." Some examples of prefixes are ante-, pre-, un-, and dis-, as in the following words:

antedate
prehistoric
unhealthy
disregard

An affix that comes after a base is called a "suffix." Some examples of suffixes are -ly, -er, -ism, and -
ness, as in the following words:

happily
gardener
capitalism
kindness

Derivational Affixes
An affix can be either derivational or inflectional. "Derivational affixes" serve to alter the meaning of
a word by building on a base. In the examples of words with prefixes and suffixes above, the addition
of the prefix un- to healthy alters the meaning of healthy. The resulting word means "not healthy." The
addition of the suffix -er to garden changes the meaning of garden, which is a place where plants,
flowers, etc., grow, to a word that refers to 'a person who tends a garden.' It should be noted
that all prefixes in English are derivational. However, suffixes may be either derivational or inflectional.

Inflectional Affixes
There are a large number of derivational affixes in English. In contrast, there are only eight "inflectional
affixes" in English, and these are all suffixes. English has the following inflectional suffixes, which serve
a variety of grammatical functions when added to specific types of words. These grammatical functions
are shown to the right of each suffix.

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-s noun plural
-'s noun possessive
-s verb present tense third person singular
-ing verb present participle/gerund
-ed verb simple past tense
-en verb past perfect participle
-er adjective comparative
-est adjective superlative

Examples of Bound Morphemes

Bound morphemes have no linguistic meaning unless they are connected to a root or base word, or in
some cases, another bound morpheme. Prefixes and suffixes are two types of bound morphemes.
Depending on how they modify a root word, bound morphemes can be grouped into two categories:
inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes.

Inflectional Morphemes
This type of morpheme alters the grammatical function of a word, whether it be the verb tense, number,
mood, or another language inflection. The eight inflectional morphemes are organized by which part of
speech they modify:

• Modify a Noun: -s (or -es), -'s (or s')

• Modify an Adjective: -er, -est
• Modify a Verb: -ed, -ing, -en

These morphemes are suffixes that change a word’s condition, but not its meaning. When they modify
a base word, the rest of the sentence may need to change for proper subject-verb agreement. Some
examples of these changes are:

• girl to girls
• large to larger
• smart to smartest
• walk to walking
• eat to eaten

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 Derivational Morphemes
A morpheme is derivational when it changes the semantic meaning of a word. Most derivational
morphemes have roots in Greek or Latin. Unlike inflectional morphemes, derivational morphemes can
change a word’s part of speech.

Prefixes:

• pre-
• un-
• non-
• anti-
• dis-

Suffixes:

• -ize
• -ine
• -ary
• -ate
• -ion

How you use morphemes also depends on the sentence context. Inflectional morphemes can be used
in derivational contexts (e.g., using -er to create teach-er), which could change their classification. Here
are some examples of the ways derivational morphemes can modify base words.

• re- + start = restart (to start again)

• un- + happy = unhappy (not happy)
• register + -ion = registration (the act of registering)
• kind + ness = kindness (the condition of being kind)

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 Sentence Construction
To express yourself well, you need to write with a variety of sentence structures. By understanding
different sentence structures, you can vary the way you communicate information. All sentences can
be classified according to their structure. You need to be able to think about the variety of sentence
structures so that you can vary your sentences when you write a paragraph or a longer paper.

1. Simple Sentences

The most basic type of English sentence is the simple structure. This is when a sentence is
composed of just one independent clause – a clause which contains a subject (the noun
performing the action of the sentence) and predicate (the action being taken) and expresses a
complete thought. Like all sentences, it can also contain a direct object (the noun receiving the
action of a sentence) or indirect object (the object for whom the action is being done).
A few simple sentence examples:
✓ I didn’t go to the game.
✓ She was correct.
✓ The writer was out of ideas.
✓ The movie was over two hours long.
A simple sentence has one independent clause and no subordinate clauses. However, it may
have a compound subject (s) or verb (v).
S V
• She breathed.

S S V
• Shoshona and Raymond took in a deep breath of cold, fresh air.

You may be surprised to find that simple sentences can be quite long and complicated. A simple
sentence may have a compound subject, a compound verb, and many different kinds of phrases.
S V
• Unlike many other languages, the English alphabet has twenty-six letters to represent the
sounds of its words.

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 2. Compound Sentences

The compound sentence combines two or more independent clauses with a coordinating
conjunction (or, and, but, yet, for, nor, so) or a semicolon.
Here are some examples:
✓ She was sick, so she didn’t go to school.
✓ Greg kept his distance; he knew he was a dangerous man.
✓ I was exhausted, but I worked all night.
✓ Mom was still at work, and Dad was out to dinner.
Notice how all of these sentences could be broken into two: “She was sick. She didn’t go to
school.” “Mom was still at work. Dad was out to dinner.” That’s because these sentences
contain 2 independent clauses, which can be turned into simple sentences.
A compound sentence has two (or more) independent clauses and no subordinate clauses.
S V S V
• She took in one long breath, yet she still didn’t feel completely at ease.

S V S V
• Alphabet comes from alpha and beta; these are the names of the first two letters in the
Greek alphabet.

3. Complex Sentences

Complex sentences consist of an independent clause and a dependent clause. A dependent

clause is an incomplete thought (e.g., “Although I was sick, ...” “Because he was gone, ...”) and
thus needs to be attached to an independent clause. It’s also known as a subordinate clause.
Some complex structure examples:
✓ If he was so funny, the whole crowd would have been laughing.
✓ I went to dinner because I was hungry.
✓ She turned her down because she was in love with someone else.
A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause.

S V S V
• If your chest expands too much, you may not be breathing correctly. [introductory
subordinate clause]

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 4. Compound-Complex Sentences

True to their name, compound-complex sentences combine the ideas behind both compound
and complex sentences: they contain at least two independent clauses and a dependent clause.

Because they can be pretty hard to parse, I’ve color coded the independent clauses, the
coordinating conjunction/semicolon, and the dependent clauses. Let’s take a look:
✓ Because he was injured, the team played with a short bench and their rivals beat them
soundly.
✓ I wondered what became of him; if he liked Chicago so much, it made no sense for him
to up and leave.
✓ The teacher gave Jimmy a time-out because of his bad behavior and we all laughed at
him, reveling in the chaos he had wrought.
A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and at least one
subordinate clause.

S S V V S V
• Sequoyah, who lived from 1766 to 1843, created a writing system, and he taught it to
other Cherokee people. [subordinate clause within independent clauses]

S V S V S
• Three sisters took yoga so that they could learn relaxation techniques, but their brother
V
was not interested. [a subordinate clause between two independent clauses]

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 Relative Clause
A Relative Clause is a multi-word adjective that includes a subject and a verb.
When we think of adjectives, we usually picture a single word used before a noun to modify its
meanings (e.g., tall man, smelly dog, argumentative employee). However, adjectives also come in
the form of relative clauses (also called adjective clauses). A relative clause comes after the noun
it modifies and is made up of several words, which (like all clauses) include a subject and a verb.

Examples of Relative Clauses

Here are some examples of relative clauses:

• The windows that you installed last year have warped.

• Kindness is the language which the deaf can hear and the blind can see. (Writer Mark Twain)

• The follies which a man regrets most in his life are those which he didn't commit when he had
the opportunity. (US journalist Helen Rowland)

(Even though this is a quotation by an American journalist, nowadays, most writers in the US would
use "that" instead of "which." There's more on this below.)

The Components of a Relative Clause

A Relative Clause has the following three components:

• Component 1. It is headed by a relative pronoun ("who," "whom," "whose," "that," or "which")

or a relative adverb ("when," "where," or "why").

(This links it to the noun it is modifying.)

(Note: Quite often, the relative pronoun can be omitted. However, with a relative clause, it is
always possible to put one in. There is more on this below.)

• Component 2. It has a subject and a verb.

(These are what make it a clause.)

• Component 3. It tells us something about the noun.

(This is why it is a type of adjective.)

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Look at the three components in this example:

Often, the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause. Look at the three components in this example:

The Relative Pronoun Can Be Omitted

It is common for the relative pronoun to be omitted. For example:

• The windows that you installed last year have warped.

• The film which you recommended scared the kids half to death.
• The follies which a man regrets most in his life are those which he didn't commit when he had
the opportunity. (Helen Rowland, 1876-1950)

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This is not always possible though:

• Bore: a person who talks when you wish him to listen.

When the relative clause starts with a relative adverb ("when," "where" or "why"), the relative
adverb cannot be omitted.
• There comes a time when money doesn't matter. (Boxer Floyd Mayweather)
(You can often omit a relative pronoun, but you can't omit a relative adverb. So, you can't omit
"when" in this example.)

Why Are Relative Clauses Important?

1. Should I use a comma before "which?
This is the most common question related to relative clauses. The answer is sometimes yes and
sometimes no. The answer applies to all relative clauses, not just those that start with "which."
This is the rule:
✓ Do not put commas around your clause if it is essential; i.e., it is required to identify its
noun. (This is called a restrictive clause.)
✓ Do use commas if your clause is just additional information. (This is called a non-
restrictive clause.)
✓ A burglar who fell through a garage roof is suing the house owner. (This clause is
required to identify "a burglar." Without it, we don't know which burglar we're talking
about.)
✓ The tramp (who claimed to have a limp) sprinted after the bus. (This sentence is only
appropriate if we know which tramp we're talking about.)

2. What's the difference between "that" and "which"?

"Which" and "that" are interchangeable, provided we're talking about "which" without a comma.
When "which" starts a restrictive clause (i.e., a clause not offset with commas), you can replace
it with "that." In fact, Americans will insist you use "that" instead of "which" for a restrictive clause.
✓ Mark's dog which ate the chicken is looking guilty. (But in America or at least
widely disliked) (Americans baulk at "which" without a comma. They insist on "that.")
✓ Mark's dog that ate the chicken is looking guilty. (This version is acceptable for all. It
will stop you getting hate mail from Americans.)

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 What is Passive Voice?
Passive voice is a quality of a verb that describes when the subject of a sentence is acted upon by the
verb. For example:

• The sheriff was shot.

(This is an example of the passive voice. The action is done to the subject.)

When the opposite is true (i.e., the subject of the sentence is acting out the verb), it is said to be in active
voice. For example:

• I shot the sheriff.

(This is an example of the active voice. The subject does the action.)

In other words, a verb is said to be in the "passive voice" when its subject does not perform the action
of the verb but has the action of the verb performed on it.

Look at These Examples of the Passive Voice

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 Comparing the Passive Voice and Active Voice
To identify a verb in the passive voice, identify its subject and then determine that the subject is being
acted upon.

Compare these two examples of the passive voice and active voice (verbs in the passive verbs are in
bold):

Passive Voice Example

• A knife was used to commit the murder.

Step 1: Find the subject. ("a knife")
Step 2: Find the verb. ("to use")
Step 3: Ask "Did the subject perform the verb?" (No, it didn't)
(As its subject did not perform the action of the verb, "was used" is a verb in the passive voice.
The knife didn't do anything. It was passive. That's the point.)

Active Voice Example

• The murderer used a knife.

Step 1: Find the subject. ("the murderer")
Step 2: Find the verb ("to use")
Step 3: Ask "Did the subject perform the verb?" (Yes, it did.)
(As its subject performed the action of the verb, "used" is a verb in the active voice. The
murderer did something. He was active. That's the point.)

Examples of Verbs in the Passive Voice

Remember that if a verb is in the passive voice, its subject has the action of the verb done to it. Here
are some more example sentences featuring passive verbs (shaded):

• Everyone was startled by the power outage.

• A scream was heard coming from across the house.
• The candles were extinguished as we rushed to the scream.
• The crime was illuminated shortly by flashes of lightning.
• She had been murdered.

"The Agent" Did It!

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In a passive sentence, the person or thing carrying out the action (often called "the agent") is
introduced with "by."

For example:

• The cows will be moved after tea by the farm-hands. (Passive sentence)
• The farm-hands will move the cows after tea. (Active version)
• All the pies were eaten by Lee. (Passive sentence)
• Lee ate all the pies. (Active version)
• The fishing rig was designed by Mark. (Passive sentence)
• Mark designed the fishing rig. (Active version)

Why Should I Care About the Passive Voice?

1. The passive voice is useful to avoid blame.

✓ Bad advice was given.
✓ Some poor decisions were taken.
The passive voice allows you to avoid mentioning the actor (i.e., the doer of the action). Compare
these to the active-voice versions:
✓ John gave bad advice.
✓ John made some poor decisions.

2. The passive voice often shows a neutral or objective tone.

✓ Compromises were offered by all the warring factions. (The passive voice expresses a
neutral tone.)

3. The passive voice can be appropriate when the actor is unimportant,

unknown, or obvious.
✓ The almonds are dried for two months. (The agent (i.e., the person who dries the
almonds) is unimportant.)
✓ This virus was downloaded after midnight. (The agent (i.e., the person who downloaded
the virus) is unknown.)
✓ The perpetrators were kept in the cells overnight. (The agent (i.e., the person who kept
them in the cell) is obvious. It's the police.)

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 4. The passive voice is useful to emphasize something by putting it at the start
of your sentence.
✓ Six diamonds were stolen. (The number of diamonds is the focus of this sentence.)
✓ The pigs were seen near the main road in Tamworth. (The pigs are the focus of this
sentence. It does not matter who saw them.)

5. A passive-voice construction allows you to use the same subject twice.

✓ John ran away but was arrested two hours later. (In this sentence, the subject is "John."
The verb "ran away" is an active verb. It is followed by "was arrested," which is a passive
verb. This construction allows you to say two things about "John" in a natural and efficient
way.)

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 Chapter III
Methodology

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 Grammar Translation Method
The Grammar Translation Method is a method of teaching foreign languages derived from the
classical method of teaching Greek and Latin. In grammar-translation classes, students learn
grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences between the target language
and the native language. Advanced students may be required to translate whole texts word-for-word.
The method has two main goals: to enable students to read and translate literature written in the target
language, and to further students’ general intellectual development.

Characteristics:

• Classes are taught in the mother tongue.

• Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
• Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
• Reading of difficult texts is begun early.
• Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.

Why would I use this method?

• GTM focuses on the application of grammar and correct sentence structure. This is especially
helpful in teaching students how to write and read in another language, allowing them to explore
interchangeable words and phrases (i.e., different words for different tenses) more effectively
than a verbal teaching method.
• Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to construct.
• Class activities or learning games are rarely necessary, as students are translating text to
another language directly. Teachers who are not fluent in English (but fluent in the other
language that the students primarily use) can teach English using this approach, as the
emphasis is not on the spoken word but on translations.

Strengths:

• Students learn a lot of vocabulary.

• Reading and writing skills are excelled.

• It activates students´ memory.

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Weaknesses:

• Poor listening and speaking.

• Unnatural and Inaccurate Pronunciation

• GTM is not interactive and engaging for students.

Opportunities:

• It gives the chance of learning a new language using textbooks.

• Students can learn vocabulary not only in the target language but also in their mother tongue.

Threats:

• It will be more interactive

• More STT

• Students might not be accustomed to translate word by word.

The Direct Method

The Direct Method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not
exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners' native language and
uses only the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and contrasts
with the Grammar Translation Method and other traditional approaches.

The basic idea of the Direct Method was that second language learning should be more like first
language learning (lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation between
first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules)

Characteristics:

• Classroom instruction was conducted in the target language.

• Grammar was taught inductively.

• Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

• Both speaking and listening comprehension were taught.

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 • Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.

Why should I use this method?

In contrast with the GTM, the Direct Method is on target. It can be very effective at creating fluent
speakers of the target language who can actually use it to get by in day-to-day situations. Teachers
may also ask the students questions, have them fill in the blanks in an example sentence, or have them
read from a work of literature. All of these techniques emphasize the Direct Method's core strength---
teaching students to be able to speak the target language rather than merely be able to translate it.

Strengths:

• This method is focused on question-answer patterns.

• Grammar is taught inductively.
• The most important aspect is spoken language, so that pronunciation and grammar are taken
into account.
• STT should be more than TTT on the time during the lesson.
• Instructions are given in the target language.

Weaknesses:

• There is no attention to some areas like reading and writing.

• It is not convenient for large classes.
• For people that are accustomed to teach or to be taught with the Grammar Translation
Method, Direct Method may not hold well.

Opportunities:

• On the one hand, it will be a good chance for students to improve our knowledge about
Grammar and to excel our pronunciation, and at the other hand it is a good method for
intermediate and advanced teachers to make student´s skills float. Comparing this method with
the Grammar Translation, this one will open more doors now.

Threats:

• As we wrote before, some risks of this method are that for being focused in Grammar and
pronunciation, teachers will neglect reading and writing activities, and a good teaching method
must fulfill the four skills activities: Reading, Writing, Speaking & Listening.
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 Audio-Lingual Method
The Audio-Lingual Method, Army Method, or New Key, is a style of teaching used in teaching
foreign languages. It is based on the idea of Coleman Report that it was impractical to teach oral
skills and that reading should become the focus. The ALM was first known as the Army Method. For
a number of reasons, the ALM enjoyed many years of popularity, and even now, adaptations of the
ALM are found in contemporary methodologies.

Characteristics:

• Material is presented in dialogue form.

• There is no dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning.

• Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.

• There is little or no grammatical explanation.

• Great importance to pronunciation.

• Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.

• Vocabulary is strictly limited in context.

Why should I use this method?

As the GTM, students can learn by repetition. Students pay attention and carry a sequence of what
they are doing, but despite of learn it in class, teachers can make activities to be performed at home
so they can practice writing and reading. It sounds really boring the fact that students have to repeat
only. Teachers might find the way to make it interesting and look for different and funny activities.

Strengths:

• Automatic learning without stopping.

• It is emphasized in sentence production.

Weaknesses:

• Too much repetition

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 • Errors were not necessarily to be avoided at all costs.

• No meaningful learning

Opportunities:

• Takes advantage of pronunciation skills.

• Most part of the lesson is given in the target language

Threats:

• It must develop language competence better.

• Material must be oriented to the students.

Community Language Learning Method

Community Language Learning (CLL) is the name of a method developed by Charles A. Curran
and his associates. Curran was a specialist in counseling and a professor of psychology at Loyola
University, Chicago. His application of psychological counseling techniques to learning is known as
Counseling-Learning. Community Language Learning represents the use of Counseling-Learning
theory to teach languages.
Consider the following CLL procedures: A group of learners sit in a circle with the teacher standing
outside the circle; a student whispers a message in the native language (LI); the teacher translates it
into the foreign language (L2); the student repeats the message in the foreign language into a
cassette; students compose further messages in the foreign language with the teacher's help;
students reflect about their feelings. We can compare the client—counselor relationship psychological
counseling with the learner—knower relationship in Community Language Learning.

Characteristics:

• Translation Students form a circle A student speak out in his/her mother tongue Teacher
translate it into the target language.
• Tape recording Students speak out in their mother tongue Teacher translate the language
chunks into target language Students repeat the chunks in target language Only target
language production is recorded.

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 • Reflection on experience Teacher takes time after carry out various activities Students are
allowed to express how they feel about the activities Teacher indicates understanding /
empathy.
• Group work Tasks like discussion of a topic, preparing a conversation are given Students work
in a small group to complete the task Present it to the rest of the class.

Why should I use this method?

This method must be taken into account for the ones who teaches a new language because it creates
a good environment as a community and is a good method to improve the skill of speaking. I like this
method because it makes the learners independent since they decided what they want to talk about
in certain class. Moreover, this method does not need a lot of materials to give the class. However, it
can have some disadvantages like the lack of writing, but I consider this a good method of teaching a
second language.

Strengths:

• Works well with lower levels students who are struggling in spoken English.
• It creates a warm, sympathetic and trusting relationship between teacher and learners.
• The method is centered on the learner.

Weaknesses

• Writing the language is not important.

• The teacher can become too non directive. Students often need directions.
• Fluency is more important than accuracy.

Opportunities:

• The teacher does not need a lot of material.

• Counselor allow the learners to determine type of conversation.
• It is a good opportunity for learners to become independent.

Threats:

• Teacher has to be highly proficient in the target language and in the language of students
• It can be time consuming to carry out.
• Teacher might neglect the need for guidance.

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 The Silent Way
The Silent Way is a language-teaching method created by Caleb Gattegno that makes extensive use
of silence as a teaching technique. The method emphasizes the autonomy of the learner; the teacher's
role is to monitor the students' efforts, and the students are encouraged to have an active role in
learning the language. Pronunciation is seen as fundamental; beginning students start their study with
pronunciation, and much time is spent practicing it each lesson.

Characteristics:

• Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats
what is to be learnt.

• Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.

• Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learnt.

Why should I use this method?

Like Suggestopedia, the Silent Way has had its share of criticism. In one sense, the Silent Way was
too harsh a method, and the teacher too distant, to encourage a communicative atmosphere.
Students often needed more guidance and overcorrection than the Silent Way permitted. Teachers
had to resist their instinct to spell everything out in black and white, to come to the aid of student at
the slightest downfall.

Strengths:

• It helps reading skills.

• More interaction between students.

• Students improve their vocabulary.

Weaknesses:

• Uses of charts will be only with small groups.

• Teaching guide is not enough.

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Opportunities:

• Students have the chance of correcting their own mistakes by themselves.

• Teacher is only a moderator.

• Good relationship between students.

Threats:

• Too much silence is not good.

Suggestopedia
The approach is based on the power of suggestion in learning; the notion being that positive suggestion
would make the learner more receptive and, in turn, stimulate learning. Lozanov holds that a relaxed
but focused state is the optimum state for learning. In order to create this relaxed state in the learner
and to promote positive suggestion, suggestopedia makes use of music, a comfortable and relaxing
environment, and a relationship between the teacher and the student that is akin to the parent-child
relationship. Music, in particular, is central to the approach. Unlike other methods and approaches,
there is no apparent theory of language in suggestopedia and no obvious order in which items of
language are presented.

Characteristics:

• The use of extended dialogues, often several pages in length, accompanied by vocabulary lists
and observations on grammatical points.

• Comfortable environment

• Use of music

• Free errors

• It has 3 stages: Presentation, Concert, and practice.

Why should I use this method?

Teachers can use suggestopedia as teaching method in their teaching. Using suggestopedia is very
interesting but challenging to do. It can be seen from some considerations. In one side it has some

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benefits, but on the other side it also has some weaknesses. With this method, we learnt to believe in
the power of the human brain, we learned that deliberately induced states of relaxation may be
beneficial in the classroom, and many teachers have at times experimented with various forms of music
as a way to get students to sit back and relax.

Strengths:

• Suggestopedia encourages the students to apply language independently.

• It makes students feel relaxed.
• It gives the opportunity to the teacher of creating situations in which learners are most
suggestible.
• Comfortable environment

Weaknesses:

• It doesn´t mentioned anything about homework assignments, so homework is limited.

• I read there should be 12 students in the class, so there´s a kind of environment limitation.
• Music will be a distractor.

Opportunities:

• Maybe, we will focus on distractors like music. Teachers must use music that creates a good
environment; for example, relaxing music, opera, instrumental music, indie, etc.

Threats:

• Don´t use music that students like; that will be distractive also.

Total Physical Response

Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method built around the coordination of
speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity. Developed by
James Asher, a professor of psychology at San Jose State University, California, it draws on several
traditions, including developmental psychology, learning theory, and humanistic pedagogy, as well as
on language teaching procedures proposed by Harold and Dorothy Palmer in 1925. Let us briefly
consider these precedents to Total Physical Response.
Total Physical Response is linked to the "trace theory” of memory in psychology, which holds that the

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more often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory
association will be and the more likely it will be recalled. Retracing can be done verbally (e.g., by rote
repetition) and/or in association with motor activity. Combined tracing activities, such as verbal
rehearsal accompanied by motor activity, hence increase the probability of successful recall.
In a developmental sense, Asher sees successful adult second language learning as a parallel
process to child first language acquisition. He claims that speech directed to young children consists
primarily of commands, which children respond to physically before they begin to produce verbal
responses. Asher feels adults should recapitulate the processes by which children acquire their
mother tongue.

Learner Roles
Learners in Total Physical Response have the primary roles of listener and performer. They listen
attentively and respond physically to commands given by the teacher. Learners are required to
respond both individually and collectively. Learners have little influence over the content of learning,
since content is determined by the teacher, who must follow the imperative-based format for lessons.
Learners are also required to produce novel combinations of their own. Learners monitor and
evaluate their own progress. They are encouraged to speak when they feel ready to speak - that is,
when a sufficient basis in the language has been internalized.

Teacher Roles
The teacher plays an active and direct role in Total Physical Response. "The instructor is the director
of a stage play in which the students are the actors". It is the teacher who decides what to teach, who
models and presents the new materials, and who selects supporting materials for classroom use. The
teacher is encouraged to be well prepared and well organized so that the lesson flows smoothly and
predictably. Asher recommends detailed lesson plans: “It is wise to write out the exact utterances you
will be using and especially the novel commands because the action is so fast-moving there is usually
not time for you to create spontaneously". Classroom interaction and turn taking is teacher rather than
learner directed. Even when learners interact with other learners it is usually the teacher who initiates
the interaction:

• Teacher: Maria, pick up the box of rice and hand it to Miguel and ask Miguel to read the price.

Characteristics:

• The coordination of speech and action facilitates language learning.

• Grammar is taught inductively.

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 • Meaning is more important than form.
• Speaking is delayed until comprehension skills are established.
• Effective language learning takes place in low stress environment.
• The role of the teacher is central. S/he chooses the appropriate commands to introduce
vocabulary and structure.
• The learner is a listener and a performer responding to commands individually or collectively.
• Learning is maximized in a stress-free environment.

Why should I use this method?

This method is excellent to work in junior High School. It is excellent for Basic English classes and
elementary school level because we can use it to teach vocabulary, and as it is known junior High
School students in our country” El Salvador “have a low level of English, and this method is perfect
for us to teach them. By doing movements TPR method is comfortable for learners because they
learn easily.

Strengths:

• Students learn by doing what the teacher says.

• Learning highly benefits from TPR’s emphasis on stress reduction.
• Classes are more practical.

Weaknesses:

• TPR deals with only the beginning stages of language learning.

• It is most useful for beginners.
• Students are not generally given the opportunity to express their own thought in as creative
manner.

Opportunities:

• Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher.
• Good tool for building vocabulary.
• Helps learners achieve fluency faster by immersing learners in activities that involve them in
situational language use.

Threats:

• Preparation becomes an issue for teachers at higher levels.

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 • Most useful for beginners.
• Can be a major challenge for shy students.

The Natural Approach

The natural approach is a method of language teaching developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy
Terrell in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It aims to foster naturalistic language acquisition in a
classroom setting, and to this end it emphasizes communication, and places decreased importance on
conscious grammar study and explicit correction of student errors. Efforts are also made to make the
learning environment as stress-free as possible. In the natural approach, language output is not forced,
but allowed to emerge spontaneously after students have attended to large amounts of comprehensible
language input. The natural approach shares many features with the direct method (itself also known
as the "natural method"), which was formulated around 1900 and was also a reaction to grammar-
translation.

Why should I use this method?

The natural approach enjoyed much popularity with language teachers, particularly with Spanish
teachers in the United States. Markee (1997) puts forward four reasons for the success of the method.
First, he says that the method was simple to understand, despite the complex nature of the research
involved. Second, it was also compatible with the knowledge about second-language acquisition at the
time. Third, Krashen stressed that teachers should be free to try the method, and that it could go
alongside their existing classroom practices. Finally, Krashen demonstrated the method to many
teachers' groups, so that they could see how it would work in practice.

Characteristics:

• The reproduction stage is the development of listening comprehension skills.

• The early production stage is usually marked with errors as the student struggles with the
language. The teacher focuses on meaning.

• The last stage is one of extending production into longer stretches of discourse involving more
complex games, role plays, open-ended dialogues, etc.

Strengths:
• Speech production comes slowly and is never forced.
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 • Students feel comfortable

Weaknesses:
• It doesn´t develop the 4 skills.

• Too much easy for teachers

Opportunities:
• Teachers must correct students´ mistakes

Threats:
• Teachers must be centered in all 4 skills.

PPP Method
The PPP Method could be characterized as a common-sense approach to teaching as it consists of 3
stages that most people who have learnt how to do anything will be familiar with. The first stage is the
presentation of an aspect of language in a context that students are familiar with, much the same way
that a swimming instructor would demonstrate a stroke outside the pool to beginners.

The second stage is practice, where students will be given an activity that gives them plenty of
opportunities to practice the new aspect of language and become familiar with it whilst receiving limited
and appropriate assistance from the teacher. To continue with the analogy, the swimming instructor
allowing the children to rehearse the stroke in the pool whilst being close enough to give any support
required and plenty of encouragement.
The final stage is production where the students will use the language in context, in an activity set up
by the teacher who will be giving minimal assistance, like the swimming instructor allowing his young
charges to take their first few tentative strokes on their own.

Characteristics:
• Flexible structure

• In the Presentation stage: The teacher speaks up to 75% of the time, as they are presenting
information

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 • In the Practice stage: The teacher uses activities to practice the new language orally and in
written format.

• In the Production stage: The teacher monitors but does not correct until the end.

• In the Presentation stage: Students are the listeners.

• In the Practice stage: Students speak up to 60% of the time

• In the Production stage: Students speak up to 90% of the time

Why should I use this method?

The PPP is a method that is widely used in teaching simple language at lower levels. Furthermore,
many modern coursebooks contain examples of PPP lessons which have retained elements of
structural-situation methodology and audio-lingualism.

Strengths:
• It will be good for new teachers.

• Easy to use.

Weaknesses:
• Fluency is not taken into account.

Opportunities:
• It might use drilling.

• More STT.

Threats:
• Special care with grammar.

• It could be more dynamic.

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 Chapter IV
Phonetics and
Phonology

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 Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics is the study of human sounds and Phonology is the classification of the sounds within the
system of a particular language or languages. Phonetics is divided into three types according to the
production (articulatory), transmission (acoustic) and perception (auditive) of sounds.

Three categories of sounds must be recognized at the outset: phones (human

sounds), phonemes (units which distinguish meaning in a language), allophones (non-distinctive
units).

Sounds can be divided into consonants and vowels. The former can be characterized according to:

• Place
• Manner of articulation
• Voice (voiceless or voiced).

For vowels one uses a coordinate system called a vowel quadrangle within which actual vowel values
are located.

Phonotactics deals with the combinations of sounds possible and where sounds can occur in
a syllable. The major structure for the organization of sounds is the syllable. It consists of
an onset (beginning), a rhyme (everything after the beginning) which can be sub-divided into
a nucleus (vowel or vowel-like center) and a coda (right-edge).

Prosody is concerned with features of words and sentences above the level of individual sounds, e.g.,
stress, pitch, intonation. Stress is frequently contrastive in English. The unstressed syllables of
English show characteristic phonetic reduction and words containing this are called weak forms. It is
essential to distinguish between writing and sound. There are various terms
(homophony, homography, homonymy) to characterize the relationship between the written and the
spoken form of words depending on what the match between the two is like.

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 Cardinal Vowels
In order to characterize vowels satisfactorily, the Cardinal Vowel System was introduced at the
beginning of the 20th century by the English phonetician Daniel Jones. The basic principle is that
extreme positions for the articulation of vowels are taken as reference points and all other possible
vowel articulations are set in relation to them. The vowel quadrangle used for the representation of
vowels is derived from a side view of the oral cavity with the face turned to the left, that is the position
of /i/ is maximally high and front, the position of /u/ is maximally high and back while the low vowels /a/
and /ɑ/ are maximal low front and low back respectively.

Note: The left symbol of each is unrounded; the right one is rounded. There is a general correlation
between unroundedness and frontness and roundedness and backness, i.e., these value combinations
are much more common than their opposites. The following charts are given for the sounds of English;
note that the values refer to Received Pronunciation and vary greatly between varieties of English.

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These are the abbreviated names for the places of articulation used in
English:
1. Bilabial
The articulators are the two lips. (We could say that the lower lip is the active articulator and the
upper lip the passive articulator, though the upper lip usually moves too, at least a little.) English
bilabial sounds include [p], [b], and [m].

2. Labio-dental
The lower lip is the active articulator and the upper teeth are the passive articulator. English
labio-dental sounds include [f] and [v].

3. Dental
Dental sounds involve the upper teeth as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be
either the tongue tip or (usually) the tongue blade -- diacritic symbols can be used if it matters
which. Extreme lamino-dental sounds are often called interdental. English interdental sounds
include [θ] and [&].

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 4. Alveolar
Alveolar sounds involve the alveolar ridge as the passive articulator. The active articulator may
be either the tongue blade or (usually) the tongue tip -- diacritic symbols can be used if it
matters which. English alveolar sounds include [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l].

5. Postalveolar
Postalveolar sounds involve the area just behind the alveolar ridge as the passive articulator.
The active articulator may be either the tongue tip or (usually) the tongue blade -- diacritic
symbols can be used if it matters which. English postalveolars include [&] and [&].
Linguists have traditionally used very inconsistent terminology in referring to the postalveolar
POA. Some of the terms you may encounter for it include: palato-alveolar, alveo-palatal,
alveolo-palatal, and even (especially among English-speakers) palatal. Many insist that palato-
alveolar and alveo(lo)-palatal are two different things -- though they don't agree which is which.
"Postalveolar", the official term used by the International Phonetic Association, is unambiguous,
not to mention easier to spell.

6. palatal
The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the hard palate. The
English glide [j] is a palatal.

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 7. Retroflex
In retroflex sounds, the tongue tip is curled up and back. Retroflexes can be classed as apico-
postalveolar, though not all apico-postalveolars need to be curled backward enough to count as
retroflex.
The closest sound to a retroflex that English has is [&]. For most North Americans, the tongue
tip is curled back in [&], though not as much as it is in languages that have true retroflexes. Many
other North Americans use what is called a "bunched r" -- instead of curling their tongues back,
they bunch the front up and push it forward to form an approximant behind the alveolar ridge.

8. Velar
The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the soft palate. English
velars include [k], [g], and [ŋ].

9. Glottal
This isn't strictly a place of articulation, but they had to put it in the chart somewhere. Glottal
sounds are made in the larynx. For the glottal stop, the vocal cords close momentarily and cut
off all airflow through the vocal tract. English uses the glottal stop in the interjection uh-uh
[?^?^] (meaning 'no'). In [h], the vocal cords are open, but close enough together that air
passing between them creates friction noise.

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 Chapter V
Literature

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 What is Reading Comprehension?
Reading comprehension is the ability to read text, process it and understand its meaning. It relies on
two, interconnected abilities: word reading (being able to decode the symbols on the page) and
language comprehension (being able to understand the meaning of the words and sentences).

When we make sense of a text, however, we don’t just remember the exact words and phrases we
read. Rather, we form a mental model of what the text describes by integrating the sense of the words
and sentences into a meaningful whole, like a film that plays in our head.

Good comprehension is vital if reading is to have a purpose, if a reader is to engage with and learn
from a text and, ultimately, if a reader is to enjoy what they’re reading.

How is word reading related to Reading Comprehension?

Reading is the product of two components: word recognition and language comprehension. Both are
essential for reading comprehension to occur.

Good comprehenders can decode printed words accurately, efficiently and fluently. Children who
struggle with word reading, however, will read the text more slowly and may not be able to accurately
decode all of the important words. This can lead to significant deficits in reading comprehension.
Strong word reading therefore makes a vital contribution to the ease and quality of a child’s reading
comprehension.

What are some of the challenges to good Reading Comprehension?

Specific difficulties with reading comprehension can arise for different reasons, and these can vary from
child to child.

When children first learn to read, they are still developing their basic word reading skills. As a result,
their skill in word recognition is the major determinant of how good they are at reading comprehension.
As their word reading becomes more fluent, their language comprehension becomes the key factor
in reading comprehension.

Some children may have poor reading comprehension because their word reading is slow or inaccurate.
Other children can develop good word reading skills, but experience reading comprehension problems
because of less-developed language skills. Children learning English as an additional language can
actually do very well on word reading. However, their knowledge of the meanings of words and idioms

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and, for some children who have recently arrived in the country, their limited cultural experience of life
in the UK can restrict their background knowledge, affecting their comprehension.

What are the factors associated with Good Comprehension?

Good comprehension requires a range of different knowledge and skills:

• Vocabulary and background knowledge

• Integration and inference skills
• Understanding language structure/connections
• Knowledge and use of text structure
• Comprehension monitoring.

Why is vocabulary development important for Comprehension?

The relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension is two-way: they support each other.
One reason for this strong relationship is that rich knowledge of word meanings enables readers and
listeners to make inferences and thematic links within a text. Put simply, the greater a person’s
knowledge of words and their meaning, the easier they will find it to understand even complex texts.

While being familiar with a large number of words is important, the depth of a person’s vocabulary is
also important – how well they can use their knowledge of the word and its related words in order to
understand what they are reading.

The range of language used in written text means that reading is a good way of expanding vocabulary
knowledge, because written text contains rarer, less familiar words than conversation does. All children,
even those who can decode fluently, benefit from being read aloud to as it provides access to these
fewer familiar words, as well as providing a model for fluent reading and pronunciation.

General Strategies for Reading Comprehension

The process of comprehending text begins before children can read, when someone reads a picture
book to them. They listen to the words, see the pictures in the book, and may start to associate the
words on the page with the words they are hearing and the ideas they represent.

In order to learn comprehension strategies, students need modeling, practice, and feedback. The key
comprehension strategies are described below.

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Using Prior Knowledge/Previewing
When students preview text, they tap into what they already know that will help them to understand the
text they are about to read. This provides a framework for any new information they read.

Predicting
When students make predictions about the text they are about to read, it sets up expectations based
on their prior knowledge about similar topics. As they read, they may mentally revise their prediction as
they gain more information.

Identifying the Main Idea and Summarization

Identifying the main idea and summarizing requires that students determine what is important and then
put it in their own words. Implicit in this process is trying to understand the author’s purpose in writing
the text.

Questioning
Asking and answering questions about text is another strategy that helps students focus on the meaning
of text. Teachers can help by modeling both the process of asking good questions and strategies for
finding the answers in the text.

Making Inferences
In order to make inferences about something that is not explicitly stated in the text, students must learn
to draw on prior knowledge and recognize clues in the text itself.

Visualizing
Studies have shown that students who visualize while reading have better recall than those who do not
(Pressley, 1977). Readers can take advantage of illustrations that are embedded in the text or create
their own mental images or drawings when reading text without illustrations.

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 Literary Features
Device Definition Example
A reference to a well-known
Black Monday (event: stock
Allusion person, place, event, literary
market collapse)
work, or work of art.
An analogy compares two Pets are like plants. If you give
different things to point out how them lots of care and attention,
Analogy they are similar. they grow strong and healthy. If
you neglect them, they become
weak and sickly.
A dynamic character is a
character that is changed by
events or interactions with
others.
Character
A static character is a
character that stays essentially
the same.
The climax in a story or play is
the high point of interest or
Climax suspense in a literary work. In
some works of literature, the
climax is the turning point.
A conflict is a struggle between
opposing forces. Sometimes
the struggle is internal, or inside
a character, as when a
character strives to meet a self-
imposed challenge (man versus
Conflict himself). At other times the
struggle is external and involves
a force outside the character.
This force may be another
character, the antagonist; a
force of nature; or a social
convention or custom.
A dialogue is a conversation
between characters. Writers
use dialogue to reveal
Dialogue
character, to present events, to
add variety to a narrative, and to
interest readers.
Interruption of present action to “Can you listen, back, far back?”
insert an episode that took place People from another past time
at an earlier time for the purpose suddenly live again. They sing,
Flashback of giving the reader information eat fried chicken, braid long
to make the present situation hair, swing in an uneven swing
understandable or account for a in the black walnut tree, wash
character’s current motivation. dishes, swat at mosquitoes, and

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 watch thunderstorms -- just like
now.
A device that provides clues to Nothing could go wrong on such
alert the reader about events a perfect day. Or so I, in my
Foreshadowing that will occur later in the childlike innocence, thought.
narrative. It serves to build
purpose.
Obvious and extravagant I’m so hungry I could eat a
Hyperbole exaggeration not meant to be horse.
taken literally.
Imagery is the descriptive Even the usually cool green
language used in literature to re- willows bordering the pond hung
create sensory experiences. wilting and dry.
The images in a work supply
Imagery
detail of sight, sound, taste,
touch, smell, or movement and
help the reader to sense the
experience being described.
Irony is the general name given to literary techniques that involve
surprising, interesting, or amusing contradictions. There are three
main literary forms of irony:
Verbal: Saying one thing and As you come in from a raging
meaning another. blizzard, you say, “Nice day,
huh?”
Climatic Situation: Events turn A man believes he is the only
out opposite to what is expected human left on Earth; in despair
Irony
to happen or what seems he swallows sleeping tablets;
appropriate under the just as he slops into
circumstances. unconsciousness, the
telephone rings.
Dramatic: The reader In picture books, this may often
perceives something that the be shown through illustrations,
characters in the story don’t see in plays it may be show in
or know. actions.
A metaphor is a figure of speech Tumbleweeds are the lost
in which one thing is spoken of children of the desert.
Metaphor as though it were something
else. It does not use like or as in
the comparison.
Mood, or atmosphere, is the “The dirt under his feet felt soft
feeling created in the reader by and warm. He spread his toes
a literary work or passage. The and watched the dust squirt
Mood mood may be suggested by the between them.” A gentle, slow-
writer’s choice of words, by paced, bucolic environment is
events in the work, or by the evoked.
physical setting.
A statement that reveals a kind Good fences make good
of unlikely truth although it neighbors. (Fences do separate
Paradox seems at first to be self- people, but since they define
contradictory and untrue. limits of people’s property,
fences prevent conflicts.)

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 A parody is an imitation of The Three Little Wolves and the
another work that exaggerates Big Bad Pig is a parody of The
Parody or distorts features of the work to Three Little Pigs.
make fun of it or simply to
amuse readers.
The sequence of events in a
Plot
literary work.
The perspective from which the story is seen and told; three
principal vantage points are most commonly employed.
Omniscient: All-knowing -the George, anxiously hoping that
ability to see into minds and no one was watching him,
record thoughts of characters placed a carefully wrapped
and make comments about package on an empty park
either one or several of them so bench. But Molly, who was
that the reader may come to walking home, saw him and
know more of their situation that couldn’t help thinking that he
does any single character in it. was acting strangely.
Limited or Objective Third As George placed the carefully
Point-Of-View Person: Here, the central wrapped package on the park
observer of the story limits bench, he looked up and saw
interpretation to what is seen or Molly walking across the street.
heard without additional
comment about the character
motive or thoughts.
Limited First Person: The view As I placed the carefully
and thoughts are solely through wrapped package on the park
one character telling the story, bench, I looked up and saw
(I). This view can only reveal Molly walking across the street.
what the character sees and is I hoped that she hadn’t seen
told by others. me.
Satire is a type of writing that A self-important young man
ridicules or criticizes the faults refuses to rescue a girl who has
of individuals or groups. The fallen into quicksand and gives
satirist may use a tolerant, her a long lecture on the
sympathetic tone or an angry, property of quicksand and how
bitter tone. to survive a fall into it. When he,
Satire
Although a satire may be in turn, tumbles into it, he can
humorous, its purpose is not only remember to holler “Help,
simply to make readers laugh help.”
but to correct, through laughter,
the flaws and shortcomings it
points out.
Explicit comparison from one Mad as a hornet, laughed like a
unlike thing to another that hyena; lower than a snake’s
shares some common belly in a wagon rut.
Simile
recognizable similarity; this
device uses “like,” “as,” “such
as,” and “than” to set them off.
Any person, object, or action The tree brings the villagers
Symbol that has stands for or represents together in a spirit of new hope.
something else.

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 When the cherry tree came
back to life, so did the village.
The underlying meaning of a Plot -- a young soldier in his
literary work, a particular truth first battle.
about life or humanity, which the Theme-war is futile or fighting
author is trying to make the solves nothing.
Theme
reader see. Plot is a pattern or
events or what happens --
theme is the meaning, what it’s
about.
The tone of a literary work is the
writer’s attitude toward the
readers and toward the subject.
Tone
A writer’s tone may be formal or
informal, friendly or distant,
personal or impersonal.
Understatement means saying Describe a flooded area as
Understatement less than is actually meant, “slightly soggy”
generally in an ironic way.

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