POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY

WEEK 5_1

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The program for this week: Citizenship &
Migration part I
SESSION 5/1 CITIZENSHIP: Inclusion and exclusion
• Lecture (before inputs) The different theories of citizenship: from the classical theory of Marshall
(political, social, cultural) to the expanded discussion by Nash in her textbook "Contemporary
Political Sociology"
• Group 7 Do a research on political sociological topics connected to "obtaining citizenship". Be as
concrete as possible, give examples for each of the types/issues of citizenship that you discuss. I
expect you to touch upon: citizenship ius soli vs ius sanguinis (very brief, because quite obvious),
"golden citizenship" (the - not always legal - market of passports), citizenship tests that exist in
several countries and include language and sometimes cultural and political questions for
migrants that apply for citizenship. If possible, find such a test to show in class.
• Group 8 Read the chapter by Perchinig and focus on the section "civic citizenship".
• Perchinig, Albert (2006). "EU citizenship and the status of third country nationals," in: Rainer Bauboeck (ed.)
Migration and Citizenship. Legal Status, Rights and Political Participation. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University
Press, 67-82.
• Follow the citations he gives to EU documents and retrieve and read these sources. Present the
concept of "civic citizenship" succinctly to the class.

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SESSION 5/2 SHIFTING BORDERS
• Shachar, Ayelet (2020). "The shifting border: legal cartographies of migration and
mobility", in: Ayelet Shachar (ed.) The shifting border. Ayelet Shachar in
Dialogue. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 3-96.
• Group 9 The essay by Ayelet Shachar starts with a series of examples of fortified
borders in history and present: the Great Wall of China, the Berlin Wall, around
Spanish enclaves in Morocco, between South Africa and Zimbabwe, India and
Bangladesh, Bulgaria and Turkey, Hungary and Serbia, along the US–Mexico
border, Norway’s arctic border barrier with Russia, etc. Do a research on such
borders on the Internet and create a presentation. Use images, text, film, and
give a list of recommended readings or films for your colleagues in the course.
• Group 10 Make a list of all the examples of shifting borders that Shachar gives in
her essay. Do research on them and explain to the class what they are about. Use
images, text, film, and give a list of recommended readings or films for your
colleagues in the course.
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Theories of citizenship
• Thomas H. Marshall 1949 „Citizenship and
social class“
• Marshall saw the extension of citizenship
rights as a sign of progress towards more
equality and inclusivity of a society.
• Citizenship is a legally codified form of
Nash, K. (2009) Contemporary
existential equality. Political Sociology. 2nd ed. Wiley-
• Writing in the 1940 (!), citizenship was the Blackwell. Available at:
https://www.perlego.com/book/2
term to overcome the view of society as 755962.
divided into classes.
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Three types of citizenship acc. to Marshall
18th century: Civil citizenship covers civic rights such as the protection of
individual freedom, freedom of speech, thought and faith, the right to
own property and conclude contracts, and the right to justice.
civil
19th century: Political citizenship covers political rights such as the right
to participate in the exercise of political power as a member of a body
political
invested with political authority or as an elector of such a body. A key sign
of progress in this regard is universal suffrage.
social
20th century: Social citizenship covers social rights that are related to the
welfare state, including national systems of compulsory education, health
and social services.

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Citizenship as an ideal of equality
• Marshall linked the historical development of citizenship to the
development of capitalism.
• Capitalism is a system of inequality.
• Citizenship rights are a system of equality.
• Marshall thought that equality of status was more important than
equality of income.
• He saw the development of social rights as contributing to the
development of a system of equality which could mitigate the
economic inequalities of capitalism.

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Limits of Marshall‘s account of citizenship
• His evolutionist account downplays the political struggles that were connected
with each step: achieving civic rights, political rights, and in the end social rights.
• He is a methodological nationalist: he only considers citizenship inside the nation-
state. The nation-state is a necessary assumption for his theory of citizenship.
• He seems to have assumed that citizenship would play out the same in all
countries. His example was Great Britain, which he proposes as general model.
• He ignores that women‘s rights did not follow the same pattern at all: women
gained some civic rights only after obtaining political rights (ex. the right to
divorce, i.e. right to justice, right to own property).
• He ignored racial separation (at the time still in place in many countries), where
citizens of one and the same country did not have the same rights.
• The evolutionary account sees social rights as the end-point: but we actually see
that social rights can be lost again (as can be political and civil rights in some
contexts).
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Citizenship and social exclusion
• In Marshall‘s conception of citizenship,
social rights are related to the idea that
all citizens should be able to
participate in a common standard of
‚civilized‘ life. Poverty has
consequences for citizenship where
citizenship involves the right to fully
participate in society.

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9
Citizenship and culture
• Marshall does not touch upon culture (given his nationalist
methodology). What is the relationship between citizenship and
culture?
• Models of cultural citizenship: „melting pot“, multiculturalism,
Leitkultur, old and new form of assimilationism.

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 Luiss University

Obtaining
Citizenship
Presented by
Mila Calovic
Hoi Yaen Serena Chua
Tyla Naidoo
Rustam Riskulov
 Luiss University

What is citizenship?

• Definition:

Citizenship is the status of being a member of a nation, giving you rights and responsibilities, and helping shape your
sense of belonging and identity within that community.

• Two-Way Agreement:

Citizenship involves a mutual relationship between the government and the individual, where the government provides
rights and protections, and in return, the citizen upholds responsibilities.
 Luiss University

Overview
01 Definition 05 Citizenship Tests
02 Ius Soli 06 Discussion
03 Ius Sanguinis
04 Golden Citizenship
 Luiss University

Ius Soli
“Right of Soil”
Definition: Ius Soli, or "right of the soil," is a legal principle granting citizenship to individuals born
in a country's territory, regardless of their parents' nationality.
• Automatic Citizenship: Children born in the country automatically become citizens.

• Examples: Countries like the United States and Canada follow Ius Soli.
• Impact on Identity: It fosters a sense of belonging for those born in the country, contributing to a
diverse national identity.
 Luiss University

An Example of Ius Soli

Ius Soli – The United States
• Definition: Ius Soli (right of the soil) grants citizenship to anyone born on
U.S. territory.
• 14th Amendment: Ensures automatic citizenship regardless of parents'
status.
• Example: Children of undocumented immigrants born in the U.S. are
automatically citizens.
• Impact: Promotes inclusion and strengthens the U.S.'s diverse identity.
 Luiss University

Ius Sanguinis
“Right of Blood”
Definition: Ius Sanguinis, or "right of blood," is a legal principle granting citizenship based on the nationality or
citizenship of one or both parents, regardless of the place of birth.

• Citizenship by Descent: Children inherit citizenship from their parents, even if born in another country.

• Examples: Countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan primarily follow ius sanguinis for citizenship.

• Impact on Identity: This principle emphasizes familial ties and heritage, often leading to a strong sense of
national identity among those with ancestral connections.

• Comparison to Ius Soli: Unlike ius soli, which grants citizenship based on birthplace, ius sanguinis focuses
on blood relationships and family lineage.
 Luiss University

An Example of Ius Sanguinis

Ius Sanguinis – Germany
• Definition: Ius Sanguinis (right of blood) grants citizenship based on descent, regardless of
birthplace.
• Historical Example: Children of Turkish immigrants born in Germany did not automatically gain
citizenship.
• Reforms: Since 2000, children born to foreign parents can apply for citizenship if certain
conditions are met.
• Impact: Germany’s system still places a strong emphasis on bloodline and ancestry.
 Golden Citizenship
• "Golden citizenship" refers to programs that allow individuals to acquire citizenship or residency in a country
through significant financial investment.

• These programs, also known as citizenship-by-investment or residence-by-investmentschemes, provide a fast

track to citizenship for wealthy individuals, bypassing traditional paths like naturalization.

• Even though they are legal in many countries, they have come under scrutiny due to issues of corruption, the
questionable backgrounds of some applicants, and their potential to undermine the traditional concept of
citizenship as a civic and social bond.
 Examples of Golden Citizenship
Programs:

• Malta: The "Individual Investor Programme" requires a €650,000 donation to a national fund, a €150,000
investment in government-approved instruments, and the purchase/lease of real estate. In return,
individuals gain EU citizenship and visa-free travel across Europe.
• Cyprus: Cyprus previously offered citizenship for a €2 million investment in real estate or businesses,
but the program was suspended in 2020 after concerns about granting passports to individuals under
criminal investigation.
• Caribbean Countries: St. Kitts and Nevis, and Dominica offer citizenship-by-investment programs, with
investments from $100,000 to $400,000 in real estate or national funds. These programs appeal to
wealthy individuals seeking greater global mobility.
 Advantages and disadvantages of
Golden Citizenship

Pros Cons
1.Economic Benefits for Host Countries 1.Ethical and Security Concerns

2.Increased Global Mobility for Investors 2.Impact on Social Equity and National Identity

3.Personal and Family Security 3.Inflated Real Estate Markets

4.Questionable Long-Term Economic Impact

4.Access to the European Union (EU)
5.Reputational Risks for Host Countries
 Food for thought:
• Golden citizenship programs are often justified on economic grounds, as they attract foreign investments. To what extent should countries
prioritize economic growth over maintaining the social and civic integrity of citizenship?

• Given that golden citizenship programs can grant individuals access to regions like the EU, where citizenship in one country allows
movement across the Union, how can countries balance their desire for foreign investment with the need to maintain regional security and
uphold international norms?

• While wealthy individuals can buy citizenship and gain global mobility, many migrants face strict barriers and long, arduous paths to
citizenship. Does this add to global inequality where the wealthy are privileged even in areas like national membership?

• What ethical concerns arise when countries allow wealthy individuals to "buy" citizenship, especially when these individuals may be
involved in criminal activities or corruption? How can countries ensure that such programs do not become a vehicle for money laundering
or other illicit activities?
 Citizenship Tests
• By nature, citizenship is both an instrument of inclusion into a system
of rights and a boundary which is ‘designed to fail specific groups
and populations’ (Tyler 2010).
• Citizenship tests are therefore often exclusionary in nature, with an
underlying, if not overt, principle of deservingness: migrants have to
prove that they are sufficiently ‘deserving’ of inclusion
• There is a need for countries to ensure they accept a ‘good citizen’,
although this is defined very loosely
Case Study: United Kingdom
“Life in the UK” Test
• Part of the requirement for British citizenship in the
UK
• 45 minutes to answer 24 questions about British
traditions and customs
Case Study: United Kingdom
“Life in the UK” Test: Sample Questions
Case Study: United Kingdom
“Life in the UK” Test: Sample Questions
Case Study: United Kingdom

“Life in the UK” Test: Further Resources

• For those interested to try out the full questions, it is
available on https://lifeintheuktests.co.uk/life-in-the-
uk-test/
 Resources & Further
Readings
Fourteenth Amendment | Browse | Constitution annotated | congress.gov | library of Congress. (n.d.).
https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/amendment-14/

Casaburi, P. (2024, August 30). Malta citizenship by investment (CES) 2024: Ultimate Guide. Global Citizen Solutions.
https://www.globalcitizensolutions.com/malta-citizenship-by-investment/

Can you pass the citizenship test?. lifeintheuktests.co.uk. (n.d.-a). https://lifeintheuktests.co.uk/life-in-the-uk-test/

United Nations. (n.d.). World migration report 2022 network on Migration. United Nations.
https://migrationnetwork.un.org/resources/world-migration-report-2022

Citizenship Resource Center. USCIS. (2024, June 27). https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship

Citizenship. BVA. (n.d.). https://www.bva.bund.de/EN/Services/Citizens/ID-Documents-Law/Citizenship/citizenship_node.html

EU citizenship. European Commission. (n.d.). https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-

rights/eu-citizenship-and-democracy/eu-citizenship_en
 Luiss University

Thank
You
Presented by
Mila Calovic
Hoi Yaen Serena Chua
Tyla Naidoo
Rustam Riskulov
Civic Citizenship and the
Status of Third-Country
nationals in the EU
• Nivin M. Ali
• Nora Elizara Gonja
• Leonardo Antonelli
• Jinchen Wang
Our Work

• ‘The concept of civic

• Perchinig, Albert citizenship (CC) could
(2006). "EU citizenship become a tool for
and the status of third gradually harmonizing
country nationals" the status of third
country nationals
(TCNs).’ (p. 82)
Bernhard Perchinig
• Austrian Political Scientist
• Senior Expert at the International Centre for
Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) in Vienna
• Professor at Danube University Krems
• His research focuses on EU migration policies and
citizenship law
The Article (I)

1973 1980s 1992

COPENHAGEN SUMMIT NEGATIVE INTEGRATION TREATY OF MAASTRICHT

THROUGH DIRECTIVES
• First time the Commission • Citizenship is defined as
discusses the idea of a • Right of residence for one of the EU pillars.
'passport union' as well as workers and students: Several provisions regulate
'special rights' for citizens introduction of the “Social the social and political
of MS. Charter”. rights of all citizens of the
member states.
BIRTH OF EUROPEAN
IMMIGRATION POLICY
The Article (II)

1998 1999 2000

TREATY OF AMSTERDAM TAMPERE COUNCIL COMMUNICATION 757

FROM THE COMMISSION
• Migration policy becomes a • Sketches the
matter of Community approximation of the legal • Introduces the idea of civic
interest, bringing it within status of TCNs that have citizenship to grant TCNs
the arc of supranational long resided in the UE with rights and responsibilities
competence. that of Union citizens. equal to nationals,
adjusted for length of stay.
The Article (III)

2002 2003

RACIAL & EMPLOYMENT COMMUNICATION 366

FROM THE COMMISSION
• Two directives, based on
now Art. 19 TFEU, to • Suggest improvement of
reduce discrimination political participation at the
based on race and ethnic local level for TCNs.
origin.
Civic Citizenship Deep Dive (I)

• CC is a legal framework for • How can a long-term resident

approximating the status of TCNs to that immigrant be granted social
of EU citizens. and political rights in Europe
• EU citizenship is a supplement of without meeting the
nationality of a MS. requirements for national
• For TCNs, ‘the boundary between citizenship?
citizens and non-citizens varies
depending on country of residence
and citizenship policies in that
country.’ (p. 71)
Civic Citizenship Deep Dive (II)

• ‘The Commission proposes that a common legal framework for

admission of third country nationals should be developed [...] The
legal status granted to third country nationals would be based on
the principle of providing sets of rights and responsibilities on a
basis of equality with those of nationals but differentiated according
to the length of stay while providing for progression to permanent
status. In the longer term this could extend to offering a form of civic
citizenship, based on the EC Treaty and inspired by the Charter of
Fundamental Rights, consisting of a set of rights and duties offered
to third country nationals.’ (COM (2000) 757 final: 21)
Civic Citizenship Deep Dive (III)

• Beneficiaries: TCNs with long-term legal

residence in an EU member state.
• Core principles:
• Equal treatment with nationals in
employment, education, social security
and non-discrimination.
• Differentiation of rights according to length
of stay, providing for gradual progression
toward permanent status (proportionality).
Civic Citizenship Deep Dive (IV)

• In COM (2003) 336, the Commission pointed

to the Charter of Fundamental Rights.
• Employment & residence, diplomatic
and consular protection, voting rights at
the European (EP) and municipal level.
• CC ‘might […] question the still existing link
between nationality and Union citizenship
and thus become a tool for the development
of a true Union citizenship deserving of its
name.’ (p. 82)
Challenges to the Concept

• More an aspiration than a concrete development.

• Lack of political will, by part of the MS.
• Member States' discretion in implementing EU
immigration directives risks creating unequal
treatment of TCNs.
• The emphasis on integration as a prerequisite
for obtaining civic citizenship could prove
discriminatory.
• Unclear EU roles in granting and revoking CC
raise doubts about its scope and applicability.
Conclusion

• CC is an EU concept aiming to align TCNs' rights with those

of EU citizens, based on their residency and contribution.
• The idea was introduced in 2000 as part of the EU’s
strategy to grant TCNs rights in employment, education,
social security, and local political participation.
• Despite the promise of CC, it remains an aspiration rather
than a reality, as it has not been formalized in EU legislation.
• Ongoing challenges include differing national approaches to
citizenship and the absence of a unified legislative
framework among Member States.
Thank You For
Your Attention
Summary of session 5_1
• Different types of citizenship exist: civil, political, social, cultural.
• Citizenship (its different kinds) produce patterns of inclusion and
exclusion.
• When are these patterns of inclusion and exclusion challenged?
>> through demands for minority rights inside the
autochthonous society
>> through migration
• What, do you think, are the consequences of exclusion/inclusion of
people with regard to citizenship?
Paradoxes of citizenship
• A person can have some degrees of social citizenship without having
civic or political citizenship: in Italy, an illegal immigrant will be
treated by the national health service (at least rudimentary) and
minors will be included in education even in the absence of a correct
residence permit of the parents.
• In Austria, religious minorities enjoy relatively strong rights, for
example the right to intervene in parliamentary debates of concern. A
Muslim living in Austria without Austrian citizenship can have a voice
in parliamentary debate through his/her religious representative.
• Can you think of other paradoxes?

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POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY
WEEK 5_2

44
 SESSION 5/2 SHIFTING BORDERS
• Shachar, Ayelet (2020). "The shifting border: legal cartographies of migration and
mobility", in: Ayelet Shachar (ed.) The shifting border. Ayelet Shachar in
Dialogue. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 3-96.
• Group 9 The essay by Ayelet Shachar starts with a series of examples of fortified
borders in history and present: the Great Wall of China, the Berlin Wall, around
Spanish enclaves in Morocco, between South Africa and Zimbabwe, India and
Bangladesh, Bulgaria and Turkey, Hungary and Serbia, along the US–Mexico border,
Norway’s arctic border barrier with Russia, etc. Do a research on such borders on the
Internet and create a presentation. Use images, text, film, and give a list of
recommended readings or films for your colleagues in the course.
• Group 10 Make a list of all the examples of shifting borders that Shachar gives in
her essay. Do research on them and explain to the class what they are about. Use
images, text, film, and give a list of recommended readings or films for your
colleagues in the course.

45
Fortified borders in
history and present
Group 9:
Rosachiara Cozzoli, Ariane Graber, Iemen Hansoul Verbelen, Luis
Yepez
What are fortified borders?
➢ “Borders where states have erected fences or walls along the entire borderline to further
discourage uncontrolled border crossings.” (Taubenböck, H., Otto, C., Gülzau, F., & Mau,
S., 2023, p.3)
➢ “Physical barriers placed along borders. These boundaries are more formidable in
structure than conventional boundary lines but less robust than militarized boundaries.”
(Hassner, R. E., & Wittenberg, J., (2015), p.151)
➢ For A. Shachar: all physical fortifications, even if not along the entire borderline

Main reasons for fortified borders: military conflicts, anti-migration, anti-smuggling, anti-
terrorism

Examples: Chinese Wall, US-Mexico, Bulgaria-Turkey, Berlin Wall, Korean DMZ, India-
Bangladesh, Spain-Morocco
The Berlin Wall

History & Location:

➢ 12-13 August 1961 – 9 November 1989
➢ Symbol of the Cold War: Iron Curtain
➢ By the 1980s: 45km through the city,
120km around West Berlin
➢ Structure evolved from cinder blocks and
barbed wire to tall concrete walls guarded
by watchtowers and mines.
A very closed border:
➢ 140 deaths at the Wall, mostly escapees.
➢ Victims referred to as « criminals » → risk for
the regime
➢ Special border area: identifying and arresting
escapees before they reach the actual border
The India-Bangladesh border

Historical key facts:

➢ 1947: Independence of India and partition of
Pakistan and East Pakistan (Radcliffe Line)
➢ 1971: East Pakistan obtains Independence from
Pakistan and is re-named Bangladesh
➢ 1974: Treaty between India and Bangladesh
precising the borders but only Bangladesh ratifies it
➢ Mid 1980s: Beginning of the fence’s construction
➢ 2015: India finally ratifies the treaty on the border
Main problems:
➢ Cross-border smuggling
➢ Human trafficking
➢ Terrorist activities: political & religious
reasons
➢ Illegal cross-border ⟹ 15 to 20 million illegal
Bangladeshi migrants in India
➢ Unjustified violence by India’s Border Security
Force (BSF): 1,236 Bangladeshis killed and
1,145 injured between 2000 and 2020
➢ January 2011: murder of a 14-year-old girl,
Felani Khatun
The Korean Border: 38th Parallel

Historical key facts:

➢ Korean Peninsula gets annexed by Japan in 1910
➢ 1945 - Japan surrenders WWII, USA and USSR split
Korea at the 38th parallel
➢ 1950 – Stalin approves NK invasion of SK. ⟹ Korean
War
➢ 1953 – Armistice at current borders, creation of DMZ
➢ 1967 – South Korean anti-infiltration fence
The Demilitarized zone:
➢ 4km wide, 240km long, 1 million landmines
➢ Double fortified border.
➢ Permanently guarded by troops
➢ Joint security area
➢ 2 villages
➢ 2 unused checkpoints

Why is it there?
➢ Anti-infiltration
➢ Anti-emigration
The border in Ceuta and Melilla

History & Location:

➢ Both fences were put up in the 1990’s
as a way to stop smuggling and
immigration
➢ Melilla is located 400 km away from
Ceuta
Main problems:
• Role of the Moroccan police
• In August, 800 migrants crossed into Spain
compared to the 1092 who crossed in the entirety
of 2021.
• Types of visas- now they only accept Schengen
visas as opposed to before where they accepted
24-hour visas.
→ Affected the workers who relied on these
short-term visas for commuting.
• Hundreds of migrants swim the Strait of Gibraltar
to enter Europe.
Complete list of the films and books:

Films & documentaries Books

• Goodbye, Lenin! (2003) • Cold War Berlin. Confrontations, Cultures, and
• The Lives of Others (2006) Identities. By Scott H. Krause, Stefanie Eisenhuth,
• Berlin Wall: The night the Iron Curtain closed Konrad H. Jarausch
(2014) • Identity and Experience at the India-Bangladesh
• Borderlands (2021) Border- The Crisis of Belonging. By Debtadda
• Escape (2024) Chowdhury
• Beyond Utopia (2023) • I Escaped North Korea! By Scott Peters, Ellie
• Adú (2020) Crowe.
• El Salto (2024) • Hope and Other Dangerous Pursuits. By Laila
Lalami
• Leaving Tangier. By Tahar Ben Jelloun
Others • The Return of the Moor. By Daniela Flesler
• Photo report “The wall and fear” by Gaël Turine
• Opera Alegría (2021)
Bibliography:
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Chowdhury, D. (2018). Identity and experience at the India- Global Challenges - Epidemia of Walls in an (Un)free World.
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Hertle, H.-H., & Nooke, M. (2011). The victims at the Berlin Pieal, J. N. (2024, September 7). After a Teenage Girl Is Killed
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https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/morocco-spain-melilla-
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Rules, Conflicts, and Negotiations, 1961-89. In Cold War
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you escape North Korea and other harrowing tales from Bloomsbury.
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Outlook to next week: Citizenship & Migration
part II
SESSION 6/1 Critical perspectives on "shifting borders"
• Lecture (before input)
• Group 11
SESSION 6/2 Regime types and migration governance
• Lecture (before input): regime types
• Group 12

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