Water Absorption and Compressive Strength of Paving Blocks with Saccharum officinarum

Bagasse and Crushed Perna canaliculus

Shells as Additive Materials

Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

Chapter Two includes the following topics :( 1) Paving Blocks, (2)Saccharum

officinarum, (3) Perna canaliculus.

Part One, Paving Blocks, explains the uses of paving blocks and how it can benefit the

people.

Part Two, Saccharum officinarum, gives information about Saccharum officinarum.

Part Three, Perna canaliculus, gives information about Perna canaliculus.

Part Four, Related Studies, discusses some other topics related to our study.

Paving Blocks

Block paving is one of the most popular flexible pavement surfacing options. It is made

from various materials (concrete, clay, recycled plastic etc.) but most commonly used are clay

and concrete (Nar, 2018).

People nowadays prefer paving block compared to other pavement such as concrete or

asphalt. Their interest toward the use of paving block increase because paving block is an eco-

friendly construction which is very useful in helping soil water conservation, can be done faster,

has easier installation and maintenance, has a variety of shades that increase the aesthetic value,

also costs cheaper than the other (Hastuty & Nursyamsi, 2018).

Paving blocks can be used at residential as well as commercial premises. It can be used in

any weather conditions. The most important advantage of paver blocks is that they can be easily
replaced. If one of the blocks gets damaged, it can be easily removed and replaced with another

one (Pai, 2021). Paving blocks are durable and available in a wide variety of shapes, colors, and

textures. They can as a result of these characteristics, be employed for many different purposes.

Pavers can be used to create driveways, patios and walkways. Retaining walls, raised beds, and

other yard features can be built using paving blocks (Hanson, 2022).

The paving block have various advantages, such as low maintenance, durable and hard-

wearing, highly versatile, more environment-friendly, safe, easy to install, quick to repair, and

cost-effective. Paving blocks only require low maintenance because it does not need polish on

top surface of the paver and it will not need to repaint in the future. Paving blocks are durable

and hard-wearing because it can withstand any type of vehicle load and pedestrian traffic with

low maintenance. Because of its durability, it is expected to last reliably for at least 20 years.

Paving blocks are highly versatile because it has a unique quality to interlock with each other due

to large availability of various shapes. Due to its wide variety of design, colour, and thickness of

paving blocks, it makes it suitable for both domestic and commercial applications including

patio, driveway, sidewalk, pool deck, parking areas etc. It is more environment-friendly than

solid plain surfaces because it prevent rainwater from gathering or flooding, allowing you to

create better drainage system on your patio or driveway. The safety of paving blocks is

determined when it is wet or in monsoon season since it is slip resistant and skid resistant.

Paving blocks are quick to install because there is no use of any heavy machinery or equipment,

and it is in around 3 to 4 days. The most important advantage of paving blocks is that it can

easily be repaired and replaced because compared to asphalt, and or concrete pavement and no

heavy machinery is used for repairing or replacing of the block. If one block is damaged or

stained with oil, diesel or petrol spillages, paving blocks can be easily removed and replaced
with new one. Paving blocks are cost-effective because of the mass production, it has reduced

the price of paving blocks and made it easily affordable (Nar, 2018).

Paving blocks are used worldwide in streets, driveways, sidewalks and squares, mainly

because of their resistance to movement and breakage, durability and aesthetically pleasing

surfaces (Uygunoglu et al., 2012, Costa et al., 2014). These features result in longer pavement

life, reduced maintenance costs and extended replacement cycle, while conserving the use of raw

materials. Moreover, paving blocks eliminate storm water runoff and conserve land, may be

produced using local materials, labor and recycled content, that reduce energy requirements and

carbon footprint (Scholz and Grabowiecki, 2007, ICPI, 2015), making possible their integration

into municipal green infrastructure and low impact development programs. In addition, light

colored pavers are cooler than conventional asphalt and help to reduce urban temperatures and

improve air quality (USEPA, 2015).

Due to the growing and widespread use of paving blocks throughout the world,

associated with the need for reducing consumption of natural resources and production costs,

researchers have focused on incorporating different wastes as alternative materials Ganjian et al.

(2015).

Saccharum officinarum

Saccharum officinarum, also known as sugar cane, is a perennial plant that can grow up

to 20 feet tall and tillers at the base to create a number of robust unbranched and jointed stems. It

is a member of the Poaceae (grass) family’s Andropogoneae tribe. Modern sugarcane cultivars

are mostly the result of interspecific hybridizations between Saccharum species (Simmonds,

1676; Daniels and Roach, 1987). Sugar cane is cultivated in countries with latitudes between the
equator’s latitudes of 36.7°N and 31.0°S. The crop thrives best in places with uniformly

distributed rainfall throughout the growing season, extended sunshine hours, and no rain during

the preharvest ripening phase. Sugarcane is one of the top ten most planted crops in the planet.

Worldwide, almost one billion tons are extracted each year (Ahfeld, 1966).

The fibrous residue left behind after sugarcane stalks are crushed for sugar extraction is

what we call bagasse. Bagasse is a kind of plant fiber, it is the fibrous material left over from the

processing of sugarcane, sorghum, or agave. It is also regarded as bio-waster. Bagasse is often

discarded, with the option of allowing it to decompose or burning it, which might be problematic

due to air pollution. Bagasse, on the other hand, may be useful since it is used as a fuel source of

sugar mills, used to make paper, and can even be utilized to make construction materials and

consumer items owing to its benefits (Brownell, 2020).

According to the study conducted by Yahya et al. (2015) on the usage of sugarcane

bagasse as an additive in building materials, stated that the sugarcane bagasse were blended and

mixed with 30MPa concrete with certain ratio and tested for compressive, flexural, water

absorption and penetration. From the tests, it shows that the sugarcane bagasse gives a positive

impact to concrete. Therefore, the usage of sugarcane bagasse can be considered as a concept of

utilizing waste material for sustainable approach.

According to a study conducted by Zapanta et al. (2019) the researchers combined the

ash of the fibrous materials which are the Saccharum officinarum bagasse and Cocos nucifera

Husk in order to improve the compressive strength of the concrete hollow blocks. The results

shows that hollow blocks with 500g SCBA and 500g CHA is greater by 185 units than the

commercial concrete hollow blocks, the latter only having 68.67 units of compressive strength. A
study from Kumator Taku (2012) also states that Saccharum officinarum Bagasse ash helps

improve the compressive strenth of concrete hollow blocks.

Perna Canaliculus

Perna Canaliculus (Green-lipped mussel) is a New Zealand native with a difficult life

cycle. They can live in the wild for several years and grow to a shell length of 20 cm or more,

however most are reproductively active by the time they reach 4-5 cm (NIWA, n.d.). Green

lipped mussels contain a high concentration of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which can be

employed in the formulation of medicine, construction, or as a filler in polymer materials. These

shells are composed of 95% calcium carbonate , with the remainder containing organic materials

and other compounds3. The improper disposal of solid waste from shellfish farms diminishes

water oxygen and microalgae, both of which are crucial for mussel and oyster nutrition, hence

inhibiting shellfish growth (Hamester et al., 2012).

Mussels are grown for a further 9–12 months before they are harvested. Mussel barges,

which harvest the mussels, are highly mechanised and contain equipment for removing mussels

from lines, then declumping, washing, sorting and packing them. There are challenges when it

comes to mussel farming, such as unpredictable spat supply, resettlement of spat away from

nursery lines, predation of spat by fish, organisms other than mussels (seaweeds, sea squirts and

so on) fouling longlines, and accumulation of toxins within mussels (Trottier, 2015). Because

most farmed green-lipped mussels are grown from wild spat, farmed and wild mussels are not

distinct populations. Many aspects of their life cycle and living conditions are identical – both

farmed and wild mussels feed on phytoplankton and mate by means of broadcast spawning. Both

are susceptible to predation, infestation by parasites and accumulation of toxins (Jeffs, 2015).
 According to the study on the physical and mechanical properties of concrete containing

green mussel shell ash as an admixture which was conducted by Ismail et al. (2019) stated that

the high calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content in the mussel shell served as filler within the pores

of the hardened concrete. Furthermore, the concrete specimens containing the mussel shell ash

(GMSA2) demonstrated higher compressive strengths when compared to the control specimen.

Some previous studies in New Zealand have measured the concentrations of chemicals in

tissues from marine organisms, few to date have developed biomarkers of contaminant exposure.

In the current study attempts were made to develop biomarkers for heavy metal contamination in

the endemic New Zealand greenshell mussel Perna Canaliculus (Whyte, 2021).

Related Studies

According to the study conducted by Handayasari et al. (2018) entitled “Utilizing waste

plastic bottles of mineral water and green shells as mixture of paving blocks”, waste plastic

bottles of mineral water and green shells can be used as an alternative in making paving blocks.

The purpose of this study is to reduce the use of natural materials in meeting the needs of

construction materials by utilizing waste plastic bottles of mineral water and green mussel shell

waste as substitutes for making paving blocks. Based from the test results, it was determined that

the mixture with the optimum mixture variation of 10% plastic bottle waste + 10% shell waste

had a compressive strength value of 12.8 Mpa and the percentage of water absorption at the age

of 49 days was 1.94%, making it suitable for usage as one of the most environmentally friendly

alternative building materials.

Another study conducted by Rajkumar, et. al. (2016) on the use of bagasse ash paver

blocks in low volume traffic road pavement, the usage of bagasse ash leads to far lesser
environmental hazard than conventional concrete, which leads to reduce the pollution and global

warming. In addition, it shows the economical benefit in terms of construction and maintenance

cost by replacing cement with bagasse ash in concrete paver blocks.

Arellano, et al. (2022) from De La Salle University Integrated School (Manila) conducted

a study on the utilization of green mussels shell powder's fire retardant property as an additive

for water-based paint. The researchers devised an experimental design based on Taguchi

Orthogonal Array with four three-level factors to find the effect of varying multiple factors

(amount of coating, additive concentration, burning time during additive preparation, and particle

size) on the weight loss of plywood sheets coated with modified paint subject to fire exposure.

Weight loss of material is the indicator of fire retardancy of the coating. The variables result in

an average weight loss of 0.41641%, which is the minimum average across all runs. As a result,

mussel shell powder additive yielded greater flame retardation compared to the baseline and has

the potential to be fire retardant due to its calcium carbonate composition.

According to the study conducted by Ismail et al. (2019) on the properties of concrete

containing mussel shell ash as an admixture, the high calcium content in the mussel shells

provide additional calcium to the concrete mixture and will produce better concrete compared to

normal concrete. The study tested the compressive strength, tensile strength, and capillary

absorption on the hardened concrete that contained the green mussel shell ash mix right after 7,

28, and 60 curing days. As a result, the addition of the mussel shell ash has improved the

mechanical properties of the hardened concrete based from the tests.

 Banaag: Dual Axis Solar Tracking System with
Weather Sensor

Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

This chapter presents the review of related literature that will auxiliary deepen the

background of the research study which is “Banaag: A Dual Axis Solar Tracking System with

Weather Sensor” as well as to provide added justification for accompanying this study. It is

divided into seven parts: (1) History and Uses of Solar Energy, (2) History and Uses of Solar

Panel, (3) Benefits of Solar Panels, (4) History and Uses of Solar Tracking System, (5)

Background of Weather, (6) History, Uses of Weather Sensor, and (7) Related Studies.

Part One, History and Uses of Solar energy, explains the background of solar energy, its

characteristics, the place where it was first introduced and its uses.

Part Two, History and Uses of Solar Panel, explains the background of solar panel, its

characteristics, the place where it was first introduced and its uses.

Part Three, Benefits of Solar Panels, presents the benefits and advantages of using solar

panels in different areas.

Part Four, History and Uses of Solar Tracking System, explains the back-ground of solar

tracking system, its characteristics, the place where it was first introduced and its uses.

Part Five, Background of Weather, explains the background and definition of weather.

Part Six, History and Uses of Weather Sensor, explains the background of weather

sensor, its characteristics, the place where it was first introduced and its uses.

Part Seven, Related Studies, discusses some other topics related to our study.
History and Uses of Solar Energy

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of

technologies such as solar power to generate electricity, solar thermal energy including solar

water heating, and solar architecture. It is an essential source of renewable energy, and its

technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how

they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques

include the use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power, and solar water heating to

harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting

materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that

naturally circulate air (Philibert Cedric, 2007).

The origins of modern solar power can be traced all the way back to 1839. At the time, a

19-year-old French physicist named A.E. Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect, which

had previously been associated with phosphorescence and luminescence. When gold or platinum

plates were immersed in a solution and then exposed to uneven solar radiation, he discovered

that an electrical current was generated. This discovery piqued the interest of scientists all over

the world. August Mouchet, a French mathematician, began registering patents for solar powered

engines in the early 1860s. Mouchet and his assistant Abel Pifre, who went on to develop the

first solar-powered printing press, displayed their solar-powered engine at the Universal

Exhibition in Paris in 1878. Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels use the sun's power to create a flow

of electricity. This is the most widely adopted method of harvesting solar energy today. These

panels, which range in size from a few square centimeters to a few square meters, are constructed

from many PV cells arranged in an intricate matrix. Solar energy harvesting technology is

increasingly utilized as an alternative to electricity generated by fossil fuel. While various

methods of solar energy harvesting exist, they all fundamentally use the sun to perform work in a

specifically desired way, something we traditionally rely on electricity to do. Increases in

efficiencies and process optimizations will continue to unveil the productivity of solar harvesting

efforts and may eliminate the need for fossil fuel use altogether (Zach Wendt, 2020).

Humans may have used solar energy as early as the seventh century B.C., according to

theory. When history tells us that humans used magnifying glass materials to light fires with

sunlight. Later, in the third century B.C., the Greeks and Romans were known to use mirrors to

harness solar power to light torches for religious ceremony. In the late 1700s and 1800s,

researchers and scientists had success using sunlight to power ovens for long voyages. They also

harnessed the power of the sun to produce solar-powered steamboats. Ultimately, it’s clear that

even thousands of years before the era of solar panels, the concept of manipulating the power of

the sun was a common practice (Energysave, 2019).

History and Uses of Solar Panel

The development of solar energy goes back more than 100 years. In the early days, solar energy

was used primarily for the production of steam which could then be used to drive machinery. But

it wasn't until the discovery of the "photovoltaic effect" by Edmond Becquerel that would allow

the conversion of sunlight solar electric energy. Becquerel's discovery then led to the invention

in 1893 by Charles Fritts of the first genuine solar cell which was formed by coating sheets of

selenium with a thin layer of gold. And from this humble beginning would arise the device we

know today as the solar panel. Russel Ohl, an American inventor on the payroll of Bell

Laboratories, patented the world's first silicon solar cell in 1941. Ohl's invention led to the

production of the first solar panel in 1954 by the same company. Solar panels found their first
mainstream use in space satellites. For most people, the first solar panel in their life was probably

embedded in their new calculator - circa the 1970s.

Some of the earliest uses of solar technology were actually in outer space where solar

was used to power satellites. In 1958, the Vanguard I satellite used a tiny one-watt panel to

power its radios. Later that year the Vanguard II, Explorer III and Sputnik-3 were all launched

with PV technology on board. In 1964, NASA was responsible for launching the first Nimbus

spacecraft, a satellite able to run entirely on a 470 watt solar array. In 1966, NASA launched the

world’s first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, powered by a one-kilowatt array (Luke

Richardson, 2018).

Solar panels collect clean renewable energy in the form of sunlight and convert that light

into electricity which can then be used to provide power for electrical loads. Solar panels are

comprised of several individual solar cells which are themselves composed of layers of silicon,

phosphorous (which provides the negative charge), and boron (which provides the positive

charge). Solar panels absorb the photons and in doing so initiate an electric current. The resulting

energy generated from photons striking the surface of the solar panel allows electrons to be

knocked out of their atomic orbits and released into the electric field generated by the solar cells

which then pull these free electrons into a directional current. This entire process is known as the

Photovoltaic effect. An average home has more than enough roof area for the necessary number

of solar panels to produce enough solar electricity to supply all of its power needs excess

electricity generated goes onto the main power grid, paying off in electricity use at night

(SolarTech, 2019).
Benefits of Solar Panels

Using solar panels is a very practical way to produce electricity for many applications.

The obvious would have to be off-grid living. Living off-grid means living in a location that is

not serviced by the main electric utility grid. Remote homes and cabins benefit nicely from solar

power systems. No longer is it necessary to pay huge fees for the installation of electric utility

poles and cabling from the nearest main grid access point. A solar electric system is potentially

less expensive and can provide power for upwards of three decades if properly maintained.

Besides the fact that solar panels make it possible to live off-grid, perhaps the greatest benefit

that you would enjoy from the use of solar power is that it is both a clean and a renewable source

of energy. With the advent of global climate change, it has become more important that we do

whatever we can to reduce the pressure on our atmosphere from the emission of greenhouse

gases. Solar panels have no moving parts and require little maintenance. They are ruggedly built

and last for decades when properly maintained (MRSolar. Com, 2013).

History and uses of Solar Tracking System

Array was founded by CEO Ron Corio in Albuquerque in 1989 to pursue opportunities

presented by the solar power sector. Early on, Corio and his team had developed an innovative

approach to concentrator photovoltaic module systems that minimized reliance on expensive

silicon. The first solar tracker was a mechanical system by C. Finster, invented in 1962

(Sciencedirect,2014).

A dual-axis solar tracker enables panels to move along two axes, one north south and the

other [Link] type of system is intended to maximize solar energy collection all year long.

In addition to normal daily motion, it can track seasonal variations in the height of the sun
(Alazone Smith, 2021). The dual-axis solar tracker tracks the angular height position of the sun

from east-west. The dual-axis works similar to single axis. However dual-axis solar tracker

captures the solar energy more effectively by rotating its axis along vertical and horizontal axis.

Dual axis tracker perfectly aligns with the sun direction and tracks the sun movement in a more

efficient way and has a tremendous performance improvement. The proposed system is cost

effective also as a little modification in single axis tracker provided prominent power rise in the

system (Kun-jumon, [Link]., 2018).

A dual-axis solar tracker has two degrees of freedom that serve as axes of rotation and

provide constant power output throughout the day. It offers a greater degree of flexibility, which

allows for bigger energy outputs. It also provides a better degree of directional pointing

precision, making it relatively efficient to use (Niclas, 2020). Dual axis solar tracker is placed in

order to track the suns radiations in all the directions with maximum intensity to produce

electricity. It is the most efficient method for the energy conversion and less economical when

compared to other systems. As with a lot of solar developments, dual-axis trackers evolved from

Europe. According to AllEarth president and CEO ,David Blittersdorf, areas like Spain have

embraced the dual-axis tracker as one of the best ways to harness the sun’s power for some time.

In America, the market evolved from a niche market for maximizing solar energy production.

Location plays into this, as states have different laws regarding solar energy production and net

metering. Dual-axis trackers obviously win the game when it comes to smaller arrays. Single-

axis trackers only work if there’s enough land for a long span of panels. But dual-axis arrays can

work just as well on larger projects as single axis models material costs are similar but dual-axis

trackers produce more power since the sun is being followed more accurately (Kelly Pickerel,

2017).
 Since the 1700s, technological developments have stimulated economic growth and

improved quality of life. Conventional electricity introduced the world to modern energy and it

single-handedly caused a 125% increase in energy usage worldwide. But conventional energy

requires consumption of finite resources, which is not sustainable. This dilemma sparked the

growth of alternative forms of electricity, including solar energy. Solar energy became

widespread in the 1970s during the oil crisis, and it's now a fixture on the US and global energy

scene. Today, solar is the most popular form of renewable energy in the world. Each year, the

sun produces enough electricity to meet the world's energy needs without having to use fossil

fuels and it is used to power homes, buildings and entire communities (Enlyten, 2020).

The present weather sensor (PWS) is a component of an automatic weather station that

detects the presence of hydrometeors and determines their type (rain, snow, drizzle, etc.) and

intensity. It works on a principle similar to a bistatic radar, noting the passage of droplets, or

flakes, between a transmitter and a sensor. These instruments in automatic weather stations are

used to simulate the observation taken by a human observer. They allow rapid reporting of any

change in the type and intensity of precipitation, but include interpretation limitations. The

purpose of the weather sensor is to detect or sense the air temperature, humidity and rain drops.

A sensor is a device which detects or measures a physical property and records, indicates, or

otherwise responds to it. In weather stations, sensors can vary between models but most measure

wind speed, wind direction, outdoor and indoor temperatures, outdoor and indoor humidity,

barometric pressure, rainfall, and UV or solar radiation ( Robert [Link], 2019).

Background of Weather

Weather is the state of the air and atmosphere at a specific time and location, including

temperature and other outside conditions. Humidity is the presence of water vapor in the

atmosphere. The more water evaporates in a given area, the more water vapor rises into the air,

and the higher the humidity of that area is. Hot places tend to be more humid than cool places

because heat causes water to evaporate faster (Nationalgeographic org, 2011).

Air temperature is a measure of how hot or cold the air is. It is the most commonly

measured weather parameter. More specifically, temperature describes the kinetic energy, or

energy of motion, of the gases that make up air. As gas molecules move more quickly, air

temperature increases (Fondriest Staff, 2010). Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that

have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then become heavy enough to fall under

gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of

the fresh water on the Earth (Virga org, 2016).

History and Uses of Weather Sensor

Weather sensor is important because aside from measuring internal temperature and

environmental humidity, other sensors can be used to determine wind direction, wind speed, etc.

Weather stations transmitters have a range of 100 m (without any obstacle). All the sensors are

automatically detected by weather stations, so they can be used instantaneously. (Industrial

needs, 2018). The indoor digital display included with most weather stations contain sensors to

measure the barometric pressure, indoor temperature and humidity. This allows you to track

changes in temperature, humidity and barometric pressure to generate a forecast of future

weather conditions personalized for your exact location ( AcuRite Blog, 2017).
 Modern weather tools didn't begin development until the 1400's. Before this, weather

observation was extremely rudimentary mostly based on the appearance of the sky and the feel

of the air. Much of the development of these weather tools was not just necessitated by

agriculture, but also due to an increase in sea travel. Because storms at sea can be deadly, and

ships were propelled by the wind, the ability to predict weather conditions relevant to sailing was

extremely important.

Weather observation as we know it truly began to be developed in the early to mid-

1400’s. In 1441, a Korean crown prince named Munjong of Joseon developed the first standard

rain gauge. This rain gauge was then popularized across the country by his father, Sejong the

Great. Following developments in weather monitoring included the first water thermometer in

1593, the first practical humidity measurement system in 1664, and the first barometer in 1643.

Over time, these weather tools were further improved and refined (Acurite, 2018).

A hygrometer is an instrument used to measure the amount of water vapor in air, in soil,

or in confined spaces. Humidity measurement instruments usually rely on measurements of some

other quantities such as temperature, pressure, mass, a mechanical or electrical change in a

substance as moisture is absorbed. By calibration and calculation, these measured quantities can

lead to a measurement of humidity. Modern electronic devices use temperature of condensation

(called the dew point), or changes in electrical capacitance or resistance to measure humidity

differences. A crude hygrometer was invented by Leonardo da Vinci in 1480. Major leaps came

forward during the 1600s; Francesco Folli invented a more practical version of the device, while

Robert Hooke improved a number of meteorological devices including the hygrometer. A more

modern version was created by Swiss polymath Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1755. Later, in the
year 1783, Swiss physicist and Geologist Horace Bénédict de Saussure invented the first

hygrometer using human hair to measure humidity (Hamblyn Richard, 2010).

Galileo is reported to have built a device that showed changes in temperature sometime

around 1592. This appears to have used the contraction of air in a vessel to draw up a column of

water, the height of the column indicating the extent of cooling. However, this was strongly

influenced by air pressure and was little more than a novelty. The thermometer as we know it

was invented in 1612 in what is now Italy by Santorio Santorii. He sealed liquid inside a glass

tube, ob-serving how it moved up the tube as it expanded. A scale on the tube made it easier to

see changes, but the system lacked precise units (Omega, 2018).

Working with Roemer was Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit. He began manufacturing

thermometers, using both alcohol and mercury as the liquid. Mercury is ideal, as it has a very

linear response to temperature change over a large range, but concerns over toxicity have led to

reduced Other liquids have now been developed to replace it. Liquid thermometers are still

widely used, although it is important to control the depth at which the bulb is immersed. Using a

thermowell helps ensure good heat transfer (Omega, 2018). In 1958, the Cadillac Motor Car

Division of General Motors experimented with a water-sensitive switch that triggered various

electric motors to close the convertible top and raise the open windows of a specially built

Eldorado Biarritz model, in case of rain. The first such device appears to have been used for that

same purpose in a concept vehicle designated Le Sabre and built around 1950–51. General

Motors' automatic rain sensor for convertible tops was available as a dealer installed option

during the 1950s for vehicles such as the Chevrolet Bel Air. For the 1996 Model Year, Cadillac

once again equipped cars with an automatic rain sensor; this time to automatically trigger the

windshield wipers and adjust their speed to conditions as necessary (Karstens, [Link]., 2010).
 The present weather sensor (PWS) is a component of an automatic weather station that

detects the presence of hydrometeors and determines their type (rain, snow, drizzle, etc.) and

intensity. It works on a principle similar to a bistatic radar, noting the passage of droplets, or

flakes, between a transmitter and a sensor. These instruments in automatic weather stations are

used to simulate the observation taken by a human observer. They allow rapid reporting of any

change in the type and intensity of precipitation, but include interpretation limitations. The

purpose of the weather sensor is to detect or sense the air temperature, humidity and rain drops.

A sensor is a device which detects or measures a physical property and records, indicates, or

otherwise responds to it. In weather stations, sensors can vary between models but most measure

wind speed, wind direction, outdoor and indoor temperatures, outdoor and indoor humidity,

barometric pressure, rainfall, and UV or solar radiation (Robert [Link],2019).

Related Studies

A study by Amit Chakraborty Chhoton and Narayan Ranjan Chakraborty entitled “ Dual

Axis Solar Tracking System- A Comprehensive Study: Bangladesh Context” proves that dual

axis solar panels plays a significant role in achieving cost-effective energy sources. The demand

for reliable and abundant source of energy has been increasing day by day which shows that

energy crisis is one of the prime issues of many countries in the world because there is an

enormous gap between generation and demand of electrical energy. The use of renewable energy

is the main solution to this problem. Dual axis solar trackers has higher degree of flexibility,

allowing for a higher energy output. It also have a higher degree of accuracy in directional

pointing which makes it more efficient for energy conversion compared to other systems.
 Now that the entire globe is seeking for renewable energy as an alternative source, energy

harvesting is a fascinating area of research. With this, researchers Priyanka B. Shelar, Mali

Abhishek Dattatray, Sarvankar Prathamesh Kishore, Gaikwad Ketan Jitendra, and Randive Ravi

Devidas, have made a study entitled “Dual Axis Solar Tracking System with Weather Sensor”

that gives information about the performance analysis of dual- axis solar tracking system using

Arduino. The ultimate objective of this project is to investigate whether static solar panel is

better than solar tracker, or the opposite. This project is divided into two stages namely,

hardware and software development. In hardware development, five light dependent resistors

(LDR) were utilized to capture the maximum light source from the sun. Two servo motors also

were employed to move the solar panel to maximum light source location sensed by the LDRs.

As for the software part, the code was constructed by using C programming language and was

targeted to the Arduino UNO controller. The performance of the solar tracker was analyzed and

compared with the static solar panel and the result showed that the solar tracker is better than the

static solar panel in terms of voltage, current and power. Therefore, the solar tracker is proven

more effective for capturing the maximum sunlight source for solar harvesting applications.

Another study by Mahir Asif Mohammed,Sanzidur Rahman ,Sayedus Salehin, and

Mohammad Abdul Mannan, entitled “Energy Efficient Hybrid Dual Axis Solar Tracking

System” shows the design and implementation of an energy efficient solar tracking system from

a normal mechanical single axis to a hybrid dual axis. For optimizing the solar tracking

mechanism electromechanical systems were evolved through implementation of different

evolutional algorithms and methodologies. To present the tracker, a hybrid dual-axis solar

tracking system is designed, built, and tested based on both the solar map and light sensor based
continuous tracking mechanism. These light sensors also compare the darkness and cloudy and

sunny conditions assisting daily tracking.

The designed tracker can track sun’s apparent position at different months and seasons;

thereby the electrical controlling device requires a real time clock device for guiding the tracking

system in seeking solar position for the seasonal motion. So the combination of both of these

tracking mechanisms made the designed tracker a hybrid one. The power gain and system power

consumption are compared with a static and continuous dual axis solar tracking system. It is

found that power gain of hybrid dual axis solar tracking system is almost equal to continuous

dual axis solar tracking system, whereas the power saved in system operation by the hybrid

tracker is 44.44% compared to the continuous tracking system.

In the study “Measurement of Temperature and Humidity by using Arduino Tool and

DHT11” conducted by Deeksha Srivastava, Awanish Kesarwani, et al. DHT11 sensor module is

a combined module for sensing humidity and temperature that produces a calibrated digital

output signal. DHT11 provides very precise value of humidity and temperature readings, as well

as great reliability and long-term stability. This sensor includes a resistive type humidity

measurement component and an NTC type temperature component, as well as an 8-bit

microcontroller with fast response and cost effective, available in 4-pin single row configuration.

A study by Vaishnavi Gotmare, Rajesh Kolte, and Rutwik Thengodkar of Tata Institute

of Fundamental Researc presents a design of weather monitoring system. It stores data collected

at some pre-determined sampling interval, with date and time stamps for later retrieval with real-

time notifications for supervision and analysis of different environmental parameters like

temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind speed, wind direction, air quality, light

intensity, amount of rainfall and coordinates of the location. It consists of an Arduino UNO
(micro-processor) which acts as a gateway to collect data and information through different

probes. Such type of system can be used in controlled environment like agriculture farms and

aqua culture. Arduino Uno was successful in fetching data from sensors i.e. DHT11 that will

compute the temperature and humidity. The data from DHT11 is being sent to the open-source

database used to store data at regular intervals.

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