DESIGN OF (G+2) STOREYED BUILDING BASED ON

SOIL BEARING CAPACITY CONSIDERING

SHEAR AND SETTLEMENT CRITERIA

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the

award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

JHADE ESWAR 12002028

T KAVYA PRIYA 12002065
D RUDHIRA 12002020
METTAI SAI CHANDU 12002043
THOTA KEERTHI 12002060

Under the guidance of

Dr. Ch. SUDHA RANI

Professor in Civil Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SRI VENKATESWARA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
TIRUPATHI-517502 (AP)-INDIA
2023-2024
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SRI VENKATESWARA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
TIRUPATI-517502

CERTIFICATE
Certified that this is the bonafide report of the project work entitled
DESIGN OF (G+2) STOREYED BUILDING BASED ON
SOIL BEARING CAPACITY CONSIDERING
SHEAR AND SETTLEMENT CRITERIA

Submitted by
JHADE ESWAR 12002028
T KAVYA PRIYA 12002065
D RUDHIRA 12002020
METTAI SAI CHANDU 12002043
THOTA KEERTHI 12002060

In the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Dr. Ch. SUDHA RANI Dr. Ch. SUDHA RANI

Guide, Professor Professor and Head,
Dept. of Civil Engineering Dept. of Civil Engineering
S.V.U. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING S.V.U. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Tirupati-517502 Tirupati-517502
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The successful completion of this major project report is made possible

with the help of the department. We would like to avail this opportunity
to express our sincere thanks and gratitude to all of them.
We are deeply indebted to our guide Prof. CH. Sudha Rani, Department
of Civil Engineering. We are really fortunate to associate ourselves with
such an advising and helping guide in every possible way at all stages for
successful completion of this major project work.
We extend our deep sense of gratitude to Prof CH. Sudha Rani, Head of
Department of Civil Engineering for providing facilities and for
supporting us in completion of this major project work successfully.
Also, our sincere gratitude to Dr. R. V. S. SATYANARAYANA, Professor
and principal, SVU College of Engineering.
Finally, we have notion to express our sincere thanks to all those who
guided, inspired, and helped us directly or indirectly in the completion
major project work.
D RUDHIRA
JHADE ESWAR
METTAI SAI CHANDU
THOTA KEERTHI
T KAVYA PRIYA
 ABSTRACT
Ground conditions are pivotal in planning and executing building and infrastructure
projects, influencing factors like foundation types and excavation needs.
Geotechnical investigations are crucial for understanding these conditions, tailored
to project specifics including structure type and anticipated ground conditions.

Understanding soil properties is crucial in civil engineering, ensuring safe and

efficient structure design. This involves comprehensive assessment through field
and laboratory testing, enabling engineers to predict soil behaviour under various
loads. Experimental procedures provide insights into soil behaviour, guiding
informed design decisions.

Soil distribution and composition vary across locations due to factors like rock type,
minerals, and climate. These variations directly affect geotechnical properties,
impacting the stability of civil engineering structures. Interactions between these
properties underscore the importance of comprehensive analysis and
understanding.

Structural planning and design combine creativity with technical knowledge.

Engineers require a deep understanding of structural principles and practical
familiarity with design codes and regulations to ensure structures are aesthetically
pleasing, durable, safe, and cost-effective.

For this project, a comprehensive site assessment determines key geotechnical soil
properties such as specific gravity, consistency limits, particle size analysis,
compaction, consolidation, permeability, and shear strength. These findings help in
assessment of Bearing Capacity of in-situ which guide the design of a residential
building, customized to meet functional needs, and comply with regulations. The
building plan is prepared using AutoCAD, a software tool. Material selection follows
industry standards like IS: 456-2000, SP-16, and SP 34 specifications, ensuring
structural integrity and safety compliance.
 SYMBOLS USED:
A - Area
𝐴𝑠𝑡 - Area of steel reinforcement in concrete and masonry
column design
B- Breadth of beam, or shorter dimension of a rectangular
column
𝑏𝑒𝑓 - Effective width of slab
𝑏𝑖 - Effective width of flange
𝑏𝑤 - Breadth of web or rib
D - Overall depth of beam or slab or diameter of column dimension
of a rectangular column in the direction under consideration
𝐷𝑡 - Thickness of flange
DL - Dead load
D - Effective depth of beam or slab
d' - Depth of compression reinforcement from the highly compressed
face
𝐸𝑐 - Modulus of elasticity of concrete
EL - Earthquake load
ES - Modulus of elasticity of steel
e - Eccentricity
𝑓𝑐𝑘 - Characteristic cube compressive strength of concrete
fy - Characteristic strength of steel
k - Stiffness of member
𝐿𝐷 - Development of length
LL - Live Load
L - Length of column or beam between adequate lateral restraints or
the unsupported length of column
𝑙𝑒𝑓 - Effective span of beam or slab or effective length of column
𝑙𝑒𝑥 - Effective length about x-x axis
𝑙𝑒𝑦 - Effective length about y-y axis
𝑙𝑛 - Clear span, face-to-face of supports
𝑙𝑛 ‘ – 𝑙𝑛 ' for shorter of the two spans at right angles
𝑙𝑥 - Length of shorter side of slab
𝑙𝑦 - Length of longer side of slab
𝑙𝑜 - Distance between points of zero moment in a beam
𝑙𝑡 - Span in the direction in which moments are determined,
Centre to Centre of supports
M- Bending moment
m - Modular ratio
n - Number of samples
p - Axial load on a compression member
𝑞𝑢 - Calculated maximum bearing pressure
𝑞𝑛 - - Calculated maximum bearing pressure of soil
r - Radius
s - Spacing of stirrups or standard deviation
T - Torsional moment
t - Wall thickness
V - Shear force
 W- Total load
WL - Wind load
Table of Contents
Abstract
Symbols
Chapter-1: Introduction
Planning vs detailed designing and calculations
Chapter-2 Experimental study
2.1 Grain Size Distribution
2.1.1 Dry Sieve Analysis
2.1.2 Hydrometer Analysis
2.2 Atterberg Limits
2.2.1 Liquid Limit
2.2.2 Plastic Limit
2.2.3 Shrinkage Limit
2.3 In -situ Density by Core Cutter
2.4 Free Swell Index
2.5 I S Light Compaction Test
2.6 Falling Head Permeability
2.7 Tri axial Shear Test
Chapter-3: Estimation of Bearing Capacity of Soil
3.1 Types of Bearing Capacity of Soil
3.2 Calculation of Bearing Capacity
3.2.1 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory
3.2.2 Hansen’s Bearing Capacity Theory
3.2.3 Vesic’s Bearing Capacity Theory
Calculation of safe bearing capacity of the soil collected
Chapter 4: Footings
4.1 Types of Foundations
(A) Shallow Foundations
(B) Deep Foundations
Chapter 5: Design of Slabs
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Types of Slabs
5.2.1 One way slabs
5.2.2 Two Way slabs
5.3 General Design Requirements for slabs as per IS:456-2000
5.4 Design of Two Way Slabs
5.4.1 Recommendations for slabs as per IS:456-2000
5.4.2 Design procedure for Two Way slab
5.4.3 Reinforcement Detailing of Two Way Slabs
Design of slabs
Chapter 6: Design of Beams
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Assumptions
6.3 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Sections
6.3.1 Effective Depth
6.3.2 Modes of Failures / Types of Sections
6.3.3 Procedure
6.4 Introduction to T and L Beams
6.5 Advantages of T-Beams
6.6 Dimensions of the Beam
6.7 Transverse Reinforcement
Design of Beams
Chapter 7: Design of Columns
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Necessity of Reinforcement in Columns

7.3 Types of Columns

7.4 Effective Length of the Column
7.5 Slenderness Limits for column
7.6 Minimum Eccentricity
7.7 Load carrying capacity of Axially Loaded Short Columns
7.8 Long columns or Slender columns
7.9 Design Requirements for columns (Clause 26.5.3 of IS:456)
7.10 Cover
7.11 Design of Columns using SP16
Design of Columns
Chapter 8: Estimation and Costing
8.1 Introduction
8.2 UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
8.3 TECHNICAL TERMS
8.4 REQUIREMENTS OF ESTIMATION AND COSTING
8.5 PROCEDURE OF ESTIMATING OR METHOD OF ESTIMATING
8.6 PLANS AND SECTIONAL VIEW OF G+2 RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
8.7 ABSTRACT AND DETAILED ESTIMATE OF PROPOSED G+2 RESIDENTIAL
BUILDING
Chapter 9: Conclusion
 1.INTRODUCTION

1.1General:
A precise understanding of the characteristics and engineering
properties of soils at a site is paramount for effective design and
successful construction of any structure. The comprehensive field and
laboratory investigations necessary to acquire the soil data, known as
soil investigation, which are crucial for further development activity.

The selection of foundation type, its depth, bearing capacity,

settlement analysis, and other critical aspects heavily rely on the
engineering properties of the foundation soils. A thorough soil
investigation is therefore indispensable for ensuring the structural
integrity and stability of any construction project.

1.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION:

Soil investigation is essential not only for the initial design and
construction of new structures but also for determining necessary
remedial measures should a structure exhibit signs of distress post-
construction. Similarly, the design and construction of highway and
airport pavements hinge on the characteristics of the soil strata on
which they will be laid.

The term 'site investigation' encompasses the process of assessing both

surface and subsurface conditions in the proposed construction area,
giving it a broader scope than 'soil exploration', which it includes.
Understanding surface conditions is crucial for planning construction
techniques, while information on subsurface conditions is vital for
several reasons. For instance, it can reveal the need for dewatering and
establish the necessity for bracing excavations for foundations.
The significance of thorough site investigation and soil exploration
cannot be overstated, as the lack thereof can result in increased costs
due to unforeseen challenges, necessitating modifications in project
design and execution. Typically, the cost of a comprehensive
investigation and exploration program amounts to less than 1% of the
total project cost.

Prudent thinking and planning can yield significant benefits. The

importance of engineering planning is increasingly recognized, as the
excellence with which project details are worked out cannot remedy
fundamental defects in the basic concept and general plan of a project.

The designer should always remember that in new construction

particularly, the structure to be built to house specific equipment,
material, people, it is to become part of operating, it is to be built only
once but used for an indefinitely long time.

Considerations for any difficulties in the solution of structural problems

should be secondary to the provision of the best plan for mechanical
layout, operation, and efficient use of space. Adequate provision should
be made in advance for various facilities to ensure efficient and
satisfactory operation. This includes considerations for light, ventilation,
materials, utilities, material handling equipment, offices, sanitary
facilities, accessibility, drainage, and other underground accessories, as
well as clearance and lighting.

The first stage of planning involves further development of this plan,

including the creation of the framing scheme, determination of basic
dimensions, choice of member types, adoption of principal
architectural features, and arrangement of parts to create a structure
that accommodates the equipment and activities it will house or
support.
Cheapness of construction alone is not an adequate measure of good
design; neither is wastefulness to be commended. It is generally better
to provide adequate vertical and horizontal clearance in the original
design and address how to secure them later.

An engineer is inherently engaged in the field of economics; however, it

appears that those who design structures often focus too much on the
economics of construction costs and too little on the service to be
rendered by the structure and the user's satisfaction with the result.
This is especially true in industrial construction. It is wise to save where
savings are prudent, and to be generous where generosity is equally
wise.

The design of structures should be based on thorough knowledge of

fabrication and construction procedures, the features and proper use
of materials, and the theory of structural action. An engineer should
know what is economical and what is wasteful. Such knowledge is
reflective of their skill and efficiency in planning and designing
structures, as well as understanding what structural services are
required, how a structure and its parts will deform, and how members
will act and interact. It is not necessary to know 'what' was done in a
given case, but it is very instructive to know 'why' those particular
things were done instead of others.

1.3 PLANNING Vs DETAILED DESIGNING AND CALCULATIONS

Planning is the initial stage of any engineering project, where the

overall scope, objectives, and requirements are outlined. It involves
conceptualizing the structure, considering its purpose, functionality,
and feasibility within the given constraints. During planning, the
general layout, dimensions, and materials are tentatively selected
based on the project's needs and the available resources.
Detailed designing and calculations, on the other hand, occur after
the planning phase. This stage involves the specific and precise
determination of structural elements, their dimensions, and how they
will be constructed. Detailed calculations are performed to ensure
that the structure meets all safety and performance requirements.

In the context of bearing capacity and design, planning would entail

identifying the loads the structure needs to support and the types of
foundations that may be suitable. It would also involve considering
factors such as soil conditions and environmental impacts.

Detailed designing and calculations would involve determining the

exact size and type of foundation required based on the soil's bearing
capacity and the structure's loads. Engineers would also calculate the
stresses and strains on the foundation and ensure that it is designed
to safely support the intended structure.

Overall, planning sets the direction and scope of the project, while
detailed designing and calculations ensure that the project is
executed safely and efficiently. Both are crucial stages in the
successful completion of any engineering project.
 2.EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
2.1Soil:
Soil from Tirupati is collected at 3m depth discarding all the
loose surface soil in this investigation and required tests are
conducted after pulverizing the soil to the required size as per
requirement of different tests to be conducted on soil.

2.2 DETERMINATION OF GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF

COLLECTED SOIL:
To classify the soil and determine the BEARING CAPACITY based
on Shear criteria and Settlement criteria of the soil collected,
the following tests are conducted on the collected soil sample.

Tests conducted:
1. Grain Size Distribution
1.1 Dry Sieve Analysis
1.2 Hydrometer Analysis (Sedimentation Analysis)
2. Atterberg Limits
2.1 Liquid Limit
2.2 Plastic Limit
2.3 Shrinkage Limit
3. In-situ Density by Core Cutter
4. IS Light Compaction Test for Compaction Characteristics
4.1 OMC
4.2 MDD
5. Free Swell Index
6. Falling Head Permeability
7. Undrained Tri axial Shear Test for Shear Parameter
@OMC&MDD
 2.1 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

2.1.1 DRY SIEVE ANALYSIS:

2.1.1.1 REFERENCE:
IS: 2720 (Part-IV)-1985.

2.1.1.2: SCOPE AND PURPOSE:

• Understanding this distribution is crucial for designing structures
and materials.
• In soil mechanics, grain size distribution helps classify soils and
predict their behaviour under different loading conditions,
influencing decisions in construction and foundation design.
• The data obtained from grain size distribution curves is used in
the design of filters for earth dams.
• To determine nature of soil for erosion.
• To determine the suitability of soil for road construction, air field
and many more.
2.1.1.3 MATERIALS AND APPARTUS REQUIRED:
• Is Sieves - store sieve of Size 4.75mm, 2.36m ,1.18 mm 600
microns ,425 microns 300 microns, 150 microns and 75 microns.
• Oven - Temperature should be maintained between 105° and
110°C
• Trays or Buckets
• Brushes
• Pan and lid
2.1.1.4 .TEST PROCEDURE:
• Take the soil sample from a location to perform is tests for
soil.
• If the soil sample is of large size particles should be made
into smaller size particles suitable for test procedure by
Pulverization.
• From the oven dried soil sample of 1 kg, take the soil
sample passing on 4.75 mm size sieve and retained on 75
microns size sieve.
• The proportion of soil sample retained on 75 micron I.S
sieve is weighed and recorded weight of soil sample is as
per I.S 2720.
• I.S sieves are selected and arranged in the order as shown
in the table. The soil sample is separated into various
fractions by sieving through above sees placed in the
above-mentioned order.
• The soil sample is separated into various fractions by
sieving through above sieves placed in the above-
mentioned order.
• The weight of soil retained on each sieve is recorded.
 Table:2.1 Dry Sieve Analysis

S. Parti Weight Correct Weight Cumulative %fin

N cle Retain ed Retain Weight er
o Size ed Weight ed Retained
(mm (g) (g) (%)
)
1 4.7 78.7 82.83 8.28 8 .28 91.7
5 2
2 2.3 41.8 45.93 4.59 12.87 87.1
6 3
3 1.1 323.6 327.73 32.77 43.64 54.3
8 6
4 0.6 193.5 197.03 19.76 65.40 34.6
0 0
5 0.4 83.6 87.73 8.77 74.17 25.8
25 3
6 0.3 72.3 76.43 7.64 81.81 18.1
0 9
7 0.1 124.8 128.93 12.89 94.73 5.27
5
8 0.0 48.6 52.73 5.27 100 0
75

𝑫𝟏𝟎 =0.19 𝑫𝟑𝟎 =0.4 𝑫𝟔𝟎 =1.2

𝑫
𝑪𝑼 = 𝑫𝟔𝟎 = 6.31
𝟏𝟎

(𝑫𝟑𝟎 )𝟐 (𝟎.𝟒)𝟐
𝑪𝑪 =𝑫 = (𝟎.𝟏𝟗)(𝟏.𝟐) =0.70
𝟔𝟎 𝑫𝟏𝟎

RESULT:
Effective size D10 = 0.19 mm
D30 = 0.4 mm
 D60 = 1.2 mm
Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu)=6.31
Coefficient of Curvature (Cc) = 0.70
2.1.2 HYDROMETER ANALYSIS (WET SIEVE)

2.1.2.1 REFERENCE: IS: 2720(Part IV)-1985.

2.1.2.2 SCOPE AND PURPOSE:

• For determining the grain size distribution of fine soil

sample, usually sieve analysis is carried out in which the
finer sieve used is 75 microns If a soil contains appreciable
quantities of fine fractions in (less than 75 micron) wet
analysis is done. One form of the analysis is hydrometer
analysis. It is very much helpful to classify the soil as per IS
classification. The properties of the soil are very much
influenced by the amount of clay and other fractions.
• To determine the grain size distribution of soil sample
containing appreciable number of fines.
• To draw a grain size distribution curve for fine soil.
2.1.2.3 MATERIALS AND APPARRUS REQUIRED:
Hydrometer - calibrated at 27°C, range of 0.995 to 1.030
g/cc.
• Glass Measuring Cylinders - two of 1000 ml capacity
• Thermometer
• Balance
• Sieves - 75µ size sieve
• Stirring Apparatus
• Oven
• Stopwatch
• Desiccators
• Measuring Jar
 • Conical Beaker
• Centimetre Scale

2.1.2.4 REAGENTS USED:

• 33 grams of Sodium Hexa meta phosphate
• 7 grams of Sodium Carbonate

2.1.2.5 TEST PROCEDURE:

2.1.2.5.1 Calibration of Hydrometer:
2.1.2.5.1.1 Volume:
• Volume of water displaced: Approximately 800 ml of water
shall be poured in the 1000 ml measuring cylinder. The
reading of the water level shall be observed and recorded.
• The hydrometer shall be immersed in the water and the
level shall again be observed and recorded as the volume
of the hydrometer bulb in mi plus volume of that part of
the stem that is submerged. For practical purposes the
error to the inclusion of this stem volume may be
neglected.
• From the weight of the hydrometer: The hydrometer shall
be weighed to the nearest 0.1 gm. The weight in gm shall
be recorded as the volume of the bulb plus the volume of
the stem below the 1000 ml graduation mark. For practical
purposes the error due to the inclusion of this stem may
be neglected.
2.1.2.5.1.2: Calibration:
• The sectional area of the 1000 ml measuring cylinder in
which the hydrometer is to used shall be determined by
measuring the distance between the graduations. The
sectional area is equal to the volume include between the
 two graduations divided by the measured
distance between them.
• Place the hydrometer on the paper and sketch it. On the
sketch note the lowest and highest readings which are on
the hydrometer and mark the neck of the bulb The
distance from the lowest reading to the centre of the bulb
is (Rn) shall be recorded
• The distance from the highest hydrometer reading to the
centre of the bulb shall be measured and recorded.
• Draw a graph hydrometer readings vs Hu and Ru. A straight
line is obtained. This calibration curve is used to calibrate
the hydrometer readings which are taken by immersing
the hydrometer each time.
• Take the soil sample of 1000 gm and add water to wash the
soil to it slurry. After some time allow the soil sample pass
through 75 microns. Then allow soil particles to settle
down for few more hours.
• Collect the settled down particles and oven dry the
sample. Then pulverize the sample and collect the 50
grams of oven dried soil passed through 75 microns.
• Dispersion of soil - A mixture of 33 grams of Sodium Hexa
metaphosphate and 7 grams of Sodium Carbonate with some
water is mixed thoroughly using stirring apparatus. Make this
solution into 1000 ml solution. This solution helps soil suspension
not make flocks and reduces the error.
• Take two glass cylinders of 1000 ml capacity then take
100ml of dispersion agents in each cylinder. In one Cylinder
add 100ml dispersion solution and 900 ml of water and in
another cylinder take 100 ml dispersion solution, 50 grams
of soil sample mixed with water using stirring apparatus and
remaining of cylinder with water up to 100 ml.
• Now take hydrometer, place it in suspension and note
hydrometer reading for 1" min and then place it in solution
 and again note the hydrometer reading. Repeat the same
process for 8 min, 15min, 30 min, 1hr, 2hrs, 4hrs and again
twice in 24hrs without disturbing both the cylinders.
RESULTS:
% GRAVEL 9.78
% SAND 7.61
% SILT + CLAY 82.61

2.2 ATTERBERG LIMITS:

2.2.1 LIQUID LIMIT:

2.2.1.1 REFERENCE: IS:2720(Part V)-1985
 2.2.1.2 SCOPE AND PURPOSE:

• Liquid limit, along with plastic limit and plasticity index, is used
to classify soils into various categories (e.g., silt, clay, sand)
based on their behaviour and suitability for construction
purposes.
• The liquid limit helps in understanding the strength and
compressibility characteristics of soils. Soils with higher liquid
limits tend to exhibit greater compressibility and lower
strength
• Knowledge of the liquid limit is essential for designing
foundations and determining the type of foundation (e.g.
shallow, or deep) required to support a structure adequately.
• Liquid limit tests are used to assess the quality of soils used in
construction projects. Soils with excessive liquid limits may
require stabilization or other treatment measures.
• The liquid limit of soil is a critical factor in analysing the stability
of slopes and embankments, helping to prevent landslides and
other slope failures.
2.2.1.3 MATERIALS AND APPARATUS REQUIRED:
• Liquid Limit Apparatus
• Porcelain Evaporating dish
• Grooving tools
• Balance with 0.1-gram accuracy

• Spatula
• Electric Oven
• distilled Water
• Mixing devices
 2.2.1.4 TEST PROCEDURE:
• About 300 grams of air-dried soil from thoroughly mixed
portion of material passing
• 425 micron I.S sieve is to be obtained.
• Distilled water is mixed to the soil on a glass plate to form
uniform paste. The paste shall have a consistency that
would require 40 to 50 drops of cup to cause closer of
standard groove for sufficient length.
• A portion of the paste is placed in the cup of Liquid Limit
device and spread into portion with few strokes of spatula.
• Trim it to a depth of 13 mm at the point of maximum
thickness and return excess of soil on to the glass plate.
• The soil in the cup shall be divided by the firm stroke of the
grooving tool along the diameter through the centre line
of the follower so that clean sharp groove of proper
dimension is formed.
• Lift and drop the cup by turning crank at the rate of two
revolutions per second until the two halves of soil cake
come in contact with each other for a length of about 1 cm
by flow only.
• The number of blows required to cause the groove close for
about 13 mm shall be recorded.
• A representative portion of soil is taken from the cup for
water content determination.
• Repeat the test with different moisture contents at least
three more times for blows between 10 and 40TAbk:-

S.N0 OBSERVATION 1 2 3 4
1 Weight of Soil 100 100 100 100
Taken
2 Amount of Water 35 40 45 50
Added
3 Number of 4 38 29 23
Blows(N)
4 Container No A 1 5 8
5 Weight of 35.20 28.60 31.70 39.60
Container(w1)
6 Weight of 93.17 75.27 72.48 60.60
container +
Wet soil (W2)
7 Weight of 62.6 I61.00 59.56 32.80
container +
Dry soil (W3)
8 Weight of Wet 37.97 46.07 40.78 23
soil (g)
9 Weight of Oven 27.4 32.4 27.86 15.2
dry soil
10 Weight Of 10.57 23.6 12.92 7.8
Water(W2-W3)
(g)
11 Water Content 38.6 42.2 46.4 51.3
(%)

Water Content for 25 Blows = 49.0%

Liquid Limit of Soil =49.0%

(𝑾𝟐 − 𝑾𝟏)
𝑰𝒇 =
𝑵𝟏
𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝑵𝟐)

Flow Index (𝑰𝒇 ) = 32.77%

RESULT: Water Content for 25 Blows = 49.0%
 Liquid Limit of Soil =49.0%
Flow Index (If) = 32.77%

2.2.2 PLASTIC LIMIT

2.2.2.1 REFERENCE:
IS 2720: (Part V)-1985

2.2.2.2 SCOPE AND PURPOSE:

Soil is used for making bricks, tiles and soil cement blocks in
addition to its use as foundation for structures.
2.2.2.3
APPARTUS REQUIRED:
• Porcelain dish
• Spatula
 • Balance – sensitive to 0.01
• Glass plate for rolling the specimen
• Containers to determine the moisture content.

2.2.2.4 TEST PROCEDURE:

• Put 50gm of air-dried soil, passed thorough 425 u sieve on
glass plate. Add distilled water into the soil and mix it
thoroughly to form uniform paste (the soil paste should be
plastic enough to be easily moulded with fingers.)
• Prepare soil masses by squeezing the soil between your
figures. Take one of the soil masses and roll it on the glass
surface using your figures. The pressure of rolling should
be just enough to make thread of uniform diameter of
3mm throughout its length.
• Continue rolling until you get the thread diameter of 3 mm.
• If the thread does not crumble at a diameter of 3 mm,
kneed the soil together to a uniform mass and re-roll.
• Continue the process until the thread crumbles when the
diameter is 3 mm.
• Collect the pieces of the crumbled thread for moisture
content determination.
• Repeat the test to at least 3 times and take the average of
the results calculated to the nearest whole number.
OBSERVATIONS: -
S.NO OBSERVATION 1 2
1 Container Number A 5
2 Weight of Container(W1) 9.80 9.70
3 Weight of Container + 34.90 35.00
Wet Soil (W2) (g)
4 Weight of Container + 29.90 29.85
Oven Dry Soil (W3) (g)
5 Weight of Wet Soil (g) 25.10 25.30
6 Weight of Dry Soil (g) 20.10 20.15
7 Weight of Water (W2-W3) 5.00 5.15
8 Water Content (%) 24.87 25.55

𝟐𝟒.𝟖𝟕 + 𝟐𝟓.𝟓𝟓
Average Plastic Limit = =25.21%
𝟐
Plastic Index = 𝑾𝒍 − 𝑾𝒑
= 49 - 25.21
=23.79%
RESULT: Average Plastic Limit =25.21%
Plastic Index = 23.79
2.2.3 SHRINKAGE LIMIT

2.2.3.1 REFERNCE:
IS: 2720(Part V) -1985

2.2.3.2 SCOPE AND PURPOSE:

• As the soil loses moisture, either in its natural
environment, or by artificial means in laboratory it changes
from liquid state to plastic state to semi-solid state and
then to solid state.
• The volume is also reduced by the decrease in water
content. But, at a particular limit the moisture reduction
causes no further volume change.
• A shrinkage limit test gives a quantitative indication of how
much moisture can change before any significant volume
change and to also indication of change in volume.
• The shrinkage limit is useful in areas where soils undergo
large volume changes when going through wet and dry
cycles (example: earth dams).
 2.2.3.4 APPARTUS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED:

• Evaporating Dish of Porcelain

• Spatula
• Balance-Sensitive to 0.01 g minimum.
• Shrinkage Dish.
• Glass cup. 50-55 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height
• Glass plates. Two, 75x75 mm one plate of plain glass and
the other with prongs
• Oven and mercury.

2.2.3.5 TEST PROCEDURE:

Preparation of soil sample:

• Take about 50 gm of soil sample from a thoroughly mixed
portion of the material passing through 425-mm I.S.
sieve. Place about 50 gm the above soil sample on plane
surface and thoroughly mixed with distilled water and
make a creamy paste. (Use water content slightly higher
than the liquid limit)
Filling the shrinkage dish
• Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of oil
to prevent the soil sticking to the dish.
• Fill the dish in three layers by placing approximately 1/3rd
of the amount of wet soil with the help of spatula. Tap the
dish gently on a firm base until the soil flows over the
edges and no apparent air bubbles exist. Repeat this
process for 2nd and 3rd layers also till the dish is
Completely filled with the wet soil. Strike off the excess soil
 and make the top of the dish Smooth. Wipe off all the soil
adhering to the outside of the dish.
• Weigh immediately, the dish with wet soil and record the
weight.
• Air- dry the wet soil for 24 hrs., until the colour of the pat
turns from dark to light. Then oven-dry the soil sample at
105°C to 110°C say about 24 hrs.
• Remove the oven dried soil sample. Cool it in a desiccator.
Then obtain the weight of the dish with dry sample.
• Determine the weight of the empty dish and record.
• Determine the volume of shrinkage dish which is evidently
equal to volume of the wet soil as follows. Place the
shrinkage dish in an evaporating dish and fill the dish with
mercury till it overflows slightly. Press it with plain glass
plate firmly on its top to remove excess mercury. Pour the
mercury from the shrinkage dish into a measuring jar and
find the shrinkage dish volume directly. Record this volume
as the volume of wet soil pat.
Volume of the Dry Soil Pat
Determine the volume of dry soil pat by removing the pat
from the shrinkage dish and immersing it in the glass cup
full of mercury in the following manner.
• Place the glass cup in a larger one and fill the glass
cup to overflowing with mercury. Remove the excess
mercury by covering the cup with glass plate with
prongs and pressing it. See that no air bubbles are
entrapped. Wipe out the outside of the glass cup to
• remove the adhering mercury. Then, place it in
another larger dish, which is, clean and
empty carefully.
• Place the dry soil pat on the mercury. It floats
submerge it with the pronged glass plate which is
again made flush with top of the cup. The mercury
 spills over into the larger plate. Pour the mercury that
is displayed by the soil pat into the measuring jar and
find the volume of the soil pat directly.

S.NO OBSERVATION 1 2
1 Container number 5 2
2 Weight of Shrinkage dish(W1) (g) 34.80 32.90
3 Weight of Shrinkage dish + Wet Soil 71.10 69.90
(W2) (g)
4 Weight of dry pat (W3) (g) 22.60 22.80
5 Empty Weight of Evaporating Dish (W4) 25.50 25.50
(g)
6 Weight of Evaporating Dish + mercury 698.60 698.50
(W5)(g)
7 Weight of Evaporating Dish + 528.20 512.60
Mercury after displacing (W6)(g)
8 Weight of mercury displaced (W7=W5- 170.40 185.90
W6) g
9 Volume of Mercury displaced (V) (cc) 12.53 13.67
10 Dry Density of Soil pat (g/cc) 1.80 1.67
11 Void Ratio , e 0.47 0.59
12 Shrinkage Limit (𝑾𝒔 ) 17.70 22.22
13 Moisture Content (w)(%) 60.62 62.28
14 Shrinkage Ratio, R 1.80 1.67

𝒘𝒔 −𝒘𝟔 𝟔𝟗𝟖.𝟔𝟎−𝟓𝟐𝟖.𝟐𝟎
Volume of Mercury displaced= = =12.53 cc
𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝟏𝟑.𝟔
𝒘𝟑 𝟐𝟐.𝟔𝟎
Dry Density of Soil pat= =𝟏𝟐.𝟑𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟎 𝒈/𝒄𝒄
𝒗
𝑮 𝜸𝒘 𝟐.𝟔𝟕𝑿𝟏
Void ratio (e)= -1= − 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕
𝜸𝒅 𝟏.𝟖𝟎
 𝜸 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Shrinkage limit (𝒘𝒔 ) = 𝜸𝒘 − 𝑮 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏.𝟖𝟎 − 𝟐.𝟔𝟕 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟗
𝒅

𝜸 𝟏.𝟖𝟎
SR=𝜸 𝒅 = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟎
𝒘 𝟏

RESULT: The shrinkage limit of the soil sample is 17.69 %

2.3 CORE CUTTER METHOD

2.3.1 REFERENCE:
IS: 2720(Part 29)-1975
2.3.2 SCOPE AND PURPOSE:

• This standard (part 29) covers the method for the

determination of the in-situ density of fine-grained natural
or compacted soils free from aggregates using a core - cutter.
• To the test described in this standard, a soil shall be termed
as fine - grained if not less than 90 percent of it passes a
4.75mm IS Sieve
2.3.3 MATERIAL:
In-Situ Soil.
2.3.4 EQUIPMENTREQUIRED:
• Cylindrical core cutter- 130mm long, 100mm internal
diameter with 3mm wall thickness.
• Steel rammer- solid mild steel foot of 140mm diameter,
75mm height, 25mm diameter solid mild steel staff, overall
height is 900mm and rammer weight is 9kg
(approximately).
• Balance- accurate to 1g.
• Palette knife- 20cm long and 3 cm wide.
 • Steel rule.
• Grafting tool or spade or pick axe.
• Straight edge- 30cm long, 2.5cm wide and 3 to 5 mm thick
and levelled at one edge.
• Container (to determine the water content).
• Sample extruder

2.3.5 TEST PROCEDURE:

• Take two core cutters and apply grease inside of it

uniformly.
• A small area of the soil layer to be tested shall be exposed
and levelled. Place the core cutter on the soil layer and
then place a wooden block on it. The core cutter shall be
rammed down vertically into the soil layer using the steel
rammer.
• The cutter shall then be digged out of the soil by using any
steel bar.
• The cutter containing the soil core shall be weighted to the
nearest gram (Ws).
• The soil core shall be removed from the core cutter using
the extracting apparatus into the split spoon mould. The
soil then be trimmed flat to the ends of the split spoon
mould by means of straight edge and then the soil core
shall be removed from the mould.

S.NO OBSERVATIONS 1 2
1 Diameter of the sample(cm) 3.80 3.80
2 Length of the sample(cm) 7.60 7.60
 3 Volume of the soil 86.19 86.19
sample(cc)
4 Weight of wet soil(w8)(g) 161.30 166.60
5 Bulk density of the soil(g/cc) 1.871 1.902
6 Weight of dry soil(wd) 136.40 141.00
7 Water content(%) 18.25 18.15
8 Dry density(KN/𝒎𝟑 ) 15.82 16.36
OBSERVATIONS :
RESULTS:
Bulk Density of Soil 𝛄b = 1.89 g/cc
Water Content of Soil w = 18.2 %
Dry density of In-situ Soil by Core Cutter Method 𝛄d = 16.09
KN/m3
2.4 IS LIGHT COMPACTION TEST:
2.4.1 REFERENCE:
IS: 2720(Part 7) - 1980.
2.4.2 SCOPE AND PURPOSE:
• The IS light compaction test helps ensure that soil used in
construction meets specified density and moisture
content requirements. This is crucial for the stability and
durability of structures.
• By determining the optimum moisture content, the test
helps in achieving maximum compaction efficiency. This is
important for minimizing settlement and improving the

load-bearing capacity of the soil.

• The test provides information about the suitability of soil
for construction purposes. It helps in selecting the right
 type of soil or in determining if soil stabilization
techniques are necessary.
• Knowing the maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content allows construction teams to compact soil
efficiently, reducing construction time and costs.
• The test helps ensure compliance with relevant standards
and specifications, such as those set by the Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS), ensuring that construction
practices meet the required quality standards
2.4.3 APPARATUS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED:
APPARATUS:
• Cylindrical metal mould- it should be either of 100mm
diameter and1000𝐶𝑚3 volume (or) 150mm diameter
2250𝐶𝑚3 volume
• Collar 60mm
• IS-sieve 4.75 mm
• Sample extruder
• Weighing balance-accuracy 1g
• Oven
• Large mixing pan
• Straight edge
• Mixing tools such as mixing pan, spoon, towel, spatula etc.
• Moisture tins.
MATERIALS:
A representative portion of air-dried soil material and large
enough to provide about 3kg of material passing a 10mm IS-
Sieve, in case of 100mm diameter mould, material passing
through 19mm sieve in case of 150mm diameter mould.
2.4.4 TEST PROCEDURE:
 • Weight of Proctor mould without base plate and collar is
noted. Collar and base plate are fixed.
• 3kg of oven dried soil sample passing through 4.75mm sieve
is taken.
• Soil sample is thoroughly mixed with 14% water.
• To soil is placed in the proctor mould in three layers and 25
blows are given per layer using 2.5 kg rammer.
• The collar is removed and the compacted soil is trimmed.
The weight of the mould with compacted soil is noted.
• Some amount of soil is taken from the compacted soil and
kept it for water
• The same procedure is repeated by increasing the water
content and corresponding values are noted in the table

OBSERVATIONS: -
S.No Obsevations 1 2 3 4 5
Wt of empty
1 mould(g) 1884 1884 1884 1884 1884
Wt of
mould+soil
2 (g) 3664 3744 3310 3792 3782
Volume of
3 mould (cc) 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
Water
4 Added(%) 18 20 22 24 26
Bulk
5 Density(g/cc) 1.78 1.86 1.92 1.90 1.89
Wt of Empty
6 container 8.20 9.00 10.40 8.40 10.20
 Wt of
container +
wet
7 Soil (g) 40.50 41.20 54.80 62.00 70.00
Wt of
container
+Dry
8 Soil(g) 35.40 39.80 46.40 51.00 57.30
Water
9 Content (%) 18.75 20.78 28.33 25.82 26.96
Dry Density
10 (kN/m3) 14.99 15.40 15.62 15.16 14.95
Theoretical
11 dry density 17.70 17.09 16.37 15.93 15.16

RESULTS: From the Graph

The Optimum Moisture Content for the given Soil (OMC) =
The Maximum Dry Density for the given Soil (MDD) =

2.5 FREE SWELL INDEX:

2.5.1 REFERENCE:
IS: 2720 (Part 40)- 1977
2.5.2 DEFINITION:
Free swell index is the increase in volume of a soil, without any
external constraints on submergence in water.
2.5.3 APPARATUS:
• 425 microns IS sieve
 • Graduated glass cylinders 100ml capacity 2No’s (IS:878-
1956)
• Glass rod for stirring
• Balance of capacity 500 grams and sensitivity 0.01 gram.
2.5.4 TEST PROCEDURE:

• Take two representative oven dried soil samples each of 10

grams passing through 425micron sieve.
Pour each soil sample in to each of the two glass graduated
cylinders of 100ml capacity.
• Fill one cylinder with kerosene and the other with the
distilled water up to the 100mlmark.
• Remove the entrapped air in the cylinder by gentle shaking
and stirring with a glass rod.
• Allow the samples to settle in both the cylinders.
Sufficient time, not less than 24 hours shall be allowed for
soil sample to attain equilibrium state of volume without

any further change in the volume of the soils

• Record the final volume of the soils in each
of the cylinders.
• OBSERVATIONS :-
S.No Observation 1 2
1 Weight of soil (W) (g) 10 10
2 Volume of Soil (𝑽𝒅 ) 17 17
3 Free Swell Index 70 70
𝑽 −𝑾
FSI = 𝒅𝑾 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟕−𝟏𝟎
• FSI = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟕𝟎%(𝑴𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎)
𝟏𝟎
RESULT: Free Swell Index = 70
2.6 COEFFICIENT OF PREMEABILITY BY FALLING HEAD
METHOD
2.6.1 REFERENCE:
IS:2720(Part-17)-1986
2.6.2 SCOPE AND PURPOSE:
The Falling Head Permeability rest is a common laboratory
testing method used to determine the Permeability of fine-
grained soils with intermediate and low permeability such as
sits and clays. This testing method can be applied to an
undisturbed sample.
• The test results for the permeability are used
• To estimate the ground water flow
• To calculate seepage through dams
• To find rate of consolidation and settlement of structures
• To calculate the uplift pressure and piping
• To design pits for recharging.
2.6.3 MATERIALS AND APPARATUS REQUIRED:
• The mould assembly including drainage base and drainage
cap shall confirm to IS:11209-1985
• The compaction rammer
• Set of standard pipes-Glass stand pipes for falling head
(variable head) test arrangements varying in diameter
from 5 to 20mm, suitably mounted on stand (or) otherwise
fixed on wall
• Vacuum pump
Miscellaneous apparatus such as
 • IS-Sieves
• Meter scale
• Stop watch
• 75µ sieve
2.6.4 COMPUTATION:
The co-efficient of permeability (k) for a falling head test is given
by:
2.303 ℎ1
𝐾= 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2
Where ℎ1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
ℎ2 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
t = time interval
a = Cross-sectional area of the liquid stand pipe
A = Cross – sectional area of the specimen
L = Length of the specimen
2.6.5 TEST PROCEDURE:
• For the falling head arrangement, the specimen shall be
connected through the top inlet to the constant head
reservoir.
• Mix the sample thoroughly with 10 percent of water by
weight of sample.
• After placing the porous stone at the bottom of the mould,
place the soil sample in the mould in three layers whereas
each layer is being compacted properly so that the total
sample taken is filled in the mould and porous can also be
fitted into the mould properly.
 • Fix the mould to its parts and tighten it by using screws.
After fixing attach it to the falling head apparatus (like
attaching stand pipe).

• Water is poured into the stand pipe and allowed to flow

into the sample.
• Start noting down the initial and falling heads and time
taken for it by using stop watch only the water starts
flowing through the sample
OBSERVATIONS: -
Diameter of the Specimen (D) = 10cm
Length of the Specimen (L) = 11.50 cm
Area of the Specimen (A) = 78.54 cm2
Diameter of the Stand Pipe (d) = 1 cm
Area of the Stand Pipe (a) = o.785 cm2

S.No Observations 1 2 3
1 Area of Stand Pipe(a) 0.785 0.785 0.785
2 Area of Cross section (A) 78.54 78.54 78.54
3 Length of Sample (L) 11.50 11.50 11.50
4 Head at Start of 90 90 90
Observation (h1)
5 Head at End of 80 80 80
Observation (h2)
6 Time in Seconds (t) 12 12 13
7 Permeability (k) 6.83*10- 6.83*10- 6.31*10-
4 4 4
(cm/sec)
 𝒂𝑳 𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝟓∗𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟎
K= 2.303 log (h1/h2) = 2.303 * 𝟕𝟖.𝟓𝟒∗𝟏𝟐 *log(90/80)
𝑨𝒕

K= 0.000638 (or) 6.83*10-4

𝒄𝒎
The Average Co-efficient of Permeability(k) = 6.66 × 10-4𝒔𝒆𝒄

RESULT:
The Coefficient of Permeability (k) = 6.66 × 10 -4cm/sec

2.7 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST:

2.7.1 REFERENCE:
IS: 2720(Part-XI)-1993
2.7.2 SCOPE AND PURPOSE:
• This standard lays down the method of determining
the shear strength parameters of saturated soils
from tri axial compression shear tests conducted
under unconsolidated undrained conditions with
measurements of pore water pressures.
• This test is limited to specimens in the form of right
cylinders of nominal diameter 38, 50, 70,100mm
with height twice its diameter. The ratio of diameter
of the sample to the maximum size of the particle in
the soil shall not be less than five.
• It may be performing with or without measurement
of pore pressure although for most applications the
measurement of pore pressure is desirable.
2.7.3 APPARATUS REQUIRED:
• Loading frame
• The cell(chamber)
• Split mould- 38mm diameter and 76mm long
• Trimming knife
• Rubber membrane
• Balance
• O-Rings (2 No’s)
2.7.4 TEST PROCEDURE:
• An undisturbed soil sample is extracted by conducting
standard proctor test to the soil sample by using the OMC
of soil (provided).
• Prepare the soil specimen at the desired water content
and density in the large mould.
• Push the sampling tube into the large mould, remove the
sampling tube filled with soil.
• For undisturbed samples, push the sampling tube into the
clay sample.
• Coat the split mould lightly with a thin layer of grease.
Weigh the mould.
• Extrude the sample out of the sampling tube into the split
mould, using the sample extractor and the knife.
• Trim the two ends of the specimen in the split mould.
• Weigh the mould with the specimen.
• Remove the specimen from the split mould by splitting
the mould into the parts.
• The sample is placed on the base of the tri axial cell. The
cell must be properly set up and uniformly clamped down
 to prevent leakage of pressure during the test, making
sure first that the sample is properly sealed with its end
caps and rings (rubber) in position and that the sealing
rings for the cell are also correctly placed.
• The sample is covered with rubber membrane and sealed
with the help of rubber O-rings on top and bottom.
• The cell is filled with water and closed the pore pressure
valve since the test is undrained.
• Note the observations recorded in digital LVDT for the
readings of deformation for respective loads.
• The air pressure in the reservoir is then increased to raise
the hydrostatic pressure in the required amount. The
pressure gauge must be watched during the test and any
necessary adjustments must be made to keep the
pressure constant.
• The piston is then moved down by the handle until it is
just in touch on the top of sample, and started applying
the load until specimen fails.

OBSERVATIONS: -
S. LVT Load Cell Strain Correct 𝝈𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒑𝒂
No Readings Readings (E) ed Area
0.5 kg(cm2) 1kg (cm2)
Ac= 𝝈𝒅𝟏 ,1 𝝈𝒅𝟐 ,2
𝝈𝟑𝟏 𝝈𝟑𝟐 Ao/1-to
1 0 0 0 0 11.340 0 0
2 0.5 1.524 2.540 0.005 11.414 0.131 0.223
3 1.0 3.048 2.556 0.013 11.484 0.265 0.310
4 1.5 4.064 4.572 0.020 11.571 0.351 0.395
5 2.0 6.096 6.604 0.026 11.643 0.524 0.367
6 2.5 8.128 8.636 0.033 11.727 0.693 0.736
7 3.0 9.396 9.906 0.046 11.643 0.696 0.839
8 3.5 10.668 10.922 0.023 11.727 0.877 1.018
9 4.0 11.176 12.192 0.059 11.800 0.933 1.018
10 4.5 11.684 14.340 0.066 11.887 0.970 1.190
11 5.0 10.166 12.700 11.057 0.837 1.076

RESULT:
Internal Friction (Ø) 10021’
(Remoulded Soil)
Cohesion C (Remoulded Soil) 31
 3. ESTIMATION OF BEARING CAPACITY
OF SOIL
The Bearing Capacity of soil is defined as the capacity of the soil
to bear the loads coming from the foundation. The pressure at
which the soil can easily withstand against load is called
Allowable Bearing Pressure.

3.1 Types of Bearing Capacity of Soil:

Following are some types of bearing capacity of soil:
1. Ultimate Bearing Capacity (𝒒𝒖 ):
The gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which
soil fails is called ultimate bearing capacity.
2. Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity (𝒒𝒏𝒖 ):
By neglecting the overburden pressure from ultimate
bearing capacity, we will get net ultimate bearing
capacity.
𝑞𝑛𝑢 = 𝑞𝑢 - Ƴ𝐷𝑓
Where
Y= unit weight of soil,
𝐷𝑓 = depth of foundation
3. Net Safe Bearing Capacity (𝒒𝒏𝒔 ):
By considering only shear failure, net ultimate bearing
capacity is divided by certain factor of safety will give
the net safe bearing capacity.
𝐪𝐧𝐬 = 𝐪𝐧𝐮 / F
Where F = factor of safety = 3 (usual value)

4. Gross Safe Bearing Capacity (𝐪𝐬 ):

 When ultimate bearing capacity is divided by factor of
safety it will give gross safe bearing capacity.
𝐪𝐬 = 𝐪𝐮 /F
5. Net Safe Settlement Pressure (𝐪𝐧𝐩 ):
The pressure with which the soil can carry without
exceeding the allowable settlement is called net safe
settlement pressure.
6. Net Allowable Bearing Pressure (𝐪𝐧𝐚 ):
This is the pressure we can used for the design of
foundations. This is equal to net safe bearing pressure
if qnp > Ans. In the reverse case it is equal to net safe
settlement pressure.
3.2 CALCULATION OF BEARING CAPACITY:
For the calculation of bearing capacity of soil, there are
so many theories. But all the theories are superseded
by Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory.
3.2.1 TERZAGHI'S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY:
Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity theory is useful to
determine the Bearing Capacity of soils under a strip
footing. This theory is only applicable to shallow
foundations. He considered some assumptions which
are as follows.
• The base of the strip footing is rough.
• The depth of footing is less than or equal to its breadth
i.e. shallow footing.
• He neglected the shear strength of soil above the base
of footing and replaced it with uniform surcharge. Ƴ x
(𝐃𝐟 ).
• The load acting on the footing is uniformly distributed
and is acting in vertical direction.
• He assumed that the length of the footing is infinite.
 • He considered Mohr-coulomb equation as a governing
factor for the shear strength of soil.

As shown in above figure, AB is base of the footing.

He divided the shear zones into 3 categories. Zone -1 (ABC)
which is under the base is acts as if it were a part of the
footing itself. Zone -2 (CAF and CBD) acts as radial shear zones
which is bear by the sloping edges AC and BC. Zone -3 (AFG
and BDE) is named as Rankine's passive zones which are
taking surcharge (Y Df) coming from its top layer of soil.
From the equation of equilibrium,

Downward forces = upward forces

Load from footing x weight of wedge = passive pressure +
cohesion x CB sin∅
𝟏 𝑩
qu x B ÷ (𝟒 Ƴ𝑩𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏ф) = 2𝑷𝑷 ÷ 2c' x (𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐬 ф.Sinф)

Where Pp= resultant passive pressure = 𝑃𝑝Ƴ + 𝑃𝑝𝑐 + 𝑃𝑝𝑞

𝑃𝑝Ƴ is derived by considering weight of wedge BCDE and by
making cohesion and surcharge zero.
𝑃𝑝𝑐 is derived by considering cohesion and by neglecting weight
and surcharge.
𝑃𝑝𝑞 is derived by considering surcharge and by neglecting weight
and cohesion.
Therefore,

𝐁 𝟏
qu x B = 2 ( 𝐏𝐩Ƴ + 𝐏𝐩𝐜 + 𝐏𝐩𝐪 ) + c' x ( .Sinф) - ( Ƴ𝑩𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏ф)
𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐬 ф 𝟒

By substituting ,

1
2 𝑃𝑝Ƴ - 4 ƳB2 sinф = B x 0.5 Ƴ B NƳ

2𝑃𝑝Ƴ +BC’tanф = Bc’NC

2 𝑃𝑝𝑞 = BƳDf NQ
So,finally we get qu = c′Nc + ƳDf Nq + 0.5ƳBNƳ
The above equation is called as Terzaghi’s Bearing capacity equation.
Where 𝑞𝑢 is the ultimate bearimg capacity and Nc , Nq , NƳ are
the
Terazaghi’s Bearing Capacity factors .These dimensionless
factors
are dependents of angle of shearing resistance.

Equations to find the bearing capacity factors are:

a2
Nc = cotф( ф - 1)
2cos2 (45+ ⁄2)
a2
Nq = ( ф )
2cos2 (45+ ⁄2)
Kp
Nc = 0.5tanф(cos2 (ф) - 1)
Where,
3𝛱 ф
( − )𝑡𝑎𝑛ф
a= 𝑒 4 2

K p = Coeficient of passive earth pressure

 For different values of ф, Bearing capacity factors under
general shearing failure are arranged in the below table.

Finally , to determine bearing capacity under strip footing we

can use
𝐪𝐮 = 𝐜′𝐍𝐜 + Ƴ𝐃𝐟 𝐍𝐪 + 𝟎. 𝟓Ƴ𝐁𝐍Ƴ
By the mdification of above equation, equations of square
and circular footing are also given are they are,

For square footing : 𝐪𝐮 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝐜′𝐍𝐜 + Ƴ𝐃𝐟 𝐍𝐪 + 𝟎. 𝟒Ƴ𝐁𝐍Ƴ

For circular footing : 𝐪𝐮 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝐜′𝐍𝐜 + Ƴ𝐃𝐟 𝐍𝐪 + 𝟎. 𝟑Ƴ𝐁𝐍Ƴ
3.2.2 HANSEN’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY:
For, cohesive soils, values obtained by Terazaghi,s bearing
capacity theory are more than the experimental values. But
however it is showing same values for cohesionless soils.So
hansen modified the equation by considering shape , depth
and inclination factors.
According to Hansen’s,
𝐪𝐮 = 𝐜′𝐍𝐜 𝑺𝒄 𝒅𝒄 𝒊𝒄 + Ƴ𝑫𝒇 𝑵𝒒 𝑺𝒒 𝐝𝐪 𝐢𝐪 + 𝟎. 𝟓Ƴ𝐁𝑵Ƴ 𝑺Ƴ 𝐝Ƴ 𝒊Ƴ

Where, Nc , Nq ,NƳ = Hansen′ s Bearing capacity factors.

Sc , Sq ,SƳ = Shape factors
dc , dq ,dƳ = Depth factors
ic , iq ,iƳ = Inclination factors.

Bearing Capacity factors are calculated by following

equations.
 Nq = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 + ф)(𝑒 𝛱𝑡𝑎𝑛ф )

Nc = (Nq − 1)cotф

NƳ = 1.8(Nq − 1)𝑡𝑎𝑛ф

3.2.3 VESIC’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY:

Vesic (1973) confirmed that the basic nature of failure

surfaces in soil suggested by Terazaghi’s as incorrect
.However , the angle which the inclined surfaces AC and BC
ф
make with the horizontal was found to be closer to (45+ ⁄2)
instead of ф . The values of the bearing capacity factor
Nc , Nq ,NƳ for a given angle of shearing resistance change if
above modification is incorporated in the analysis as under
Nq = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 + ф)(𝑒 𝛱𝑡𝑎𝑛ф )

Nc = (Nq − 1)cotф

NƳ = 2(Nq + 1)𝑡𝑎𝑛ф

Assume safe bearing capacity = 150 Kpa , As per IS Code for

clayey soil
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Safe Bearing capacity =𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Assuming 200KN, for each floor,

For (G+2) fllor residential structure load = 3 x200 = 600KN
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 600
Therefore , area of footing = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 150 = 4
Assuming squre footing , s= √4
Depth = 2.3 m
Breadth = 2.4m

Also γ = 20 , FOS = 3 , αf = 50

Estimation of bearing capacity factor of soil:

Nq = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 + ф)(𝑒 𝛱𝑡𝑎𝑛ф )

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (55)(𝑒 𝛱𝑡𝑎𝑛10 )
= 3.54
Nc = (Nq − 1)cotф
= ( 3.54 – 1) cot 10
= 14.40
NƳ = 2(Nq + 1)𝑡𝑎𝑛ф
= 2 ( 3.54 + 1) tan 10
= 1.6
Inclination factor of soil,
iq = 1, ic = 1, iγ = 1
Shape factor of soil,
𝑠𝑞 = 1 + tan 10 = 1.176
𝑁𝑞 2.54
𝑠𝑐 = = 1+ 14.40 = 1.17
𝑁𝑐

𝑠𝛿 = 0.6
Depth factor of soil,
𝐷𝑓
𝑑𝑞 = 1 + 𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑓
𝑓
2.3
= 1 + 0.1 tan 50
2.4
= 1.114
 𝐷𝑓
𝑑𝑐 = 1 + 0.2𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑓
𝑓
2.3
= 1+ 0.2 2.4 tan 50
𝑑𝛾 = 1
Ultimate Bearing capacity ,
qu = c′Nc 𝑆𝑐 𝑑𝑐 𝑖𝑐 + Ƴ𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 𝑆𝑞 dq iq + 0.4ƳB𝑁Ƴ 𝑆Ƴ dƳ 𝑖Ƴ
= 31( 14.40) ( 1.228)(1.176)(1)
+ 20(2.3)(3.54) +(1.176)(1)
+ 20(2.3)(1.6)(1)(0.6)(1)
qu = 837.07
Net ultimate bearing capacity
qnu = qu − 𝛾𝐷𝑓
= 837.07 – 20 (2.3)
= 791.07 kpa
Net safe bearing capacity = qns = qnu /𝐹
= 791.07/3
= 263.69 kpa
Safe Bearing Capacity = qs = qns + 𝛾𝐷𝑓
= 263.69 + 46
= 309.69 > 150 kpa (OK)

Therefore ,Bearing Capacityof soil = 309.69kpa = 309.69

kN/m2

4 . FOOTINGS

Footings are essential structural elements in

construction, serving as the foundation upon which buildings and
other structures are built. They play a crucial role in distributing
the loads from the structure to the underlying soil or rock, ensuring
stability and preventing settlement. Footings are typically made of
concrete and are located below the ground level, where they
provide a stable base for the structure.The primary function of
footings is to transfer the loads from the structure to the soil
without causing excessive settlement or structural failure. They
distribute the loads evenly over a larger area, reducing the
pressure on the soil and preventing it from becoming overstressed.
This is particularly important in areas with weak soil or where the
structure is subjected to heavy loads.

There are several types of footings, each designed to suit specific

structural requirements and soil conditions. The most common
types include shallow footings, deep footings, and raft or mat
foundations. Shallow footings, also known as spread footings or
open footings, are used when the soil is strong enough to support
the load within a shallow depth. Deep footings, on the other hand,
extend deep into the ground to reach stronger, more stable soil or
rock layers. Raft or mat foundations are used when the soil is weak
and the loads are heavy, as they distribute the load evenly over the
entire area of the structure. The choice of footing depends on
various factors, including the type of structure, soil conditions, and
loads acting on the structure. Engineers carefully analyze these
factors to determine the most suitable footing type for a particular
project. They also consider factors such as the building's height,

shape, and the presence of nearby structures or utilities.

In addition to supporting the structure, footings also provide a

level base for construction. They help to distribute the weight of
the structure evenly, preventing uneven settlement and ensuring
that the structure remains level and stable. Footings also protect
the structure from damage due to soil movement, such as heaving
or settlement. Proper design and construction of footings are
essential for ensuring the stability and safety of a structure.
Engineers must consider factors such as soil properties, structural
loads, and environmental conditions when designing footings to
ensure they can support the loads and provide a stable foundation
for the structure.

4.1 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:

Foundations are critical components of any structure, providing

support and stability by transferring the loads from the structure
to the underlying soil or rock. The choice of foundation type
depends on various factors, including soil conditions, structural
requirements, and building types. Understanding the different
types of foundations and their applications is essential for
designing and constructing safe and stable structures.

Fig: 5.1 Foundation- shallow or deep(Terzaghi)

Further classification of shallow and deep foundations is as
follows

Foundations are mainly of two types:(i)Shallow and (ii) deep

foundations. The two different types are explained below:
(A) SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS:
Shallow foundations are essential structural elements used to
transfer building loads to the ground. They are typically employed
when the soil near the surface possesses adequate bearing
capacity to support the structure's weight without requiring
extensive excavation. These foundations are commonly utilized in
residential and light commercial constructions.

The most prevalent types of shallow foundations include spread

footings, which distribute the building's load over a wider soil area,
and mat foundations, large slabs covering the entire building area
to distribute the load over a larger soil area. Another type, strip
footings, are long, strip-like footings supporting a wall or closely
spaced columns.

Designing shallow foundations involves considering the building's

load, soil conditions, and local building codes. Proper design and
construction are crucial for ensuring the stability and safety of the
structure. Additionally, factors such as soil type, water table level,
and potential for frost heave must be taken into account during
design to prevent issues like settlement or structural failure.

1.Plain concrete pedestal footings:

Plain concrete pedestal footings are simple, single-footing

structures used to support columns or posts. They are typically
square, rectangular, or circular in shape, and are cast directly into
the ground. These footings are often used in residential,
commercial, and industrial construction for structures such as
decks, porches, light poles, and small buildings.

The design of plain concrete pedestal footings involves

determining the size and depth of the footing based on the load of
the column or post it will support, as well as the soil conditions.
The footing is usually larger at the bottom to spread the load over
a larger area of soil and prevent excessive settlement.
Construction of plain concrete pedestal footings involves
excavating the soil to the required depth, placing the concrete
in the excavation, and then allowing it to cure. Reinforcement
bars (rebar) are often used to provide additional strength to
the footing.
Overall, plain concrete pedestal footings are a cost-effective
and relatively simple foundation solution for small to medium-
sized structures where the soil conditions are favorable.
2.Isolated Footings:
Isolated footings, also known as pad footings or spread
footings, are structural elements used to support individual
columns or posts. They are called "isolated" because each
footing is separate and independent of the others, unlike
combined footings which support multiple columns.
Isolated footings are typically square, rectangular, or circular in
shape, and are designed based on the load of the column and
the soil bearing capacity. The size and depth of the footing are
determined to ensure that the footing can safely distribute the
load of the column to the soil without causing excessive
settlement or structural failure.
Construction of isolated footings involves excavating the soil to
the required depth, placing the concrete in the excavation, and
then allowing it to cure. Reinforcement bars (rebar) are often
used to provide additional strength to the footing. The column
is then placed on top of the footing, and the structure is built
up from there.
Isolated footings are commonly used in residential,
commercial, and industrial construction for structures such as
buildings, bridges, and towers. They are a simple and effective
foundation solution for transferring loads from individual
columns to the soil.

3. Combined Footing:
Combined footings are structural elements used to support
two or more columns in close proximity, where individual
isolated footings would overlap or be too close to each other.
Combined footings are wider than isolated footings and are
designed to distribute the load of multiple columns to the soil
without causing excessive settlement or structural failure.
There are several types of combined footings, including:
 1. Rectangular Combined Footings: These footings support
two or more columns in a row and are rectangular in
shape. They
2. are used when the columns are closely spaced in one
direction.
2. Trapezoidal Combined Footings: These footings are
trapezoidal in shape and are used when the columns are
closely spaced in one direction and the soil bearing capacity is
higher on one side of the footing than the other.
3. Strap Footings: Strap footings are used when two columns
are located very close to each other, and a single footing
cannot be used. They consist of a narrow strip of concrete that
connects the individual footings of each column.
Construction of combined footings involves excavating the soil
to the required depth, placing the concrete in the excavation,
and then allowing it to cure. Reinforcement bars (rebar) are
often

used to provide additional strength to the footing. The

columns are then placed on top of the footing, and the
structure is built up from there.
Combined footings are commonly used in residential,
commercial, and industrial construction for structures such as
buildings, bridges, and towers. They are an effective
foundation solution for supporting multiple columns in close
proximity.
4.Strap Footing:
A strap footing, also known as a cantilever footing, is a type of
combined footing used to support two or more columns that
are so close together that their individual footings would
overlap or be impractical.
In a strap footing, a concrete beam, known as a strap beam,
connects the individual footings of the columns. The strap
beam extends beyond the outermost column footings,
creating a cantilever. This arrangement helps distribute the
load of the columns and any applied loads more evenly to the
soil.
Strap footings are particularly useful when the columns are so
close together that individual footings would be inefficient or
when the soil has varying bearing capacities beneath each
column. By connecting the footings, the strap footing can
provide greater stability and reduce differential settlement.
Construction of a strap footing involves excavating the soil to
the required depth, placing the concrete for the individual
footings and the strap beam, and then allowing it to cure.
Reinforcement bars (rebar) are often used to provide
additional strength to the footing and the strap beam. Strap
footings are commonly used in building construction,
especially in situations where closely spaced columns are
present, such as in residential and commercial buildings.
5. Mat or raft foundation:
Mat foundations, also known as raft foundations, are large,
thick slabs that cover the entire area under a building and
support all the walls and columns. They are used when the
soil has poor bearing capacity or when there are a large
number of columns close together.
Mat foundations are beneficial because they distribute the
building load over a larger area of soil, reducing the pressure
on the soil and minimizing settlement. They are often used in
areas with soft or expansive clay soils, where differential
settlement can be a concern.

Mat foundations are constructed by excavating the soil to the

required depth, placing a layer of gravel or sand for drainage,
and then pouring concrete to create the slab. The slab is
reinforced with rebar to provide additional strength.
In comparison, raft foundations are similar to mat foundations
but are typically thinner and used for smaller buildings or
structures. Raft foundations are also used to distribute the load
of the building over a larger area of soil but are generally not
as thick or extensive as mat foundations.
Overall, both mat and raft foundations are effective
solutions for distributing building loads over a large area of soil
and minimizing settlement. The choice between the two
depends on the specific soil conditions, building loads, and
design requirements of the project.
(B) DEEP FOUNDATION:

Deep foundations are structural elements used to transfer

building loads to deeper, more stable soil or rock layers when
shallow foundations are not feasible. They are typically used
for tall buildings, bridges, and structures on soft or weak soils.
One common type of deep foundation is piles, which are
long, slender columns made of materials such as concrete,
steel, or timber. Piles are driven, drilled, or vibrated into the
ground until they reach a layer of soil or rock that can support
the load of the structure. Piles transfer the load of the
structure through skin friction along their sides and/or end
bearing at their base.
Another type of deep foundation is a caisson, which is a
large-diameter, watertight structure that is sunk into the
ground to form a foundation. Caissons are often used in areas
with high water tables or in marine environments. Deep
foundations are designed based on the soil conditions,
building loads, and structural requirements of the project.
Proper design and construction are essential to ensure the
stability and safety of the structure.
1.Pile Foundations:
Pile foundations are a type of deep foundation used to
transfer loads from a structure to a deeper level of soil or
rock below the ground surface. They are often used when the
shallow soils are unable to support the structure's loads
effectively. Piles are long, slender structural elements made
of materials such as concrete, steel, or timber. They are
driven, drilled, or vibrated into the ground until they reach a
stable soil or rock layer. Piles transfer the loads of the
structure through skin friction along their sides and/or end
bearing at their base.

There are several types of pile foundations, including:

1. Driven Piles: These piles are driven into the ground using a
pile driver. Common types of driven piles include timber piles,
concrete piles, and steel piles.
2. Bored Piles: These piles are created by drilling a hole into
the ground and then filling it with concrete and
reinforcement. Bored piles are often used in areas with
difficult ground conditions or in areas where noise and
vibration need to be minimized.
3. Screw Piles: These piles are screwed into the ground using
specialized equipment. They are often used in areas with soft
soils or where rapid installation is required.
Pile foundations are designed based on the soil conditions,
building loads, and structural requirements of the project.
Proper design and construction are essential to ensure the
stability and safety of the structure.
Pier Foundation:
A pier foundation is a type of deep foundation that consists of
cylindrical columns of concrete or steel that are driven or
drilled into the ground to support a structure. Pier
foundations are commonly used in areas with weak or
unstable soil conditions where traditional shallow foundations
would be inadequate.
Pier foundations are similar to pile foundations, but they are
typically larger in diameter and are often used to support
structures that require a higher load-bearing capacity. They
are also used in situations where the foundation needs to be
elevated above the ground, such as in areas prone to
flooding.
Pier foundations can be constructed using a variety of
methods, including driven piers, drilled piers, and auger-cast
piers. The choice of method depends on the soil conditions,
load requirements, and other site-specific factors.
One advantage of pier foundations is that they can be
constructed relatively quickly and are less affected by changes
in soil conditions than shallow foundations. However, they
can be more expensive to construct and may require more
specialized equipment and expertise.
According to the project, the size of the footing is
Depth of the footing is: 2.3 m
Breadth of the footing is: 2.4m

5. DESIGN OF SLAB

Slabs are essential structural elements used in

building construction to provide a flat, horizontal surface that
supports the loads from above, such as people, furniture, and
equipment. They are integral components of floors, ceilings,
roofs, and pavements, providing stability, strength, and
functionality to a structure.
The design and construction of slabs are influenced by various
factors, including the type of building, the loads it will carry,
the span or distance between supports, and the properties of
the materials used. Slabs can be made from materials such as
concrete, steel, wood, or composites, with concrete being the
most common due to its strength, durability, and versatility.
 One of the primary functions of a slab is to
distribute the loads it carries over a larger area to prevent
structural failure or excessive deflection. This is achieved
through the slab's thickness, reinforcement, and support
system. Slabs can be supported by walls, beams, columns, or
other structural elements, depending on the design
requirements.
The construction of a slab typically involves
several steps, including site preparation, formwork installation,
reinforcement placement, concrete pouring, and finishing. The
quality of construction is crucial to ensure the slab's strength,
durability, and long-term performance.
5.2 TYPES OF SLABS:
a) Based on support conditions:
• Simply supported slabs
• Cantiliver slabs
• Restrained slab(with fixed or continuous slab)
• Continuous slabs
• Flat slabs( slabs resting directly on columns)
b) Based on spanning directions:
• One way slab – spanning in one direction.
• Two way slab – spanning in two directions.
6.2.1 ONE WAY SLAB:
A one-way slab is a type of structural slab that
is supported on two opposite sides only and primarily carries
loads in the direction perpendicular to the supporting edges.
These slabs are designed to span in only one direction, with
the span length being significantly greater than the width.
One-way slabs are commonly used in buildings where the
longer span is parallel to the supporting walls or beams. They
are economical and easy to construct, making them suitable
for a wide range of applications.

The design of a one-way slab considers factors such as the

loads it will carry, the span length, the properties of the
materials used, and the support conditions. The slab is typically
reinforced with steel bars to enhance its strength and prevent
cracking. The ratio of longer to shorter span is greater than 2.

Construction of a one-way slab involves placing formwork to

define the slab's shape, placing the reinforcement bars
according to the design specifications, and then pouring
concrete into the formwork. Once the concrete has cured, the
formwork is removed, and the slab is ready for use. One way
slab to be economical for spans upto 3.5m.
The following are some of the situations, where the slabs
are designed as one way slabs.
➢ Slabs supported on two opposites edges only
𝑙
➢ Slabs supported on all four edges with 𝑦⁄𝑙 > 2
𝑥
➢ Shades in the roofing system (cantiliver).
➢ Slab of stairs
➢ Cantiliver retaining walls
➢ Footings

5.2.2 TWO WAY SLAB:

When the slabs are supported on all the four edges and the
ratio od longer to shorter span is less than or equal to 2, the
slab likely to bend along the two spans and such slabs are
called as two way slabs. In case of two way slabs, the loads is
transferred in both the directions to all four supporting edges,
bends in two orthogonal directions and deflect in the form of a
saucer .Hence main reinforcement has to be designed in both
the direction to resist two way bending.Two way slabs are
found to be economical for slabs with shorter spans above
3.5m.
5.3 GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SLAB AS PER IS
456-2000:
1. Effective Span :
The effective span of a simply supported slab shall be taken as
clear span plus effective depth of the slab or centre to centre
distance between the supports whichever is less.
The effective span of a cantilever slab shall be taken as its length
to the face of the support plus half the effective depth except
where it forms the end of a continuous slab where the length
to the centre of support shall be taken.

2. Limiting Stiffness:
The stiffness of slabs is governed by the span to depth ratio. As
per Clause 23.2 ofIS 456 for spans not exceeding 10 m, the span
to depth rati (Basic values) Should not exceed the
limits given below.
Cantilevers – 7
Simply Supported – 20
Continuous – 26
Depending upon the type of steel and percentage of steel, the
above values have to be modified as per of IS-456.
For two way slabs, the shorter span should be used for
calculating the span to effective depth ratio.
3. Minimum reinforcement:
The reinforcement in either direction of span shall not be less
the 0.15% of gross cross sectional area if mild steel is used.
However, this value is reduced to 0.12% where high strength
deformed bars or welded wire fabrics are used.
4. Maximum Diameter of Bars:
The diameter of the bars shall not exceed one eighth of the total
thickness of slab. (Clause 26.2.2 of IS-456)
5. Spacing of Main Reinforcement:
The spacing of main reinforcement in slabs shall not be more
than three times the effective depth of solid slab or 300 mm
whichever is less. (Clause 26.3.3 of IS-456)
6. Distribution Reinforcement:
The area of distribution reinforcement shall not be less than
0.15% of gross cross-sectional area if plain bars are used and
0.12% if high yield strength comed bars are used. The spacing
of distribution reinforcement in slabs shall not be more den it
times the effective depth of slab or 450 m whichever is less.
7. Cover to reinforcement:
Reinforcement shall have concrete cover of thickness as follows.
• At each end of reinforcement bar not less than 25 m nor les
than twice the diameter of such bar.
• The bottom cover for reinforcement shall not be less than 20
m nor less than the diameter of such bars.
5.4 DESIGN OF TWO-WAY SLABS:
When the slab is supported on the four edges and if the ratio of
longer span to shorter span is less than or equal to 2, the slab is
likely to bend along the two directions and such slabs are called
as two-way slabs. In case of two-way slabs, the bending
moments and deflections are less compared to one-way slabs
for similar loading and hence the thickness required will be less.
Main reinforcements have to be designed in both the
directions.
Two-way slabs may have their corners held down or free to lift.
When the slab is simply supported on all the four sides is
subjected to transverse loads, the bending of the slab in two
directions cause the corners to lift up due to torsion moment. If
the corners are held down against lifting, torsion reinforcement
has to be provided at corners (at discontinuous edges) to
prevent cracking of corners.
Two-way slabs can be divided into the following categories
depending on support conditions:
1. Slabs simply supported on all the four edges and corner free
to lift.
2. Restrained slabs i e., slabs with fixed or continuous edges
(including simply supported slabs with corner held down).
5.4.1 RECOMMENDATIONS OF IS: 456 FOR DESIGN OF
RESTRAINED SLABS:
1. The maximum bending moment per unit width in a slab are
given by the following equations.
 𝑀𝑋 =∝𝑥 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2
𝑀𝑦 =∝𝑦 𝑤𝑙𝑦 2

Where,
𝑀𝑥 and 𝑀𝑦 are the design moments along short and long spans
w= Total Design load on the slab
𝑙𝑥 and 𝑙𝑦 are the length of Slab and Long Spans
∝𝑥 and ∝𝑦 are the moment coefficient give in table-26 of IS: 456
2. Slabs are considered as divided in each direction in to middle
strips and edge strips.
The middle strip being ¾ of the width and edge strip of 1/8
width of the slab.

3.The maximum moment calculated in (1) apply only to the

middle strips only.
4. Tension reinforcements provided at the mid Span in the
middle Strip shall extend in to the lower part of the slab to
within 0.25*1 of a continuous edge or 0.15*| of a
discontinuous edge.
5. Over the continuous edges of a middle strip. the tension
reinforcement shall extend in the upper part of the slab a
distance of 0.15 1 from the support and at least 50% Shall
extend a distance of 0.3*1.
6. At a discontinuous edge, negative moment may arise. They
depend on the degree of fixity at the edge of the slab, but in
general, tension reinforcement equal to 50 % that provided
at mid span extending 0.1*1 in to the span will be sufficient.
7. Reinforcement in edge strip, parallel to that edge, shall
comply with the minimumreinforcement.
8. Torsion reinforcement shall be provided at any corner
where the slab is simply supported on both the edges
meeting at that corner. It shall consist of top and bottom
reinforcement, each with layers of bars placed parallel to the
sides of the slabs and extending from the edges a minimum
distance of 1/5 of the shorter span. The area of
reinforcement in each of these four layers shall be % of the
area required for the maximum mid span moment in the
slab.
9. Torsion reinforcement equal to hair that described in (s)
shal provided at a comer contained by edges over only one
of which the slab is continuous.
10.Torsion reinforcement need not be provided at any corner
contained by edges over both of which the slab is
continuous.
11. Where 𝑙𝑦 /𝑙𝑥 is greater than 2, the slab shall be designed
as one-way slab.
5.4.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR TWO WAY SLAB:
1. Assume the depth of the slab based on stiffiness.
(a) For two way slabs with shorter span less than 3.5 m and
LL < 3 kN/m 2 the allowable Ix/d ratio is
Fe 250 Fe 415
Simply supported slabs 35 28
Fixed or continuous slabs 40 32
(b) If Ix > 3.5 m and LL > 3 KN/m2, the allowable Ix/d ratio is
same as that one way slabs.
2. Find the effective spans Ix and ly
3. Calculate the ultimate load considering 1 m width of the
slab.
4. Obtain the design moment coefficients along short and
long spans depending on the boundary conditions given in
table 26 of IS: 456 as applicable. Calculate the bending
moments by multiplying the coefficients by 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2
5. Calculate the minimum depth required to resist the
absolute maximum design moment (Mx or My) which should
be less than the depth provided, otherwise increase the
depth.

6. Calculate the area of steel at mid span (and at support if

the slab is continuous) in both the directions using
Mu = 0.87 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 d (1-𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 /𝑓𝑐𝑘 .b.d)
The short span bars are provided in the bottom layer and
long span bars are provided above the short span bars in the
mid span regions.
Thus for short span, d = D - clear cover - ∅/2
Long span, di = (D - clear cover- ∅/2) - p = d -∅
The main reinforcement shall be provided in t he middle
strips of width equal to ¼ of slab width.
7. Torsion Steel :
(a) At corners where slab is discontinuous over both the
edges
𝐴𝑡 =¼ 𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑥
(b) At corners where slab is discontinuous over one edge
𝐴𝑡 = 3/8 𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑥
(c) At corners where slab is continuous over both the edges,
𝐴𝑡 = 0 i.e, no torsion steel is required.
Where, 𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑥 = Area of steel for maximum mid span moment.
This area of torsion reinforcement will be provide at corners
in the form of mesh, one at top and the other at bottom for
a length of Ix/5 in each orthogonal direction, parallel to the
sides of the slab
8. Check for Deflection:
Calculate the 𝑃𝑡 % corresponding maximum mid span
moment
Take the modification factor (MF) from Fig. 4.7 of IS: 456-
2000.
𝑙/𝑑𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 < 𝑙/𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = basic value X MF
9. Check for Shear:
Maximum shear force at the edges of two way slab is given
by
𝑟4 𝑙 𝑙𝑦
𝑣𝑢𝑥 = 𝑤𝑣 (1+𝑟 4 ) 2𝑥 , where r = 𝑙
𝑥

𝜏𝜗 < 𝜏𝑐
10. Check for Development Length:
 𝑀1
𝐿𝑑 ≤ + 𝑙0
𝑉

The check for shear and checkfor development length are

mostly satisfied in all cases slabs subjected to uniformly
distributed loads and therefore omitted in design
calculations.
The check for shear and check for development length are
mostly satisfied in all cases slabs subjected to uniformly
distributed loads and terefore omitted in design calculations.
5.4.3 REINFORCEMENT DETAILING OF TWO-WAY SLAB:
The reinforcement detailing of a two way simply supported
slab is shown. As the slab is spanning in both directions the
reinforcement in each direction shall be considered as main
reinforcement. The bars in the shorter are generally placed
in the bottom layer and tied with the bars in the longer
direction placed above at suitable intervals to keep their
relative positions intact during concreting.
At least 50 percent of the tension reinforcement provided at
mid-span in each direction shall extend in to the supports up
to a length of 𝐿𝑑 /3,
Where, 𝐿𝑑 is the development length based on the full
design stress in the reinforcement.
The remaining 50 percent of the reinforcement shall be
cranked up and extend to within 0. 1*𝑙𝑥 or 0.1 𝑙𝑦 of the
support, as appropriate, where 𝑙𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑦 are effective spans
in the shorter direction and longer direction, respectively.
Reinforcement detailing of restrained slabs, whose corners
are prevented from lifting and are designed predominantly
for uniformly distributed loads, shall be made in accordance
with the IS code provisions, using straight bars and bent-up
bars. The tension reinforcement provided at mid-span in
the middle strip shall extend in the lower part of the slab to
within 0.25 I of a continuous edge, or 0.15 I of a
discontinuous edge. Over the continuous edges of middle
strip, the tension reinforcement shall extend in the upper
part of the slab at a distance of 0.15*I from the support,
and at least 50 percent shall extend a distance of 0.30 I. At
a discontinuous edge, negative moments may arise. They
depend on the fixity at the edge of the slab but, in general,
tension reinforcement equal to 50 percent of that provided
at mid-span extending 0.1 I into the span will be sufficient.
Reinfocement in the edge strip shall comply with the
requirement of minimum reinforcemen. inar irement shall
be provided at the corners where the slab has either one or
both edges discontinuous.
DESIGN OF SLAB:
Shorter span, 𝑙𝑥 = 3.2𝑚
Longer span, 𝑙𝑦 = 4.0𝑚
𝑙𝑦
Aspect Ratio = ⁄𝑙
𝑥

= 4.00/3.2
=1.25<2 (Two-way slab)
EFFECTIVE DEPTH (OR) THICKNESS OF SLAB: -
As per IS 456-1978 the shorter span shall be used for 2way
slab.
Therefore, the effective depth ‘d’ for the slab simply
supported one side and continuous over the other side.

Assume Effective Depth, d= span/28

= 3200/28
= 114.28 mm
Adopt Effective depth, d = 150mm
Overall Depth, D= 150+25 = 175
EFFECTIVE SPAN: -
Width of the support was assumed, b= 230mm
Effective Span, 𝑙𝑥 = 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 + 𝑑
= 3.20+0.15
= 3.35 m
(OR)
Effective span,𝑙𝑥 = 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏
= 3.20+ 0.23
= 3.43
Effective shorter span,𝑙𝑥 = 3.35𝑚
LONG SPAN: -
Effective Span,𝑙𝑦 = 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 + 𝑑
= 4.00+ 0.15
= 4.15 m
Effective Span, 𝑙𝑦 = 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏
= 4.00+0.23
= 4.23m
LOAD: -
Self – Weight of the slab = 0.175 x 25
= 4.375 kN/𝑚2
Floor Finish = 1 kN/𝑚2
Total Dead load = Self weight + floor finish
= 4.375 + 1
= 5.375 kN/𝑚2

Live Load = 4 kN/𝑚2 ( 𝑙𝑥 > 3𝑚)

Total Load = DL +LL

= 5.375+4
 = 9.375 kN/𝑚2
Factored Load = 1.5 x 9.375
= 14.062 kN/𝑚2
DESIGN BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCE:
This Slab corresponds case -4 of table IS-456
MX =∝x wlx 2
My =∝y wly 2
Aspect Ratio = 1.07
∝x (−𝑣𝑒) = 0.0521
∝x (+𝑣𝑒) = 0.0410
∝y (−𝑣𝑒) = 0.047
∝y (+𝑣𝑒) = 0.035
MX (−ve) =∝x (−ve)wlx 2
= 0.0521 x 14.062 x3.352
= 8.22 kN-m
MX (+ve) =∝x (+ve)wlx 2
= 0.0410 x 14.062 x3.352
= 6.47kN-m
𝑀𝑦 (-ve) = ∝y (−ve)wly 2
= 0.047 x 14.062 x4.152
= 11.38 kN-m
𝑀𝑦 (+ve) =∝y (−ve)wly 2 :
= 0.035 X 14.062x 4.152
 = 8.47 kN-m
Shear Force ,
𝑙
𝑉𝑢 = 𝑤𝑢 𝑥
2
= 14.062 x3.35/2
= 23.55 kN.
MINIMUM DEPTH REQUIRED:
The minimum depth required to resist Bending Moment
𝑀𝑢 = 0.138𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2
11.38 x106 = 0.138 𝑥 20 𝑥1000 𝑑 2
d= 64.21mm < 150 mm
Hence provided depth is adequate.
REINFORCEMENT:
Mux= 0.87 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 d (1-𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 /𝑓𝑐𝑘 .b.d)
Along short span direction(-ve)
415 𝑥𝐴
8.22 x 106 = 0.87 𝑥 415 𝑥 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑥 𝑑 (1 − 20𝑥103 𝑥160
𝑠𝑡
)

𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 223.74 𝑚2
Using 8mm diameter bars,

𝜋⁄ 𝑥82
4
Spacing = 𝑥 1000 = 224.66mm≈ 220𝑚𝑚
223.74

Maximum Spacing:
1) 3d = 3 x 150 = 450mm
2) 300mm
Hence , provide 8mm bars at 220mm c/c
Along short span ( +ve BM)
As the moment
415 𝑥𝐴
6.47 x106 = 0.87 𝑥 415 𝑥 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑥 𝑑 (1 − 20𝑥103 𝑥150
𝑠𝑡
)

𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 163.77𝑚2
Minimum reinforcement area= 𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 0.12 % of gross area
= (0.12/100 )x 1000x185
= 222𝑚2
Spacing = 226.42n≈ 220 𝑚𝑚 ( 8 mm bars)
Along Y- direction
𝑀𝑢𝑦 (+𝑣𝑒) = 220 𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑢𝑦 (−𝑣𝑒) = 200𝑚𝑚
Spacing = 200mm (8 mm bars)
Reinforcement in edge strip:
𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.12 % of gross area
= (0.12/100 )x 1000x175
= 222𝑚2
Maximum Spacing
1) 5d = 5 x 150 = 750 mms
2) 450 mm
8mm diameter bars at 220mm c/c
TORSION REINFORCMENT:
At the corner, where both edges are discontinuous , Area of
reinforcement in each layer ,
𝐴𝑡 = 3⁄4 𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑥
= ¾ x 222
= 166.5 𝑚2
Distance over which torsion reinforcement is to be provided
= 1/5 of short span.
= 1⁄5 𝑥3500
= 700𝑚𝑚
Using 6mm bars
𝑎
Spacing of bars, S = 𝐴 𝑠𝑡 𝑥 1000
𝑠𝑡
𝜋⁄ 𝑥62
4
= x 1000 =169.81≈ 160𝑚𝑚
166.5

Hence, provide 6 mm bars at 160 mm c/c in four layers at

corner A where both edges are discontinuous .
At the corner where one edge is discontinuous and one
edge is continuous , Area of reinforcement in each layer.
𝐴𝑡 = 1⁄2 3⁄4 𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑥

= 1⁄2 3⁄4 𝑥 222

= 83.25𝑚𝑚2
Using 6 mm bars, Spacing
 𝑎
S = 𝐴 𝑠𝑡 𝑥 1000
𝑠𝑡
𝜋⁄ 𝑥62
4
= x 1000
83.25

= 339 mm ≈ 330𝑚𝑚
Hence, provide 6 mm bars at 330mm c/c at corners where
one edges is discontinuous and one edge is continuous.
At the corner , where both edges are continuous , torsion
reinforcement is not required.
CHECK FOR DEFLECTION:
For simply supported slab basic value of l/d ratio = 20
Modification factor for tension steel F1
% steel= 0.12

𝑓𝑠 = 0.58 𝑥𝑓𝑦

= 0.58 x 41 = 240 N/𝑚𝑚2

From IS 456, Modification factor = 1.6

Maximum permitted l/d ratio = 1.6 x 20 = 32

l/d provided =3500/150 = 23.33

23.33< 32 , Hence deflection control is safe

 6. DESIGN OF BEAMS

Concrete is fairly strong in compression but very weak in

tension. Hence Plain concrete cannot be used in situations
where considerable tensile stresses develop. 1f flexural
members like beams and slabs are made of plain concrete
their load carrying capacity is very low due to its low tensile
strength. Since steel is very strong in tension, steel bars are
provided to resist tensile stresses at a place where the
maximum tensile stresses are developed.

In case of simply supported beam, tensile stresses are

induced in bottom layers of positive bending moment
(sagging bending moment) and hence steel bars are
provided near the bottom of the beam. In cantilever beams
steel bars are placed near the top of the beam to resist the
tensile stresses developed in top layers due the negative
bending moment (hogging bending moment).
6.2 ASSUMPTIONS:

The analysis and design of a reinforced concrete section for

flexure is based on the following assumptions. (IS: 456 -2000,
Clause 38.1)
• Plane sections normal to the axis remains plane after
bending.
• The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost
compression fiber is taken as 0.0035 in bending regardless of
strength of concrete.
• The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
• The relationship between stress-strain distribution in
concrete is assumed to parabolic.
Compressive strength of concrete in the structure (size
effect) is assumed to be 0.67 times the characteristic
strength of concrete.
The partial safety factor Ym equal to 1.5 is applied to the
strength of concrete in addition to it. Therefore, the design
compressive strength of concrete is 0.67 fck/1.5 = 0.446 fck.
• The stress in reinforcement is derived from the
representative stress-strain curve for the type of steel used.
The partial safety factor ym equal to 1.15 is applied to the
strength of reinforcement. Therefore, the design strength of
steel is fy/1.15=0.87 fy.
• The maximum strain in tension reinforcement in the
𝑓
section at failure should not be less than the 𝑦⁄1.15𝐸 +
𝑠
0.002
Where fy =Characterstic strenght of steel
Es = Modulus of elasticity of steel
6.3 ANALYSIS OF SINGLY REINFORCED SECTIONS:
If the reinforcing bars are provided only on tension side in the
beam section, it is called as singly reinforced beams.
Consider a simply supported beam subjected to bending
under factored loads. Since plane sections are assumed to
remain plane before and after bending, strain is proportional
to distance from the neutral axis. Above the neutral axis the
entire cross section is in compression and below the neutral
axis, the cross section is in tension. All the tensile stresses are
assumed to be resisted by the steel bars as the tensile
strength of concrete is ignored. The resultant tensile force,
thus acts at the centroid of reinforcing bars.
6.3.1 EFFECTIVE DEPTH:
Effective depth of a beam is the distance between the
centroid of tension reinforcement and the maximum
compression fiber, excluding the thickness of finishing
material not placed mono lithically with the member.
6.3.2 MODES OF FAILURES/TYPE OF SECTIONS:
A reinforced concrete member is considered to have failed
when the strain in Concrete in extreme compression fiber
reaches its ultimate value equal to 0.0035.
1. Balanced Section:
When the maximum strains in steel and concrete reach their
maximum values simultaneously, the section is known as a
balanced section. The percentage of steel provided for
balanced section is called as limiting percentage of steel.
Xu = Xu,max
2. Under Reinforced Section (Tension failure or Ductile Failure):
When the amount of steel in a section is less than that
required for a balanced section, the section is called as under
reinforced section.
In under reinforced sections, the strain in concrete does not
reach its maximum value while the strain in steel reaches its
maximum value. The position of neutral axis will shift upwards
to maintain equilibrium between force of compression and
tension.
Xu < Xu,max
So failure of the section is initiated by steel reaching its yield
value. Before failure beam undergoes substantial deflection
excessive cracking of concrete giving sufficient warning of
impending failure. For this reason and from economy point of
view the under reinforced sections are designed.IS code
under reinforced sections and at the most it can be a balanced
section (Xu ≤ Xu, max).
3. Over Reinforced Section (Compression Failure or Brittle
Failure):
When the amount of steel in a section is more than that
required for balanced section, the section is called over
reinforced section.
In over reinforced sections, the strain in concrete reaches its
ultimate value before steel reaches its yield value. Neutral axis
shift downwards to maintain equilibrium.
Xu > Xu, max

Hence, in over reinforced sections sudden failure occurs by

crushing of concrete out giving any warning. So this type
sections should be avoided. IS code also recommends avoid
of over reinforced.
6.3.3 PROCEDURE:
1. To determine the moment of resistance of the section, given
dimensions and area of Steel (Annexure G.1.1 of IS450).
Determine the depth of neutral section by equating
compressive force to tensile force (C = T).
i. 0.36 fck b Xu = 0.87 fy Ast
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
Xu = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏

ii. Determine the limiting depth of neytral section Xu,max.

iii.Determine the moment of resistance of the section as the
case may be.

(a) Under Reinforced section

Mu = 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑋𝑢)
 (b) Balanced Section
Mu,lim = 0.87 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑋𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
(c) Over Reinforced section:
Mu,lim = 0.36 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑋𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑋𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
2. To determine the area of steel, given dimensions and Mu:
Area of steel can be calculated by equating the bending
moment to the moment of resistance with respect to tension
steel
Mu = 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑋𝑢)
0.42 𝑥 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
= 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑋𝑢 )
0.36 𝐹𝑐𝑘 𝑏

𝐴𝑠𝑡 can found by solving the above equation and taking the
lower root.
3. To design the beam given Mu:
Assuming breadth, find the minimum depth of the section by
equating Mo with Mu lim
𝑀𝑢 = 𝑀𝑢,𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑘𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2
Where k is a factor which depends on grade of steel
For Fe 415, k = 0.138
For Fe 250, k = 0.148
• Calculate the Ast using the following equation.
𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
Mu= 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑑(1 − )
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏

6.4 INTRODUCTION OF T & L BEAMS:

In most of the reinforced concrete structures, beams and
slabs are always cast mono lithically. Form works are erected
for beams and slabs together and concrete is poured in one
operation from bottom of the beam to the top of the slab.
Stirrups and bent up bars are also extended in to the slab. This
results an integral connection between the slab and beam.
Due to this, certain portion of the slab acts along with the
beam resisting compression (in span region) of the beam and
it acts like a flange of the beam. The total resulting section
(slab and beam) is known as flanged section.

At the supports of a continuous beam, the beam doesn't act

like a flanged beam as the beam subjected to negative
moment causing tension in the slab at top. It acts like a
rectangular beam with total depth from top of the flange
(slab) to the bottom of the beam.
6.5 ADVANTAGES OF T-BEAMS:
• As the slab being monolithic with the beam is also
compressed and shares the compressive force with the beam,
which significantly increases the moment of resistance of the
beam.
• As most of the compressive force shared by the flange, the
depth of the beam required is less and hence the maximum
deflections are also less.
6.6 DIMENSIONS OF THE BEAM:
1.Effective Width of flange:
The effective with of flange may be taken as the following but
in no case greater than the breadth of the web plus half the
sum of the clear distances to the adjacent beams on either
side
(𝑋1 + 𝑏𝑤 + 𝑋2 ).

For T- beams:
𝑙𝑜
𝑏𝑓 = + 𝑏𝑤 + 𝐷𝑓
6
For L- beams:
𝑙𝑜
𝑏𝑓 = + 𝑏𝑤 + 3𝐷𝑓
12
For isolated beams, the effective width shall be btained as
given below but in no case greater than the actual width(b).
For T- beams:
𝑙𝑜
𝑏𝑓 = + 𝑏𝑤
𝑙
4+ 𝑜
𝑏
For L-beams:
0.5𝑙𝑜
𝑏𝑓 = + 𝑏𝑤
𝑙𝑜
4+
𝑏
𝑏𝑓 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑙𝑜 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝑏𝑤 = 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑏
𝐷𝑓 = 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
b = Actual width of the flange.
𝑋1 , 𝑋2 = ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠.
Note: For continuous beams and frames lo may be taken as
0.7 times the effective span.

2. Thickness of flange, Df:

It is equal to the total thickness of the slab. The flange
provides
compressive resistance to the section.
3. Breadth of Web, bw:
It is the width of the web portion of the beam in tension
zone. It should be sufficient enough to accommodate the
tension steel. It is generally to ½ to 2/3 of the depth of the
web, but generally fixed from architectural consideration
such as the width of the supporting column.
4. Effective Depth, d:
It is the distance from the top of the flange to the centre of
tensile reinforcement. The depth may vary from 1/12 to
1/15 for simply supported beams and 1/15 to 1/20 for
continuous beams based on stiffiness.
6.7 TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT:
As per the Clause 23.1. (b) of IS : 456, when the main
reinforcement of the slab is paralel to the beam, transverse
reinforcement should be provided at the top of the slab and
such reinforcement should not be less than 60% of the
main reinforcement at mid span of the slab.
DESIGN OF BEAM:
BEAM (1):
L Beam :
Length of the beam = 3.5 m
Assumed dimensions = 230 x 300 mm
Design as a L beam , So D = 300+125
= 425 mm
Effective Depth = 425-25-12/2
= 394 mm
Width of the flange,
𝑙𝑜
𝑏𝑓 = + 𝑏𝑤 + 3𝐷𝑓
12
= 3500/12 + 230 + 3(125)
= 896.67 mm
Weight of slab = wl/3
= 14.026 x 3.50/3
= 16.363 kN/m
Dead load of beam = 25 x 0.3 x 0.23
= 1.725 kN/m
Factored dead load = 1.5 x 1.725
= 2.580 kN/m
Wall load on beam = 0
Total load = Weight of slab + Dead load of beam + wall load
= 16.367 + 2.580 + 0.000
= 18.943 kN/m
Treating it as a partially fixed beam,
 𝑀𝑢 = 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2 /10
18.943 𝑥 3.50𝑥 3.50
= 10

=23.21 kNm
Mu,lim = 0.36 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑋𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑋𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
23.21 x 106 = 0.36 x 25x 125 x 960 x ( 394 – 0.42 x
125)
= 368.82 kNm
𝑀𝑢 < 𝑀𝑢,𝑙𝑖𝑚
i.e ; Neutral axis lies within the flange of I beam.
Desiging it as a under reinforced (simply reinforced )
rectangular beam.
b = 𝑏𝑓
𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
Mu= 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑑(1 − )
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏
415 𝑥𝐴
= 0.87 x 415x 𝐴𝑠𝑡 x 394(1 − 25 𝑥 394 𝑥𝑠𝑡960)

= 298.31 𝑚𝑚2
i.e , Provide 3 – 12mm diameter bars as tension steel.
BEAM (2):
T Beam :
Length of the beam = 4.0 m
Assumed dimensions = 230 x 300 mm
Design as a T beam , So D = 300+125
= 425 mm
Effective Depth = 425-25-12/2
 = 394 mm
Width of the flange,
𝑙𝑜
𝑏𝑓 = + 𝑏𝑤 + 6𝐷𝑓
6
= 4000/6 + 230 + 6(125)
= 1646.67 mm
Weight of slab = wl/3 + wl/2
= 14.026 x 4.0/3 + 14.026 x 4.00/2
= 40.90kN/m
Dead load of beam = 25 x 0.3 x 0.23
= 1.725 kN/m
Factored dead load = 1.5 x 1.725
= 2.580 kN/m
Wall load on beam = 0
Total load = Weight of slab + Dead load of beam + wall load
= 40.90 + 2.580 + 0.000
= 43.489kN/m
Treating it as a partially fixed beam,
𝑀𝑢 = 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2 /10
36.09 𝑥 4.00𝑥4.00
= 10

=61.26kNm
Mu,lim = 0.36 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑋𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑋𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
= 0.36 x 25x 125 x 1640 x ( 394 – 0.42 x 125)
= 504.05 kNm
 𝑀𝑢 < 𝑀𝑢,𝑙𝑖𝑚
i.e ; Neutral axis lies within the flange of I beam.
Desiging it as a under reinforced (simply reinforced )
rectangular beam.
b = 𝑏𝑓
𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
Mu= 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑑(1 − )
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏
415 𝑥𝐴
61.26 x 106 = 0.87 x 415x 𝐴𝑠𝑡 x 394(1 − 25 𝑥 394 𝑥 𝑠𝑡1640)

= 436.76 𝑚𝑚2
i.e , Provide 4 – 12mm diameter bars as tension steel.
BEAM (3):
L Beam:
Length of the beam = 4.00 m
Assumed dimensions = 230 x 300 mm
Design as a L beam , So D = 300+125
= 425 mm
Effective Depth = 425-25-12/2
= 394 mm
Width of the flange,
𝑙𝑜
𝑏𝑓 = + 𝑏𝑤 + 3𝐷𝑓
12
= 4260/12 + 230 + 3(125)
= 960 mm
Weight of slab = wl/3
 = 14.026 x 4.00/3
= 20.500 kN/m
Dead load of beam = 25 x 0.3 x 0.23
= 1.725 kN/m
Factored dead load = 1.5 x 1.725
= 2.580 kN/m
Wall load on beam = 20 x 0.23 x 0.3
= 13.80
Total load = Weight of slab + Dead load of beam + wall load
= 20.500 + 2.580 + 13.800
= 36.880kN/m
Treating it as a partially fixed beam,
𝑀𝑢 = 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2 /10
36.880 𝑥 4.00𝑥 4.00
=
10

=66.92kNm
Mu,lim = 0.36 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑋𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑋𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
= 0.36 x 25x 125 x 960 x ( 394 – 0.42 x 125)
= 368.82 kNm
𝑀𝑢 < 𝑀𝑢,𝑙𝑖𝑚
i.e ; Neutral axis lies within the flange of I beam.
Desiging it as a under reinforced (simply reinforced )
rectangular beam.
b = 𝑏𝑓
 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
Mu= 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑑(1 − )
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏
415 𝑥𝐴
66.92 x 106 = 0.87 x 415x 𝐴𝑠𝑡 x 394(1 − 25 𝑥 394 𝑥𝑠𝑡960)

= 480.56 𝑚𝑚2
i.e , Provide 5– 12mm diameter bars as tension steel.
In bottom and top 2- 10 dia bars of minimum steel in top.
BEAM (4):
L Beam :
Length of the beam = 3.50 m
Assumed dimensions = 230 x 300 mm
Design as a L beam , So D = 300+125
= 425 mm
Effective Depth = 425-25-12/2
= 394 mm
Width of the flange,
𝑙𝑜
𝑏𝑓 = + 𝑏𝑤 + 3𝐷𝑓
12
= 3500/12 + 230 + 3(125)
= 935 mm
Weight of slab = wl/3
= 14.026 x 3.50/3
= 19.06 kN/m
Dead load of beam = 25 x 0.3 x 0.23
= 1.725 kN/m
Factored dead load = 1.5 x 1.725
= 2.580 kN/m
Wall load on beam = 20 x 0.23 x 0.3
=13.80kN/m
Total load = Weight of slab + Dead load of beam + wall load
= 19.060 + 2.580 + 13.800
= 35.440 kN/m
Treating it as a partially fixed beam,
𝑀𝑢 = 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2 /10
35.440 𝑥 3.50𝑥 3.50
= 10

=55.57kNm
Mu,lim = 0.36 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑋𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑋𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
= 0.36 x 25x 125 x 960 x ( 394 – 0.42 x 125)
= 368.82 kNm
𝑀𝑢 < 𝑀𝑢,𝑙𝑖𝑚
i.e ; Neutral axis lies within the flange of I beam.
Desiging it as a under reinforced (simply reinforced )
rectangular beam.
b = 𝑏𝑓
𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
Mu= 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑑(1 − )
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏
415 𝑥𝐴
55.57 x 106 = 0.87 x 415x 𝐴𝑠𝑡 x 394(1 − 25 𝑥 394 𝑥𝑠𝑡960)

= 397.57 𝑚𝑚2
 i.e , Provide 4 – 12mm diameter bars as tension steel.
In bottom and 2- 10 dia bars of minimum steel in top.

7.DESIGN OF COLUMNS:

A vertical member whose effective length is greater than 3

times its least lateral dimension carrying compressive loads
is called as column. Columns transfer the loads from the
beams or slabs to the footings or foundations. The inclined
member carrying compressive loads as in case of frames and
trusses is called as struts. Pedestal is a vertical compression
member whose effective length is less than 3 times its least
lateral dimension. Generally, the column may be square,
rectangular, or circular in shape.
7.2 NECESSITY OF REINFORCEMENT IN COLUMNS:
Even though concrete is strong in compression, longitudinal
steel bars are placed in the column to reduce the size of the
column or to increase the load carrying capacity and to resist
any tension that might develop due to bending of column
due to horizontal loads, eccentric loads, or moments.
To resist any tensile stresses likely to develop, the
reinforcement should be placed as near the surface as
possible and should be evenly distributed ensuring the
minimum cover.
Transverse reinforcement in the form of lateral ties or spiral
reinforcement are provided to resist longitudinal splitting of
the column or splitting of concrete due to development of
transverse tension and to prevent buckling of longitudinal
bars.
7.3 TYPES OF COLUMNS:
1. Based on Type of Reinforcement:
Depending up on the type of reinforcement used,
Reinforced columns are classified in to
Tied Column: When the main longitudinal bars of the column
are confined Within closely spaced lateral ties, it is
called as tied column
Column: When the main longitudinal bars of the column are
enclosed within closely spaced and continuously wound
spiral reinforcement, it is called as spiral
Composite Column: When the longitudinal reinforcement is
in the form of structural steel section or pipe with or without
longitudinal bars, it is called as composite column.
2. Based on type of loading:
Depending upon the type of loading. Columns may be
classified
into the following three types.
Axially Loaded Column: When the line of action of the
resultant compressive force coincides with the centre of
gravity of the cross section of the column. It is called as
axially loaded column.
Eccentrically Loaded Columns Uniaxial or Biaxial: When the
line of action of the resultant compressive force does not
coincide with the centre of gravity of the cross section of the
column, it is called as eccentrically loaded column.
Eccentrically loaded columns have to be designed for
combined axial force and bending moments.
3. Based on Slenderness Ratio:
Depending up on the Slenderness ratio (ratio of effective
length
to least lateral dimension of the column), the columns are
classified as
Short Column: When the ratio of effective length of the
column to the least lateral dimension is less than 12, the
column is called as short column. A short column fails by
crushing (pure compression failure).
Long Column: If the ratio effective length of the column to
the least lateral dimension exceeds 12, it is called as long
column. A long column fails by bending or buckling.
7.4 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF THE COLUMN:
Effective length of a column is the distance between the
points of zero bending moments (points of contra flexure) of
a buckled column. The effective length of the column
depends up on the unsupported length (distance between
the lateral connections) and the end conditions (free, fixed
or hinged).
7.5 SLENDERNESS LIMITS FOR COLUMNS:
The column dimensions shall be such that it fails by material
failure only (crushing due to compression) and not buckling.
To avoid the failure of column by buckling, Clause 25.3 of IS
456 recommends the following slenderness limits for the
column.
(a) The unsupported length (distance between the lateral
connections) shall not exceed 60 times the least lateral
dimension of the column.
L < 60 b
If one end of the column is unrestrained (unsupported)

L < 100 𝑏 2 /D
Where
B = Width of the cross section
D = Depth of the cross section
7.6 MINIMUM ECCENTRICITY:
No column can have perfectly axial load. There may be some
moments acting due to imperfection of construction or due
to actual conditions of loading. Hence IS 456-2000 clause
25.4 recommends that all columns shall be designed for
minimum eccentricity as given below.
𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Emin = +
500 30

Subjected to a minimum of 20 mm
7.7 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF AXIALLY LOADED SHORT
COLUMNS:
Short Column with Lateral Ties:
The ultimate load on the short column with lateral ties, when
the minimum eccentricity does not exceed 0.05 times the
lateral dimensions, is given by the following equation.
Pu = 0.4 𝑓𝑐𝑘 Ac +0.67 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑐
Where
Pu = Factored axial load on the column
Ac = Area of concrete = gross area - area of steel
𝐴𝑠𝑐 = Area of longitudinal reinforcement
𝑓𝑐𝑘 = Characteristic compressive strength of concrete

𝑓𝑦 = Characteristic strength of compressive steel

Short Column with Helical reinforcement:
The strength of column with helical reinforcement shall be
1.05 times the strength of similar column with lateral ties,
provided the ratio of the helical reinforcement to the volume
of the core shall not be less than
𝐴𝑔 𝑓𝑐𝑘
0.36(𝐴 − 1)
𝑘 𝑓𝑦

Where
𝐴𝑔 = Gross area of the section
𝐴𝑘 = Area of the core of helically reinforced column
measured to the outside diameter of the helix.
7.8 LONG COLUMNS OR SLENDER COLUMNS:
If the ratio of effective length of the column to its least lateral
dimension is more than 12, the columns are called as long
columns. A long column under the action of axial loads
deflects laterally causing maximum lateral deflection at the
centre (4). This makes the load eccentric at the central
section of the column by a distance 4, subjecting a bending
moment P x∆ in addition to the axial load P. Hence, in long
columns, the moment produced by the lateral deflection
should be considered in the design.

According to IS: 456-2000, the additional moments Max and

May due to the lateral deflection shall be calculated by the
following equations.
𝑙𝑒𝑥 2
𝑝𝑢 𝐷 ( 𝐷 )
𝑀𝑎𝑥 =
2000
𝑙𝑒𝑦 2
𝑝𝑢 𝑏 ( )
𝑏
𝑀𝑎𝑦 =
2000
Pu = Axial load on the member
𝑙𝑒𝑥 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑙𝑒𝑦 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
D = Depth of the cross section at right angles to the major
Axis.
b = Width of the cross section.
The above values may be multiplied by the following
reduction factor.
 𝑝 −𝑝
k=(𝑝𝑢𝑧 −𝑝𝑢) ≤ 1
𝑢𝑧 𝑏

𝑃𝑢 = 𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

𝑝𝑢𝑧 = 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐴𝑐 + 0.75𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑐
𝑝𝑏 = Axial load corresponding to the condition of maximum
compressive strain of 0.0035 in concrete and tensile strain of
0.002 in outer most layer of tension steel.
7.9 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR COLUMNS (CLAUSE 26.5.3
OF IS456):
1. Longitudinal Reinforcement:
• The cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement
shall not be less than 0.8% and not more than 6% of
gross cross-sectional area of the column.
• In any column that has larger cross-sectional area than
that required to support the load, the minimum
percentage of steel shall be 0.8% of required area and
not the area provided.
• Minimum number of longitudinal bars to be provided is
4 for rectangular columns and 6 for circular columns.
• Minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars is 12 mm.
• Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the
periphery of the column Shall not exceed 300 mm.
2. Transverse Reinforcement:
A reinforced concrete compression member shall have
transverse
Reinforcement or helical reinforcement so disposed that
every longitudinal bar nearest to the Compression face has
effective lateral support against buckling. The effective
lateral support is given by transverse reinforcement either in
the form of circular rings capable taking up circumferential
tension or by polygonal links (lateral ties) with internal angles
not exceeding 135°. The ends of the transverse
reinforcement shall be properly anchored.
(i) Lateral Ties:
a) The diameter of lateral ties shall not less than ½ of the
diameter of largest longitudinal bar and in no case less than
6 mm.
b) The pitch of the ties shall not be more than the least of
the following
• Least lateral dimension of the column.
• Sixteen times the smallest longitudinal bar
• 300 mm
(ii) Helical Reinforcement:
a) The diameter is same as that of lateral ties
b) The pitch of the helical reinforcement shall not be more
than the least of the following
• 75 mm
• 1/6 of core diameter of the column
c) And the pitch of helical reinforcement shall not be less
than the greatest of the following
• 25 mm
• Three times the diameter of helical bar.
7.10 COVER:
For longitudinal reinforcing bars in a column nominal cover
shall in any case not be less than 40 mm, or less than the
diameter of such bar. In case of columns of minimum
dimension of 200 mm or under, whose reinforcing bars do
not exceed 12 mm, a nominal cover of 25 mm may be used.
(Clause 26.4.2.1 of IS: 456 2000)
7.11 DESIGN OF COLUMNS USING SP 16:
SP 16 design charts 24 to 26 shall be used for designing of
axially loaded short columns. These charts cover different
grades of steel (𝑓𝑦 = 250, 415 and 500) and concrete grades.
𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40.
In the lower section of these charts, has been plotted against
percentage of steel (p) for different grades of concrete. If the
𝑃
cross section of the column is known, 𝑢⁄𝐴 can be
𝑔
calculated and reinforcement percentage can be read from
the chart.
𝑃𝑢
In the upper section of the charts, ⁄𝐴 is plotted against
𝑔
𝑃𝑢 for various values of 𝐴𝑔 . The combined use of the upper
and lower sections would eliminate the need for
any calculations.
DESIGN OF COLUMNS:
According to code IS 456,
COLUMN (1): -
Factored load,𝑃𝑢 = 1.5 𝑥 23.08
= 34.62kN
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑔 − 𝐴𝑠𝑐
 Pu = 0.4 𝑓𝑐𝑘 Ac +0.67 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑐
𝐴𝑔 = 0.400 x 0.400
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
For axially loaded short columns
Pu = 0.4 𝑓𝑐𝑘 Ac +0.67 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑐
34.62 x 103 = 0.4 x 20 x (0.40 x 0.40 - 𝐴𝑠𝑐 ) + 0.67 x 415 x 𝐴𝑠𝑐
34618.72 = 270.08𝐴𝑠𝑐
𝐴𝑠𝑐 = 128.18 𝑚𝑚2
Provide 3 bars of 8 mm dia.
LATERAL TIES: -
Diameter of lateral ties should not be less than
(a) ∅ = 1⁄4 𝑥 8
= 2 mm
(b) 6 mm
Pitch of the ties shall be minimum bars
(a) Least lateral dimension of column
(b) 16 times the dia of longitudinal bar = 16 x 8
= 128 mm
(c) 300 mm
Provide 6 mm Lateral ties at 120 mm c/c
(d) Helical reinforcement
ф = 8 mm with pitch of 50 mm c/c
COLUMN (1): -
Factored load,𝑃𝑢 = 1.5 𝑥 36.09
= 54.135kN
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑔 − 𝐴𝑠𝑐
Pu = 0.4 𝑓𝑐𝑘 Ac +0.67 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑐
𝐴𝑔 = 0.400 x 0.400
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
For axially loaded short columns
Pu = 0.4 𝑓𝑐𝑘 Ac +0.67 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑐
54.13 x 103 = 0.4 x 20 x (0.40 x 0.40 - 𝐴𝑠𝑐 ) + 0.67 x 415 x 𝐴𝑠𝑐
54133.72 = 270.08𝐴𝑠𝑐
𝐴𝑠𝑐 = 200.44 𝑚𝑚2
Provide 4 bars of 8 mm dia.

LATERAL TIES: -
Diameter of lateral ties should not be less than
(a) ∅ = 1⁄4 𝑥 8
= 2 mm
(b) 6 mm
Pitch of the ties shall be minimum bars
(a) Least lateral dimension of column
(b) 16 times the diameter of longitudinal bar = 16 x 8
= 128 mm
(c) 300 mm
Provide 6 mm Lateral ties at 120 mm c/c
(d) Helical reinforcement
ф = 8 mm with pitch of 50 mm c/c
COLUMN (3): -
Factored load,𝑃𝑢 = 1.5 𝑥 36.880
= 55.32 kN
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑔 − 𝐴𝑠𝑐
Pu = 0.4 𝑓𝑐𝑘 Ac +0.67 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑐
𝐴𝑔 = 0.400 x 0.400
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
For axially loaded short columns
Pu = 0.4 𝑓𝑐𝑘 Ac +0.67 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑐
55.32 x 103 = 0.4 x 20 x (0.40 x 0.40 - 𝐴𝑠𝑐 ) + 0.67 x 415 x 𝐴𝑠𝑐
55318.72 = 270.08𝐴𝑠𝑐
𝐴𝑠𝑐 = 204.82 𝑚𝑚2
Provide 4 bars of 8 mm dia.
LATERAL TIES: -
Diameter of lateral ties should not be less than
(a) ∅ = 1⁄4 𝑥 8
= 2 mm
(b) 6 mm
Pitch of the ties shall be minimum bars
(a) Least lateral dimension of column
(b) 16 times the diameter of longitudinal bar = 16 x 8
= 128 mm
(c) 300 mm
Provide 6 mm Lateral ties at 120 mm c/c
(d) Helical reinforcement
ф = 8 mm with pitch of 50 mm c/c
COLUMN (4): -
Factored load,𝑃𝑢 = 1.5 𝑥 35.44
= 53.16 kN
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑔 − 𝐴𝑠𝑐
Pu = 0.4 𝑓𝑐𝑘 Ac +0.67 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑐
𝐴𝑔 = 0.400 x 0.400
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
For axially loaded short columns
Pu = 0.4 𝑓𝑐𝑘 Ac +0.67 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑐
53.16 x 103 = 0.4 x 20 x (0.40 x 0.40 - 𝐴𝑠𝑐 ) + 0.67 x 415 x 𝐴𝑠𝑐
53158.72 = 270.08𝐴𝑠𝑐
𝐴𝑠𝑐 = 196.83𝑚𝑚2
Provide 4 bars of 8 mm dia.
LATERAL TIES: -
Diameter of lateral ties should not be less than
(a) ∅ = 1⁄4 𝑥 8
= 2 mm
(b) 6 mm
Pitch of the ties shall be minimum bars
(a) Least lateral dimension of column
(b) 16 times the dia of longitudinal bar = 16 x 8
= 128 mm
(c) 300 mm
Provide 6 mm Lateral ties at 120 mm c/c
(d) Helical reinforcement
ф = 8 mm with pitch of 50 mm c/c

8 ESTIMATION AND COSTING

Estimating is the technique of calculating or computing the
various quantities and the expected expenditure to be incurred
on a particular work or project. In case the funds available are
less than the estimated cost the work is done in part or by
reducing it or specifications are altered, the following
requirement are necessary for preparing an estimate.
Drawings like plan, elevation and sections of important points.
2.Detailed specifications about workmanship& properties of
materials. 3.Standard schedule of rates of the current year.

8.2 UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS:

The units of measurements are mainly categorized

for their nature, shape and size and for making payments
to the contractor and also.
The principle of units of measurements normally consists
the following:

a) Single units work like doors, windows, trusses etc.,

is expressed in numbers.
b) Works consists linear measurements involve length like
cornice, fencing, hand rail, bands of specified width etc.,
are expressed in running meters (RM).
c) Works consists areal surface measurements involve

area like plastering, white washing, partitions of specified

thickness etc., and are expressed in square meters (m2).
d) Works consists cubical contents which involve volume
like earth work, cement, concrete, masonry are
expressed in cubic meters.
8.3 TECHNICAL TERMS:

1. ESTIMATE: An estimate is the anticipated or probable

cost of work and is usually prepared before the
construction is taken up. It is indeed calculations or
computations
of various items of an engineering work.

2. QUANTITY SURVEY: It is the schedule of all items of work

in a building. These quantities are calculated from the

drawing of the building. Thus, quantity survey gives
quantities of work done in case of each items, when
priced gives the total cost.
In short, quantity survey means calculations of
quantities of materials required to complete the work
concerned.
3.SPECIFICATIONS: Detailed specifications gives the
nature, quality and class of work, materials to be used in
the various parts of work quality of the material, their
proportions, method of preparation, workmanship and
description of execution of work are required.
4.RATES: The rates of various items of works, materials to
be used in the construction and the wages of different
categories of labour (skilled and unskilled) should be
available for preparing an estimate. The cost of
transportation charges should also be known. As far as
possible sanctioned “Schedule of Rates” shall be
followed or the rates may be worked out by the “Analysis
of Rates” method.

5.SITE PLAN: It is the plan drawn for a particular

construction showing its position with respect to
approaching roads, main bazars, markets and other
permanent features in a populated area. It shows the
location of the area under construction with respect to
the other areas and on it generally the names of the
owners of areas or property
holders adjoining to it are also denoted. North line is also
clearly marked on it.

8.4RULES FOR MEASUREMENT:

The rules for measurement of each item are

 invariably described in IS- 1200.
However, some of the general rules are listed below.

1. Measurement shall be made for finished item of work

and description of each item shall include materials,
transport, labour, fabrication tools and plant and all types
of overheads for finishing the work in required shape, size
and specification.
2.In booking, the order shall be in sequence of length,
breadth and height or thickness.
3.All works shall be measured subject to the following
tolerances. I. linear measurement shall be measured to
the nearest 0.01m. II. Areas shall be measured to the
nearest 0.01 sqm III. Cubic contents shall be worked-out
to the nearest 0.01 cum
4. Same type of work under different conditions and
nature shall be measured separately under separate
items.
5.The bill of quantities shall fully describe the materials,
proportions, workmanships and accurately represent the
work to be executed.
6. In case of masonry (stone or brick) or structural
concrete,

The categories shall be measured separately and the

heights shall be described:
 a) From foundation to plinth level
b) From plinth level to first floor level
c) From First floor to second floor level and so on.

8.5 REQUIREMENTS OF ESTIMATION AND COSTING:

1. Estimate gives an idea of the cost of the work and

hence its feasibility can be determined i.e. whether
the project could be taken up with in the funds
available or not.
2. Estimate gives an idea of time required for the
completion of the work.

3. Estimate is required to invite the tenders and

Quotations and to arrange contract.

4. Estimate is also required to control the expenditure

during the execution of work.
5. Estimate decides whether the proposed plan
matches the funds available or not.
8.6 PROCEDURE OF ESTIMATING OR METHOD OF
ESTIMATING:
DATA REQUIRED TO PREPARE AN ESTIMATE

1. Drawings i.e. plans, elevations, sections etc.

2. Specifications.
 3. Rates.

1. DRAWINGS:

If the drawings are not clear and without complete

dimensions the preparation of estimation become very
difficult. So, it is very essential before preparing an
estimate.

2.SPECIFICATIONS:

General Specifications: This gives the nature, quality,

class and work and materials in general terms to be used
in various parts of wok. It helps no form a general idea of

building.

Detailed Specifications: These gives the detailed

description of the various items of work laying down the
Quantities and qualities of materials, their proportions,
the method of preparation workmanship and execution
of work.
3. RATES:

For preparing the estimate the unit rates of each item of

work are required.

1. for arriving at the unit rates of each item.

 2. The rates of various materials to be used in the
construction.
3. The cost of transport materials.
4. The wages of labour, skilled or unskilled of masons,
carpenters, Amador, etc.,

The following are some of L.S. Items in the estimate:

1. Water supply and sanitary arrangements.

2. Electrical installations like meter, motor, etc.,

3. Architectural features.
4. Contingencies and unforeseen items.

PLANS AND SECTIONAL VIEW OF G+2 RESIDENTIAL

BUILDING

The plans and elevational view of the G+2

Residential building are drawn by using the Auto CAD
software. The total buildup area considered for the
planning is 89 sq.m
GROUND FLOOR PLAN

6.1 FIRST FLOOR PLAN

 6.2 SECOND FLOOR PLAN

6.3 SECTIONAL ELEVATION VIEW

 Specifications:
1. Thickness of slab =0.120m
2. Height of each floor =3m
3. Size of Footing =1.5m x 0.75m x 0.9m
4. Depth of Foundation =1.5m below ground level
5. Height of Parapet Wall =1m
6. Thickness of Parapet Wall =0.13m

8.7 ABSTRACT AND DETAILED ESTIMATE OF

PROPOSED G+2 RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
The detailed and abstract estimate of the G+2 Residential
building is estimated by using the plans which are drawn in the
AutoCAD software. The quantities are calculated by using the
dimensions and cost is estimated by knowing the quantities
and applying Standard schedule of rates to it.

ABSTRACT AND DETAILED ESTIMATE OF

PROPOSED G+2 RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
The detailed and abstract estimate of the G+2 Residential
building is estimated by using the plans which are drawn in the
AutoCAD software. The quantities are calculated by using the
dimensions and cost is estimated by knowing the quantities and
 applying Standard schedule of rates to it.

ABSTRACT AND DETAILED ESTIMATE OF PROPOSED G+2 FLOORS RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

GROUND FLOOR
S.NO Description of the Item Nos. Length Width Depth Quantity Unit Rate Amount

Earth work excavation for foundation of

1 fillers, basement and compound wall including
with cos t & conveyance of all labor charge s etc.
Footings 12 1.50 1.50 1.5 40.50
Basement
Short walls 8 4.00 0.75 0.90 21.60
long walls 3 10.00 0.75 0.90 20.25
Deductions
Footings 12 1.50 0.75 0.90 12.15
70.20 Cum 500.00 35,100.00

2 C.C bed (1:5:10) using 4 0mm size H.B.G Metal

Footings 12 1.50 1.50 0.30 8.10
Basement
Short walls 8 4.00 0.75 0.30 7.20
Flooring bed 2 4.00 10.00 0.15 12.00
long walls 3 10.00 0.75 0.30 6.75
Deductions
Footings 12 1.50 0.75 0.30 4.05
30.00 Cum 3,8 00.00 1,14 ,000.00

3 R.R.Masonary in CM 1:6 B.G.L

Basement
Short walls 8 4.00 0.60 0.60 11.52
long walls 3 10.00 0.60 0.60 10.80
Deductions
Footings 12 0.30 0.60 0.60 1.30
21.02 Cum 2,250.00 47,304 .00

4 C.R.S.Masonary in CM 1:6 Above G.L

Basement
Short walls 8 4.00 0.45 0.90 12.96
long walls 3 10.00 0.45 0.90 12.15
Deductions
Footings 12 0.30 0.23 0.90 0.75
24.36 Cum 2,150.00 52,38 4.32
5
R. C. C. 1:2:4 for GROUND FLOOR
Footing Columns 12 0.30 0.30 1.5 1.62
 Footing Mats 12 1.50 1.50 .3 8.10
Plinth Beams
long walls 3 10.00 0.30 0.30 2.70
Short walls 7 4.00 0.30 0.30 2.52
Internal walls 1 4.00 0.30 0.30 0.36
Ground Floor Columns 12 0.45 0.30 3.00 4.86
Lintels long 3 10.00 0.90 0.075 2.03
Lintels short 7 4.00 0.90 0.075 1.89
Windows unshades 6 1.80 0.90 0.075 0.73
Roof Slab 1 10.00 8.90 .12 10.6
8
Staircase 1 6.30 1.00 0.15 0.95
Steps 18 1.00 0.20 0.17 0.61
Roof Beams long 3 10.00 0.30 0.35 3.15
Roof Beams Short 8 4.00 0.30 0.35 3.36
Roof Beams Staircase projections 1 3.20 0.30 .35 0.34
43.89 Cum 7,200.00 3,15,986.40

Earth work Refilling of basement with useful soil at the

6 lead of 10 m and lift of 2 m including with cos t & con
Built-up area 1 10.00 8.90 1.20 106.8
0
106.8 Cum 400.00 42,720.00
0
7 Ground Floor - Brick masonry work in C M 1:6
Proportion Parapet Wall including cos t and
conveyance of all material and labor charges etc.,
complete .
long walls 3 10.01 0 0.30 2.65 23.85
Short walls 7 4.00 0.30 2.65 22.2
6
Internal walls 1 4.00 0.30 2.65 3.18
Staircase 1 1.00 0.13 1.00 0.13
Parapet wall 0 37.80 0.13 1.00 0.00
49.42 Cum
deductions
windows 6 1.50 0.3 1.20 3.24
ventilators 1 0.60 0.3 0.30 0.05
M Doors 1 1.20 0.3 2.1 2.52
C.Doors 4 0.90 0.3 2.1 2.27
open wall 1 1.30 0.3 2.65 1.03
9.11 Cum
40.31 Cum 3,800.00 1,53,178.00
Supply and fixing of wood doors & window Frame s of
all fixture s and furniture complete as per drawing
8 `
windows 6 1.50 1 1 6.00 No's 6,000.00 36,000.00
ventilators 1 0.60 1 1 1.00 No's 800.00 800.00
M Doors 1 1.20 1 1 1.00 No's 12,000.00 12,000.00
C.Doors 4 0.90 1 1 4.00 No's 7,500.00 30,000.00
78800.00

Supply and fixing of Me dium te ak wood doors and

9 window s hutte rs of all fixture s and furniture s
comple te as pe r drawing

windows 6 1.50 1 1 6.00 No's 6,000.00 36,000.00

M Doors 1 1.20 1 1 1.00 No's 12,000.00 12,000.00
C.Doors 4 0.90 1 1 4.00 No's 7,500.00 30,000.00
78 ,000.00
Painting ove r ne w wood work with s ynthe tic
10 e name l paint of twocoats ove r doors and windows

windows 6 1.50 1 1 6.00 No's 1,200.00 7,200.00

ventilatours 1 0.60 1 1 1.00 No's 800.00 800.00
M Doors 1 1.20 1 1 1.00 No's 6,000.00 6,000.00
 C.Doors 4 0.90 1 1 4.00 No's 5,000.00 20,000.00
34 ,000.00
Ce me nt Plas te ring in C M 1:3 Proportion 20mm
thick in one coat s ponge finis h and labour
11 charge s , s caffolding, curing, and all incide ntal
charge s e tc., comple te for inte rnal walls
long walls 3 10.00 2.00 2.65 159.00
Short walls 7 4.00 2.00 2.65 148.40

Internal Shor t walls 1 4.00 2.00 2.65 21.20

Ceiling 1 10.00 8.90 1.00 89.00
Staircas e 1 6.30 2.00 1.00 12.60
Perapet wall 0 37.00 2.00 1.00 0.00
4 30.20
de ductions
windows 6 1.50 2.00 1.10 19.80
ventilatours 1 0.60 2.00 .30 0.36
M Doors 1 1.20 2.00 1.8 2.16
C.Doors 4 0.90 2.00 1.8 12.96
35.28
394 .92 Sq.mt 250.00 98 ,730.00
12 Painting for all walls 1 394 .92 Sq.mt 250.00 98 ,730.00
13
Flooring with 20 mm thick Italian marble s inluding
.
with laying and finnis hing

Hall 1 3.70 2.90 - 10.73

Toilets 1 2.00 1.30 - 2.60
Kitchen 1 3.70 2.70 - 9.99
Parking 1 3.70 3.20 - 11.84
Bedroom- 1 1 3.90 3.20 12.48
Bedroom- 2 1 3.90 4.30 - 16.77
Staircas e 1 7.00 1 - 7.00
71.41 Sq.mt 1,200.00 8 5,692.00
14
Main Gate 1 200.00
200.00 Kg's 150.00 30,000.00
15
Plumbe r,Wate r & Drainage works 1 1,00,000.00

Wate r s upply charge s with Bore We ll, s ump &

16 2,00,000.00
s anitary fittings

Supply & Fixing of be s t te ak wood cubboards in

17 kit,hall & Be d with total cos t of mate rial and 1,00,000.00
labour charge s e tc.

16,64 ,630.00
18 Ele ctrification Charge s 10% 1,66,463.00

19 Ele vational Charge s 8 % 1,33,170.4 0

GROUND FLOOR Total Amount 19,64 ,270.00

(Nine te e n Lakhs Sixty Four Thous and Two Hunde re d And Se ve nty Rupe e s only )
 ABSTRACT AND DETAILED ESTIMATE OF PROPOSED G+2 FLOORS RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

FIRST FLOOR
S.NO De s cription of the Ite m Nos . Le ngth Width De pth Quantity Unit Rate Amount
1
R. C. C. 1:2:4 for FIRST FLOOR

Firs t Floor Columns 12 0.30 0.30 3.00 3.24

Lintels long 3 10.00 0.90 0.075 2.03
Lintels s hort 7 4.00 0.90 0.075 1.89
Window s uns hades 6 1.80 0.90 0.075 0.73
Roof Slab 1 10.00 8.90 0.12 10.68
Staircas e 1 6.30 1.00 0.15 0.95
Steps 18 1.00 0.20 0.17 0.61
Roof Beems long 3 10.00 0.30 0.35 3.15
Roof Beems Short 8 4.00 0.30 0.35 3.36
Roof Beems Staircas e projections 1 3.20 0.30 0.35 0.34
26.97 Cum 7,200.00 1,94,162.40
2 Firs t Floor - Brick mas onry work in
C M 1:6 Proportion Parape t Wall
including cos t and conve yance of all
mate rial and labour charge s e tc.,
comple te .

long walls 3 10.00 0.30 2.65 23.85

Short walls 7 4.00 0.30 2.65 22.26
Internal walls 1 4.00 0.30 2.65 3.18
Staircas e 1 1.00 0.13 1.00 0.13
Parapet wall 0 37.80 0.13 1.00 0.00
49.42 Cum
de ductions
windows 6 1.50 0.3 1.20 3.24
ventilatours 1 0.60 0.3 0.30 0.05
M Doors 1 1.20 0.3 2.1 2.52
C.Doors 4 0.90 0.3 2.1 2.27
open wall 1 1.30 0.3 2.65 1.03
9.12 Cum
40.30 Cum 3,800.00 1,53,157.10
Supply and fixing of wood doors &
window Frame s of all fixture s and
3 `
furniture s comple te as pe r drawing

windows 6 1.50 1 1 6.00 No's 6,000.00 36,000.00

ventilatours 1 0.60 1 1 1.00 No's 800.00 800.00
M Doors 1 1.20 1 1 1.00 No's 12,000.00 12,000.00
C.Doors 4 0.90 1 1 4.00 No's 7,500.00 30,000.00
78,800.00
Supply and fixing of Me dium te ak
wood doors and window s hutte rs of
4 all fixture s and furniture s comple te
as pe r drawing

windows 6 1.50 1 1 6.00 No's 6,000.00 36,000.00

M Doors 1 1.20 1 1 1.00 No's 12,000.00 12,000.00
C.Doors 4 0.90 1 1 4.00 No's 7,500.00 30,000.00
78,000.00

34
 Painting ove r ne w w ood work with
s ynthe tic e name l paint of twocoats
5
ove r doors and windows

windows 6 1.50 1 1 6.00 No's 1,200.00 7,200.00

ventilatours 1 0.60 1 1 1.00 No's 800.00 800.00
M Doors 1 1.20 1 1 1.00 No's 6,000.00 6,000.00
C.Doors 4 0.90 1 1 4.00 No's 5,000.00 20,000.00
34 ,000.00
Ce me nt Plas te ring in C M 1:3
Proportion 20mm thick in one coats
ponge finis h and labour charge s , s
6 caffolding, curing, and all incide
ntal charge s e tc., comple te for inte
rnal walls

long walls 3 10.00 2.00 2.65 159.00

Short walls 7 4.00 2.00 2.65 148.40
Internal Short walls 1 4.00 2.00 2.65 21.20
Ceiling 1 10.00 8.90 1.00 89.00
Staircas e 1 6.30 2.00 1.00 12.60
Parapet wall 0 37.00 2.00 1.00 0.00
430.20
de ductions
windows 6 1.50 2.00 1.10 19.80
ventilatours 1 0.60 2.00 .30 0.36
M Doors 1 1.20 2.00 1.8 2.16
C.Doors 4 0.90 2.00 1.8 12.96
35.28
394.92 Sq.mt 250.00 98,730.00
7 Painting for all walls 1 394.92 Sq.mt 250.00 98,730.00
8 Flooring with 20 mm thick Italian
marble s inluding with laying and .
finnis hing
Hall 1 3.70 2.90 - 10.73
Toilets 1 2.00 1.30 - 2.60
Kitchen 1 3.70 2.70 - 9.99
Bed room - 1 1 3.70 3.20 - 11.84
Bed room- 2 1 3.90 4.30 - 16.77
Staircas e 1 6.30 1 - 6.30
58.23 Sq.mt 1,200.00 69,8 76.00
9
Plumbe r,Wate r & Drainage works 1 50,000.00

Wate r s upply charge s with High

10 Voltage Ele ctric motor s ump & 80,000.00
s anitary fittings
Supply & Fixing of be s t te ak wood
cubboards in kit,hall & Be d with
11 1,00,000.00
total cos t of mate rial and labour
charge s e tc.
10,35,460.00
12 Ele ctrification Charge s 10% 1,03,54 6.00

13 Ele vational Charge s 8% 82,836.80

FIRST FLOOR Total Amount 12,21,850.00

( Twe lve Lakhs Twe nty One Thous and Eight Hunde re d And Fifty Rupe e s only )

35
 ABSTRACT AND DETAILED ESTIMATE OF PROPOSED G+2 FLOORS RESIDENTIAL BUILDING.

SECOND FLOOR

S.NO Description of the Item Nos. Length Width Depth Quantity Unit Rate Amount
1
R. C. C. 1:2:4 for SECOND FLOOR
Second Floor Columns 10 0.30 0.30 3.00 2.70
Lintels long 3 10.00 0.90 0.075 2.03
Lintels short 6 4.00 0.90 0.075 1.62
Window sunshades 5 1.80 0.90 0.075 0.61
Roof Slab 1 10.00 8.90 0.12 10.68
Staircase 1 6.30 1.00 0.15 0.95
Steps 18 1.00 0.20 0.17 0.61
Roof Beams long 3 10.00 0.30 0.35 3.15
Roof Beams Short 6 4.00 0.30 0.35 2.52
Roof Beems Staircase projections 1 3.20 0.30 0.35 0.34
25.20
deductions
slab 1 4.30 6.20 0.12 3.20
beam 1 6.20 0.30 0.35 0.65
21.35 Cum 7,200.00 1,53,686.16
2 Second Floor -Brick masonry work in C M 1:6
Proportion Parapet Wall including cost and
conveyance of all material and labour charges
etc., complete.
long walls 3 10.00 0.30 2.65 23.85
Short walls 6 4.00 0.30 2.65 19.08
Internal walls 1 5.05 0.30 2.65 4.01
Staircase 1 1.00 0.13 1.00 0.13
Parapet wall 1 37.00 0.13 1.00 4.81
toilet wall 1 1.30 0.3 0.3 0.12
52.00 Cum
deductions
windows 5 1.50 0.3 1.20 2.70
ventilatours 1 0.60 0.3 0.30 0.05
M Doors 1 1.20 0.3 2.1 2.52
C.Doors 4 0.90 0.3 2.1 2.27
open wall 1 1.30 0.3 0.3 0.12
7.66 Cum
44.34 Cum 3,800.00
Supply and fixing of wood doors & window
Frames of all fixtures and furnitures
3 `
complete as per drawing

windows 5 1.50 1 1 5.00 No's 6,000.00 30,000.00

ventilatours 1 0.60 1 1 1.00 No's 800.00 800.00
M Doors 1 1.20 1 1 1.00 No's 12,000.00 12,000.00
C.Doors 4 0.90 1 1 4.00 No's 7,500.00 30,000.00
72,800.00
Supply and fixing of Medium teak wood
doors and window shutters of all fixtures
4 and furnitures complete as per drawing

windows 5 1.50 1 1 5.00 No's 6,000.00 30,000.00

M Doors 1 1.20 1 1 1.00 No's 12,000.00 12,000.00
C.Doors 4 0.90 1 1 4.00 No's 7,500.00 30,000.00

36
 Painting over new wood work with synthetic
enamel paint of twocoats overdoors and
5
windows

windows 5 1.50 1 1 5.00 No's 1,200.00 6,000.00

ventilatours 1 0.60 1 1 1.00 No's 800.00 800.00
M Doors 1 1.20 1 1 1.00 No's 6,000.00 6,000.00
C.Doors 4 0.90 1 1 4.00 No's 5,000.00 20,000.00
32,800.00
Cement Plastering in C M 1:3 Proportion
20mm thick in one coat sponge finish and
6 labour charges, scaffolding, curing, and all
incidental charges etc., complete for internal walls

long walls 3 10.00 2.00 2.65 159.00

Short walls 6 4.00 2.00 2.65 127.20
Internal Short walls 1 4.00 2.00 2.65 21.20
Ceiling 1 10.00 8.90 1.00 89.00
Staircase 1 6.30 2.00 1.00 12.60
Parapet wall 1 37.00 2.00 1.00 74.00
toilet wall
483.00
deductions
windows 5 1.50 2.00 1.10 16.50
ventilatours 1 0.60 2.00 0.30 0.36
M Doors 1 1.20 2.00 1.8 2.16
C.Doors 4 0.90 2.00 1.8 12.96
31.98
451.02 Sq.mt 250.00 1,12,755.00
7 Painting for all walls 1 451.02 Sq.mt 250.00 1,12,755.00
8 Flooring with 20 mm thick Italian marbles
inluding with laying and finnishing .

Hall 1 3.70 5.90 - 21.83

Toilets 1 2.00 1.30 - 2.60
Kitchen 1 3.90 3.20 - 12.48
Bed room 1 3.90 4.30 - 16.77
Staircase 1 6.30 1 - 6.30
59.98 Sq.mt 1,200.00 71,976.00
9
Plumber,Water & Drainage works 1 50,000.00

Water supply charges with High VoltageElectric

10 80,000.00
motor sump & sanitary fittings

Supply & Fixing of best teak wood cubboards

11 in kit,hall & Bed with total cost of material 1,00,000.00
and labour charges etc.
8,02,050.00
12 Electrification Charges 10% 80,205.00

13 Elevational Charges 8% 64,164.00

SECOND FLOOR Total Amount 9,46,420.00

( Nine Lakhs Fourty Six Thousand Four Hundered And Twenty Rupees only )

37
 ABSTRACT ESTIMATE OF PROPOSED G+2 FLOORS RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
BILL OF QUANTITIES
S.NO De s cription of the Ite m Quantity Unit Rate Amount

Earth work e xcavation for

foundation of fille rs ,bas e ment
1 and campound wall including 70.20 Cum 500.00 35,100
with cos t & conve yance of all
labour charge s e tc.

C.C bed(1:5:10) us ing 40mm

2 30.00 Cum 3,800.00 1,14,000
s ize H.B.G Metal

3 R.R.Mas onary in CM 1:6 B.G.L 21.02 Cum 2,250.00 47,304

C.R.S.Mas onary in CM 1:6 Above

4 24.36 Cum 2,150.00 52,384.32
G.L
5
Reinforce d Ce me nt Concre te 92.21 Cum 7200 6,63,912

Earth work Refilling of bas e

6 me nt with us e ful s oil at the 106.80 Cum 400.00 42,720.00
lead of 10 m and lift of 2 m
including with cos t & con

7 Brick mas onry work in C M

1:6 Proportion Parape t Wall
including cos t and conve yance 124.95 Cum 3,800.00 4,74,810.00
of all mate rial and labour
charge s etc., comple te .

Supply and fixing of wood

doors & window Frame s of all
8 fixture s and furnitures 2,30,400.00
complete as pe r drawing

Supply and fixing of Me dium

te ak wood doors and window
s hutters of all fixture s and
9 2,28,000.00
furnitures comple te as pe r
drawing
 Painting ove r new wood work
with s ynthetic e nanmel paint
10 of 2 coats ove r doors and 1,00,800.00
windows .
11 Cement Plastering in C M 1240.86 Sq.mt 250.00 310215.00
proportion 20mm thick in on at
sponge finish and scaffolding,
incidental charges complete for
internal
12 Painting for all walls 1240.86 Sq.mt 250.00 310215.00

13 flooring with 20mm thick 189.62 Sq.mt 1200.00 227544.00

marbles including finishing

14 Main Gate 200.00 Sq.mt 150.00 30000.00

15 Plumber, Water and Drainages 200000.00

16 Water Supply charges, Borewell 280000.00

sump

17 Supply and fixing of best teak 300000.00

cupboards in kitchen hall
bedroom and total cost of labor
charges
18 Electrification charges 10% 350214.00
19 Elevational Charges 8% 280171.20

4132540.00
 8. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Summary:
Soil is collected from the construction site and the soil is
tested as standard code of practice for different
geotechnical properties. Based on the properties of the
selected site soil, the analysis and design of footing and
structure with (ground + 2 floors) are performed in this
project, so as to arrive with a basic understanding of the
civil engineering aspects in construction process.
The following conclusions are drawn from this project
work:
1. Based on Grain size analysis and Atterberg limits of soil,
the percentage of silt + clay more than gravel and sand.
As per IS:1492 the selected soil is Clay of Intermediate
Compressibility Cl (Inorganic clay of intermediate
plasticity).
2. The in-situ density of soil is 16.09 kN/m3 and Specific
Gravity is 2.67
3. I.S. Compaction test results are reveal, Maximum Dry
Density (MDD) = 15.6kN/m3 and Optimum Water
Content (OMC) = 23.0%. The soil has free swell index of
50% and degree of expansion is high.
4. The shear parameters of the selected soil are cohesion
31 and angle of internal friction: 10023’

5. The Safe Bearing Capacity of soil is the capacity of the

soil collected is 309.69 kPa and it is assumed to be safe
 for the foundation based on shear and settlement
criteria. And the settlement is in permissible limits for
construction of (G+2) stored building.
6. The proposed plan consists of all the rooms required for
a residential house like bedroom, toilet, living/dining,
kitchen and store room.

7. AutoCAD, a software tool is used to design functional

design of plan to prepare an outer appearance of the
plan according to building bye laws.

8. Design of proposed residential building is prepared

based on Bearing Capacity and Settlement criteria of
selected site based on geotechnical properties of soil.

9. The materials were selected as per IS: 456-2000, SP-16

and SP-34 specifications.

10. According to the project, the size of the footing is

Depth is 2.3m, Breadth is 2.4m.
11. Based on the plan, the slab provides minimum
reinforcement as calculated is 8 mm bars at 230 mm c/c
and provided 6 mm bars at 300 mm c/c at corners.
12. Based on the plan, the beam provide 4-12 Dia bars
as tension steel and 2 - 10 Dia bars of minimum steel in
top.
13. Based on the plan, the columns provide 6 mm
Lateral ties at 120 mm c/c.
14. FOR GROUND FLOOR: Total quantity =336.58 cum
Total cost = Rs. 19,64,270
15. FOR FIRST FLOOR: Total quantity = 67.27 cum
16. Total cost = Rs. 12,21,850
17. FOR SECOND FLOOR: Total quantity = 65.67 cum
Total cost = Rs. 9,46,420
18. Total estimated cost of the G+2 Residential building
is Rs. 41,32,540.
19. Finally, according to calculation slabs, beam and
columns are also satisfied based on the permissible
limits.