AITRC-CHHINDWARA

ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT ENGG. ES(301)

NOTEs

UNIT-I

What is Energy

The scientific definition of energy may be stated as follows:

Energy is the quantitative property that is transferred to an object and is recognizable either in
the form of heat, light, sound, etc. or in the performance of work.

This is just scientific jargon, which an average reader might have trouble understanding. So,
instead of mugging this definition up, let us try and figure out what it means.

First of all, energy is defined as a quantitative property, which means that it can be measured
and expressed as a number. There are a lot of quantities that have no numeric representation.
For instance, a color cannot be expressed as a number. However, energy is not one of them
and you can always express its amount with a number and an appropriate unit.

The second point you should note is that energy is recognizable either in some form like heat
or light or in performing work. That is, energy provides the ability for an object to do some
sort of work. Indeed, this forms a basic, albeit a little confusing definition of energy: “Energy
is the capacity to do work”. At the same time, energy can be recognized as heat, light, sound,
etc. Thus, energy has multiple forms.

The above two paragraphs are what you need to know about energy to get started. Now, we
will turn our attention to the types of energy.

Types of Energy

Energy can be classified into various types, depending on the form it takes. However, the
simplest classifications of energy are listed as follows:

Potential Energy

Potential energy is often connected to the position of an object. For example, an object on
Earth has gravitational potential energy that increases as we go upwards from the surface.
Similarly, an electron in an atom has potential energy that rises as it approaches the nucleus.
Another common example is the potential energy of an object that is attached to a spring.

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is associated with movement and velocity. When an object is moving with a
certain velocity, it possesses energy we term kinetic energy. The formula for kinetic energy is
quite simple. It is given as K=12mv2K=12mv2

Mechanical Energy

Mechanical energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies of an object. This is not a
separate form of energy. However, the forces that cause potential energy and motion are both
studied under the concept of mechanics. Hence, we have the term mechanical energy.

Thermal Energy

The energy that is associated with heat is known as thermal energy. It can be generated in a
large number of ways. For instance, an object on fire generates enormous amounts of thermal
energy. A lot of chemical reactions are exothermic and release thermal energy as well.

Sonic Energy

Just like the heat is a form of energy, the sound is energy as well. The energy associated with
sound is known as sonic energy. It is carried across space by sound waves, which cannot
propagate in a vacuum.

Law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy is one of the most fundamental laws of physics. It forms
the foundation of almost all the theories and concepts we have in Physics in one way or
another. Indeed, if the conservation of energy were to be violated, everything we knew about
Physics would go into upheaval. Here is the statement of this ubiquitous law:

Energy can only be changed from one form to another. But it can never be created or
destroyed.

Energy conservation implies a constancy of energy. That is, energy is either changed into a
different form or remains constant. You cannot create energy out of anything, and you cannot
make it vanish into nothingness.

 For example, suppose that two steel balls are approaching each other. There are no
external effects. When they collide, they come to a halt and stick together. A novice
would say that there is clear energy loss here since moving objects had kinetic energy
and it vanished. However, that is impossible due to conservation law. You know that
sound and heat are forms of energy. When two balls collide, they create a “bang”
sound, and they might even heat up. Thus, the kinetic energy of the object merely got
converted into sonic and thermal energies.

Uses

Energy conservation is used almost everywhere in Physics:

Problem-Solving

There are various situations in which, using energy conservation leads to simpler equations
and faster solutions than other formulae. For instance, when an object is falling due to
gravity, its kinetic and potential energies can be equated to get information about its speed
and height.

Similarly, in problems related to central force motion, we can work in terms of total energy
and obtain information about the object’s orbit with far less effort.

Developing Theories

Oftentimes, we need to work on theories and hypotheses. Using energy conservation can give
us an idea of how to proceed. For instance, out of two theories, A and B, B might lead to
results that violate energy conservation and that would make A the obvious and only choice
to proceed further.

Chemistry

Studying the energy changes associated with a chemical reaction can allow us to understand
how the reaction will proceed and the conditions required for a reaction to occur. For
example, an endothermic reaction only occurs when there is thermal energy available outside.
Sources Of Energy
Sources of energy can be classified into:

 Renewable Sources
 Non-renewable Sources
Renewable sources of energy are available plentiful in nature and are sustainable. These
resources of energy can be naturally replenished and are safe for the environment.
Examples of renewable sources of energy are: Solar energy, geothermal energy, wind
energy, biomass, hydropower and tidal energy.
A non-renewable resource is a natural resource that is found underneath the earth. These type
of energy resources do not replenish at the same speed at which it is used. They take millions
of years to replenish. The main examples of non-renewable resources are coal, oil and natural
gas.
Examples of non-renewable sources of energy are: Natural gas, coal, petroleum, nuclear
energy and hydrocarbon gas liquids.

Difference between Renewable and Non-renewable Sources of Energy

Renewable Non-renewable

The resources that can be renewed once The resources that cannot be renewed once
they are consumed are called renewable they are consumed are called non-
sources of energy. renewable sources of energy.

These resources do not cause any These resources cause environmental

environmental pollution. pollution..

Renewable resources are inexhaustible. Non- Renewable resources are exhaustible.

Renewable resources are not affected by Non- Renewable resources are affected by
human activities. human activities.

Examples of Renewable resources- Air, Examples of Non-renewable resources-

water and solar energy. natural gas, coal and nuclear energy.

Natural Sources of Energy

During the stone age, it was wood. During the iron age, we had coal. In the modern age, we
have fossil fuels like petroleum and natural gas. So how do we choose the source of energy?
Good sources of energy should have the following qualities:

 Optimum heat production per unit of volume/mass used

  Easy to transport
 Least Polluting
 Economical

Types of Natural Sources of Energy

There are two types of natural sources of energy classified by their popularity and use,

 Conventional Sources of Energy

 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

Difference between Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy

Conventional Non-conventional

These resources are exhaustible. These resources are inexhaustible.

These resources cause pollution as they

These resources are usually pollution-free.
emit smoke and ash.

These resources are very expensive to be These resources are less expensive for
maintained, stored and transmitted. local use and can easily be maintained.

Examples- coal, natural gas, petroleum, Examples- solar, biomass, wind, biogas,
and water power. and tidal, geothermal.

Unit-II:
ECOSYSTEM
The interaction and interrelationship between the living community (plants, animals, and
organisms) in relation to each other and the non-living community (soil, air, and water) is
referred to as an ecosystem. Thus, an ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of
biosphere. It is made up of living and non-living beings and their physical environment.

In other words, a natural ecosystem is defined as a network of interactions among the

organisms and between organisms and their environment. Nutrient cycles and energy flows
keep these living and non-living components connected in an ecosystem.

Ecosystem
Ecosystem is a part of natural environment consisting of a community of living beings and
the physical environment both constantly interchanging materials and energy between them.
It is the sum total of the environment or a part of nature.

The environment consists of four segments as follows −

 Atmosphere − The atmosphere refers to the protective blanket of gases, surrounding

the earth. It sustains life on the earth. It saves the Earth from the hostile environment
of the outer space. The atmosphere composed of nitrogen and oxygen in large
quantity along with small percentage of other gases such as argon, carbon dioxide,
and trace gases (the gases which makes up less than 1 percent by volume of the
atmosphere.
 Hydrosphere − Hydrosphere comprises all water resources such as ocean, seas, lakes,
rivers, reservoirs, icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.
  Lithosphere − It is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It contains minerals occurring
in the earth’s crust and the soil.
 Biosphere − It constitutes the realm of living organisms and their interactions with
the environment (atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere).

The study of ecosystem or environmental studies has been seen to be multidisciplinary in

nature, hence, it is considered to be a subject with great scope. It is no more confined only to
the issues of sanitation and health; rather, it is now concerned with pollution control,
biodiversity conservation, waste management and conservation of natural resources.

The ecosystems are classified into many types and are classified based on a number of
factors. We will discuss major types of ecosystems and will try and understand on what basis
these classifications are done. It is also essential to know the different factors which
differentiate the ecosystems from one another.

Ecosystems can generally be classified into two classes such as natural and
artificial. Artificial ecosystems are natural regions affected by man’s interferences. They are
artificial lakes, reservoirs, townships, and cities. Natural ecosystems are basically classified
into two major types. They are aquatic ecosystem and terrestrial ecosystem.

Types of Natural Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a self-contained unit of living things and their non-living environment. The
following chart shows the types of Natural Ecosystem −

Biotic (Living Components)

Biotic components in ecosystems include organisms such as plants, animals, and

microorganisms. The biotic components of ecosystem comprise −
  Producers or Autotrophs
 Consumers or Heterotrophs
 Decomposers or Detritus

Abiotic (Non-living Components)

Abiotic components consist of climate or factors of climate such as temperature, light,

humidity, precipitation, gases, wind, water, soil, salinity, substratum, mineral, topography,
and habitat. The flow of energy and the cycling of water and nutrients are critical to each
ecosystem on the earth. Non-living components set the stage for ecosystem operation.

Aquatic Ecosystem

An ecosystem which is located in a body of water is known as an aquatic ecosystem. The

nature and characteristics of the communities of living or biotic organisms and non-living or
abiotic factors which interact with and interrelate to one another are determined by the
aquatic surroundings of their environment they are dependent upon.

Aquatic ecosystem can be broadly classified into Marine Ecosystem and Freshwater
Ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem

These ecosystems are the biggest of all ecosystems as all oceans and their parts are included
in them. They contain salt marshes, intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroves, coral
reefs, the deep sea, and the sea floor.

Marine ecosystem has a unique flora and fauna, and supports a vast kingdom of species.
These ecosystems are essential for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial
environments.

Salt marshes, seagrass meadows, and mangrove forests are among the most productive
ecosystem. Coral reef provides food and shelter to the highest number of marine inhabitants
in the world. Marine ecosystem has a large biodiversity.

Freshwater Ecosystem

Freshwater ecosystem includes lakes, rivers, streams, and ponds. Lakes are large bodies of
freshwater surrounded by land.

Plants and algae are important to freshwater ecosystem because they provide oxygen through
photosynthesis and food for animals in this ecosystem. Estuaries house plant life with the
unique adaptation of being able to survive in fresh and salty environments. Mangroves and
pickle weed are examples of estuarine plants.

Many animals live in freshwater ecosystem. Freshwater ecosystem is very important for
people as they provide them water for drinking, energy and transportation, recreation, etc.
Terrestrial Ecosystem

Terrestrial ecosystems are those ecosystems that exist on land. Water may be present in a
terrestrial ecosystem but these ecosystems are primarily situated on land. These ecosystems
are of different types such as forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, grassland and mountain
ecosystems.

Terrestrial ecosystems are distinguished from aquatic ecosystems by the lower availability of
water and the consequent importance of water as a limiting factor. These are characterized by
greater temperature fluctuations on both diurnal and seasonal basis, than in aquatic
ecosystems in similar climates.

Availability of light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems because

the atmosphere is more transparent on land than in water. Differences in temperature and
light in terrestrial ecosystems reflect a completely different flora and fauna.

The functional attributes of the ecosystem keep the components running together. Ecosystem
functions are natural processes or exchange of energy that take place in various plant and
animal communities of different biomes of the world.

For instance, green leaves prepare food and roots absorb nutrients from the soil, herbivores
feed on the leaves and the roots and in turn serve as food for the carnivores.

Decomposers execute the functions of breaking down complex organic materials into simple
inorganic products, which are used by the producers.

Fundamentally, ecosystem functions are exchange of energy and nutrients in the food chain.
These exchanges sustain plant and animal life on the planet as well as the decomposition of
organic matter and the production of biomass.

All these functions of the ecosystem take place through delicately balanced and controlled
processes.

Food Chain

The order of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes other and is
itself consumed by another organism to transfer energy is called a food chain. Food chain is
also defined as “a chain of organisms, existing in any natural community, through which
energy is transferred”.

Every living being irrespective of their size and habitat, from the tiniest algae to giant blue
whales, need food to survive. Food chain is structured differently for different species in
different ecosystems. Each food chain is the vital pathway for energy and nutrients to follow
through the ecosystem.
Food chains were first introduced by the African-Arab scientist and philosopher Al-Jahiz in
the 9th century and later popularized in a book published in 1927 by Charles Elton.

A food chain starts with a producer such as plants. Producers form the basis of the food
chains. Then there are consumers of many orders. Consumers are organisms that eat other
organisms. All organisms in a food chain, except the first organism, are consumers.

Plants are called producers because they produce their own food through photosynthesis.
Animals are called consumers because they depend on plants or other animals for food to get
energy they need.
In a certain food chain, each organism gets energy from the one at the level below. In a food
chain, there is reliable energy transfer through each stage. All the energy at one stage of the
chain is not absorbed by the organism at the next stage.

Trophic Levels in a Food Chain

Trophic levels are different stages of feeding position in a food chain such as primary
producers and consumers of different types.

Organisms in a food chain are categorized under different groups called trophic levels. They
are as follows.

Producers (First Trophic Level) − Producers otherwise called autotrophs prepare their food
by themselves. They form the first level of every food chain. Plants and one-celled
organisms, some types of bacteria, algae, etc. come under the category of Autotrophs.
Virtually, almost all autotrophs use a process called photosynthesis to prepare food.

Consumers − At the second trophic level, there are consumers who depend upon others for
food.

 Primary Consumers (Second Trophic Level) − Primary consumers eat the

producers. They are called herbivores. Deer, turtle, and many types of birds are
herbivores.
 Secondary Consumers (Third Trophic Level) − Secondary consumers based at the
third trophic level eat plants and herbivores. They are both carnivores (meateaters)
and omnivores (animals that eat both animals and plants). In a desert ecosystem, a
secondary consumer may be a snake that eats a mouse. Secondary consumers may eat
animals bigger than they are. Some lions, for example, kill and eat buffalo. The
buffalo weighs twice as much as the lions do.
 Tertiary Consumers (Fourth Trophic Level) − Tertiary consumers are animals
eating other carnivores. The secretary bird in Africa and the King Cobra specialize in
killing and eating snakes but all snakes are carnivores. The leopard seal eats mostly
other carnivores - mainly other seals, squids, and penguins, all of which are
carnivores.

Decomposers − Decomposers which don’t always appear in the pictorial presentation of the
food chain, play an important part in completing the food chain. These organisms break down
dead organic material and wastes. Fungi and bacteria are the key decomposers in many
ecosystems; they use the chemical energy in dead matter and wastes to fuel their metabolic
processes. Other decomposers are detritivores—detritus eaters or debris eaters.

Understanding the food chain helps us know the feeding interrelationship and interaction
between an organism and the ecosystem. It also enables us to know the mechanism of energy
flow in an ecosystem.

Food Web
The word ‘web’ means network. Food web can be defined as ‘a network of interconnected
food chains so as to form a number of feeding relationships amongst different organism of a
biotic community.

A food chain cannot stand isolated in an ecosystem. The same food resource may be a part of
more than one chain. This is possible when the resource is at the lower tropic level.

A food web comprises all the food chains in a single ecosystem. It is essential to know that
each living thing in an ecosystem is a part of multiple food chains.

A single food chain is the single possible path that energy and nutrients may make while
passing through the ecosystem. All the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an
ecosystem make up a food web.

Food webs are significant tools in understanding that plants are the foundation of all
ecosystem and food chains, sustaining life by providing nourishment and oxygen needed for
survival and reproduction. The food web provides stability to the ecosystem.

The tertiary consumers are eaten by quaternary consumers. For example, a hawk that eats
owls. Each food chain ends with a top predator and animal with no natural enemies (such as
an alligator, hawk, or polar bear).
Ecological Pyramid refers to a graphical (pyramidal) representation to show the number of
organisms, biomass, and productivity at each trophic level. It is also known as Energy
Pyramid. There are three types of pyramids. They are as follows −

Pyramid of Biomass

As the name suggests, the Biomass Pyramids show the amount of biomass (living or organic
matter present in an organism) present per unit area at each trophic level. It is drawn with the
producers at the base and the top carnivores at the tip.

Pyramid of biomass is generally ascertained by gathering all organisms occupying each

trophic level separately and measuring their dry weight. Each trophic level has a certain mass
of living material at a particular time called standing crop, which is measured as the mass of
living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area.

Upright Pyramid of Biomass

Ecosystems found on land mostly have pyramids of biomass with large base of primary
producers with smaller trophic level perched on top, hence the upright pyramid of biomass.

The biomass of autotrophs or producers is at the maximum. The biomass of next trophic
level, i.e. primary consumers is less than the producers. Similarly, the other consumers such
as secondary and tertiary consumers are comparatively less than its lower level respectively.
The top of the pyramid has very less amount of biomass.

Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

On the other hand, a reverse pyramidal structure is found in most aquatic ecosystems. Here,
the pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted pattern. However, pyramid of numbers for
aquatic ecosystem is upright.

In a water body, the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grow and reproduce rapidly. In this
condition, the pyramid of biomass has a small base, with the producer biomass at the base
providing support to consumer biomass of large weight. Hence, it assumes an inverted shape.

Pyramid of Numbers

It is the graphic representation of number of individuals per unit area of various trophic
levels. Large number of producers tend to form the base whereas lower number of top
predators or carnivores occupy the tip. The shape of the pyramid of numbers varies from
ecosystem to ecosystem.

For example, in an aquatic ecosystem or grassland areas, autotrophs or producers are present
in large number per unit area. The producers support a lesser number of herbivores, which in
turn supports fewer carnivores.

Upright Pyramid of Numbers

In upright pyramid of numbers, the number of individuals decreases from the lower level to
the higher level. This type of pyramid is usually found in the grassland ecosystem and the
pond ecosystem. The grass in a grassland ecosystem occupies the lowest trophic level
because of its abundance.
Next comes the primary producers – the herbivores (for example – grasshopper). The number
of grasshoppers is quite less than that of grass. Then, there are the primary carnivores, for
example, the rat whose number is far less than the grasshoppers. The next trophic level is the
secondary consumers such as the snakes who feed on the rats. Then, there are the top
carnivores such as the hawks who eat snakes and whose number is less than the snakes.

The number of species decreases towards the higher levels in this pyramidal structure.

Inverted Pyramid of Numbers

Here, the number of individuals increase from the lower level to the higher trophic level. For
example, the tree ecosystem.

Pyramid of Energy

It is a graphical structure representing the flow of energy through each trophic level of a food
chain over a fixed part of the natural environment. An energy pyramid represents the amount
of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy at each is transferred to another trophic
level.

Energy pyramid, sometimes called trophic pyramid or ecological pyramid, is useful in

quantifying the energy transfer from one organism to another along the food chain.
Energy decreases as one moves through the trophic levels from the bottom to the top of the
pyramid. Thus, the energy pyramid is always upward.

Energy Flow in Ecosystem

Energy moves life. The cycle of energy is based on the flow of energy through different
trophic levels in an ecosystem. Our ecosystem is maintained by the cycling energy and
nutrients obtained from different external sources. At the first trophic level, primary
producers use solar energy to produce organic material through photosynthesis.

The herbivores at the second trophic level, use the plants as food which gives them energy. A
large part of this energy is used up for the metabolic functions of these animals such as
breathing, digesting food, supporting growth of tissues, maintaining blood circulation and
body temperature.

The carnivores at the next trophic level, feed on the herbivores and derive energy for their
sustenance and growth. If large predators are present, they represent still higher trophic level
and they feed on carnivores to get energy. Thus, the different plants and animal species are
linked to one another through food chains.

Decomposers which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects break down wastes
and dead organisms, and return the nutrients to the soil, which is then taken up by the
producers. Energy is not recycled during decomposition, but it is released.

Biogeochemical Cycles

All elements in the earth are recycled time and again. The major elements such as oxygen,
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulphur are essential ingredients that make up organisms.

Biogeochemical cycles refer to the flow of such chemical elements and compounds between
organisms and the physical environment. Chemicals taken in by organisms are passed
through the food chain and come back to the soil, air, and water through mechanisms such as
respiration, excretion, and decomposition.

As an element moves through this cycle, it often forms compounds with other elements as a
result of metabolic processes in living tissues and of natural reactions in the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, or lithosphere.

Such cyclic exchange of material between the living organisms and their non-living
environment is called Biogeochemical Cycle.

Following are some important biogeochemical cycles −

 Carbon Cycle
 Nitrogen Cycle
 Water Cycle
 Oxygen Cycle
 Phosphorus Cycle
 Sulphur Cycle

A forest ecosystem is an ecosystem of forests and resources. Forests are renewable

natural resources. Forests are formed by a group of plants that are structurally defined by
their trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers, and ground cover. Soil, animals, insects,
microorganisms, and birds are the most important interacting units of a forest ecosystem.
In India, the forests occupy about 18-20% of the total land area.

1. Abiotic Components of the forest include inorganic and organic components present
in the soil along with temperature, rainfall, light, etc.

2. Biotic Components are represented by producers, consumers, and decomposers.

What Are the Types of Forest Ecosystems:
There are a few types of forest ecosystems listed below:

[Link] Evergreen Rainforest: Only a small percentage of tropical forests are

rainforests where average rainfall is 80-400 inches in a year. This forest is characterised
by deep and dense vegetation consisting of tall trees reaching different levels.

2. Tropical Deciduous Rainforest: The main characteristic of tropical deciduous

rainforest are broad-leaved trees along with dense bushes, shrubs, etc. Two main seasons
– summer and winter – are distinctly visible there. This type of forest is found in many
parts of the world. A large variety of flora and fauna are found here.

3. Temperate Evergreen Forest: Temperate evergreen forest is a type of forest that is

characterised by a smaller number of trees but an adequate number of ferns and mosses.

4. Temperate Deciduous Forest: Temperate deciduous forest evolves in the moist

temperate region with sufficient rainfall. Here also, winter and summer are well defined,
and trees shed their leaves during winter. Dominant trees are maple, oak, peach, etc.

5. Taiga/Boreal: Situated just south of the Tundra, Taiga is characterised by evergreen

conifers. The average temperature is below thezing point for almost half of the year.

UNIT-III

Biodiversity can be defined as a community of all the living organisms on the earth and the
diversity among them from all the ecosystems. Biodiversity is thus the variability between the
species, within the species, and between the ecosystem.

The term biodiversity was coined by Walter G. Rosen in the year 1986.

Biodiversity holds ecological and economic significance. It provides us with nourishment,

housing, fuel, clothing, and several other resources. It also extracts monetary benefits through
tourism. Therefore, it is very important to have a good knowledge of biodiversity for a
sustainable livelihood

Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity plays a major role in maintaining the ecological balance of the ecosystem. It
refers to the number of different species belonging to a particular region. In biodiversity, each
species has a major role to play in the ecosystem.

Ecological Role of Biodiversity

Apart from providing ecological balance to the environment, each species of biodiversity has
a major function to play in the ecosystem. They play a major role in the production and
decomposition of organic wastes, fixing atmospheric gases, and regulation of water and
nutrients throughout the ecosystem. The stability of the ecosystem increases with the
diversity of the species.
Economical Role of Biodiversity

Biodiversity acts as a source of energy and has a major role in providing raw materials for
industrial products such as oils, lubricants, perfumes, dyes, paper, waxes, rubber, etc.

The importance of plant species for various medicinal use has been known for ages.
According to reports, more than 70 % of the anti-cancer drugs are derived from plants in the
tropical rainforests.

Scientific Role of Biodiversity

Each species of the ecosystem contributes to providing enough evidence as to how life
evolved on this planet and the role of each species in maintaining the sustainability of the
ecosystem.

Types of Biodiversity
Biodiversity can be categorized into three main types:

1. Genetic Diversity (Diversity within species)

2. Species Diversity (Diversity between species)
3. Ecosystem Diversity (Diversity between ecosystem)
Genetic Diversity

Every individual of a particular species differs from each other in its genetic makeup. This
genetic variability among the members of any plant or animal species is known as genetic
diversity. When two individuals are closely related, they share more genetic information and
hence, are more similar.

Species Diversity

Species diversity can be defined as the variety of species within a particular region or habitat.
This type of diversity can be found in both the natural ecosystem and agricultural ecosystem.

There are more than 85,000 flowering plant species in tropical North and South America,
tropical and subtropical Asia has more than 50,000 flowering plants whereas, there are only
35,000 flowering plant species in tropical and subtropical Africa. But, Europe has around
11,300 vascular plants. Also, other areas, such as salt flats or a polluted stream, have fewer
species.

Ecosystem Diversity

There is a large diversity of different ecosystems that have distinctive species. This
ecosystem varies with each other as per their habitats and the difference in their species. This
ecosystem diversity can be found within a specific geographical region or a country or a state.
This type of diversity also includes forests, grasslands, deserts, and mountains.

Loss of Biodiversity
Loss of biodiversity is the decrease in the number of a particular species in a certain habitat.
Loss of biodiversity also leads to the extinction of the plant and animal species and this loss
can be either reversible or permanent.

Human activities have been the major cause of the loss of biodiversity which has led to
sudden changes in climate causing a big threat to biodiversity. There has also been an
increased demand for natural resources along with the growing population leading to greater
waste generation.

Causes of Loss of Biodiversity

Some of the major causes that have resulted in the loss of biodiversity are mentioned below:

1. The natural habitat of the ecosystem plays a major role in maintaining the ecological
balance. Several trees are cut down every year for the construction of industries,
highways, settlement,s and so on to fulfill the human demands. As a result, the species
become the target of predation and eventually dies.
2. Hunting of the wild animals for commercialization of their products has been a major
reason for the loss of biodiversity. Since the year 2013, more than 90 rhinos were
killed by the poachers for their horns and as per the records of 2016, 9 Indian Rhinos
have been killed in Kaziranga National Park of Assam.
3. The exploitation of the medicinal plants for several laboratory purposes has resulted
in the extinction of these species. Also, several animals are sacrificed for various
research in science and medicine.
4. Natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, forest fires also lead to the loss of
biodiversity.
5. Air pollution has a major role in the loss of biodiversity. Rapid cutting down of the
trees has resulted in the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere leading to
climate change. As a result, there has been an increase in the land and ocean
temperature leaving an inimical impact on species.

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL ZONES OF INDIA

India has mega diversity in terms of biogeography. India has only 2.4 % of the area of land in
the world but has 8% of the biological diversity of the world’s content. India is divided
mainly into 10 biogeographical zones. These are -

 Trans-Himalayan Region
 Himalayan Zone
 Indian Desert Zone
 Semi-Arid Region
 Western Ghats
 Deccan Plateau
 Gangetic Plain
 North East Region
 Coastal Region
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The 10 most vibrant biogeographical zones of India are as follows −

Trans-Himalayan Region

This region covers 5.6% of the Indian geographical area. The trans-Himalayan region
includes the regions of Jammu and Kashmir, North Sikkim, Ladakh, and Spiti and
Lahaul areas of Himachal Pradesh. The characteristic of this region is alpine vegetation
and it is home to some of the biggest populations of wild goats and sheep. Among the
animals that are found here, snow leopards and migratory black-necked cranes are the most
popular. The extremely fragile ecosystem of the cold desert zone in this area is unique and
notable for researchers.

Himalayan Zone

The Himalayan zone is a rich zone in terms of flora and fauna and it covers as much as 6.4
percent of the total Indian geographical area. It is also home to a few highest peaks. This zone
consists of alpine and sub-alpine forests, deciduous forests, and grassy meadows that are
home to some of the endangered species, such as Bharal, ibex, markhor, Himalayan Tahr,
and Takin. Other endangered species such as Hangul and Musk Deer can also be spotted in
this region.

Indian Desert Zone

The desert zone covers around 6.6% of the total Indian geographical expanse and includes
the Kutch and Thar deserts. It is home to some endangered mammals including Caracal,
wolves, Desert cats, etc. The region also has some birds under conservation such as the Great
Indian Bustard and Houbara Bustard. The wide expanse of grasslands supports the
survival of endangered mammals in this region.

Semi-arid Region

The semi-arid region has an expanse of around 16.6% of the total Indian geographical area. It
is also a transition zone between the dense forests of the Western Ghats and the deserts.
Peninsular India has two large climatically semi-arid regions. These regions have many
natural and marshy lands and artificial lakes. Palatable shrub layers and remarkable grassland
are characteristic of this region that gives food and shelter to some endangered wildlife,
which includes the cervid species of Chital and Sambar. The lion (restricted to Gujarat),
jackal, wolf, and Caracal are found in this region too.

Western Ghats
This constitutes as much as 4% of the total Indian geographical area and is a notable tropical
evergreen forest of India. It is also an official biodiversity hotspot out of a total of four in
India. The Western Ghats has a variety of vertebrate populations many of whom are
endangered species in nature. Moreover, the region has a distinct and rich faunal element that
is unique and characteristic of the region.

Significant species native to this region include Nilgiri Langur, Grizzled Giant Squirrel,
and Malabar Grey Hornbill. Lion Tailed Macaque, Malabar Civet, and Nilgiri
Tahr also call the Western Ghats their home. The Travancore Tortoise and Cane turtle are
two endangered species found in the central Western Ghats.

Deccan Plateau

Covering around 42% of the total Indian geographical area, Deccan Plateau is the largest
biogeographical zone in the country. It falls in the rain shadow area of the Western Ghats. It
is a semi-arid region and has some of the finest forests in India in the states of Madhya
Pradesh, Odisha, and Maharashtra. Most of the forests in this region are deciduous type.

However, there are other types of forests in the hill areas of the Deccan Plateau. The
degraded shrubland and deciduous and thorn forests provide shelter to many endangered
species. Species like Sambar, Chital, Chausingha, and Barking deer are found in this
region. Other species that can be spotted here include Gaur, Elephant, Wild Buffalo, and
swamp deer.

Gangetic Plain
This zone constitutes nearly 10.8% of the total Indian geographical area. It has a homogenous
topography for hundreds of kilometers. The region is known for its diverse flora and fauna
that are unique and characteristic of this region. The fauna of this zone includes Buffalo,
Rhino, Elephant, Hog Deer, Swamp Deer, and Hispid Hare.

North East Region

Covering around 5.2% of the total biogeographical area, the northeast is the transition zone
between the Indo-Malayan, Indian, and Indo-Chinese biogeographical regions. It is also a
junction of peninsular India and the Himalayan mountains. Thus, the Northeast is the
gateway of a majority of India’s flora and fauna apart from being a biodiversity hotspot of the
country. Many of the species of animals found in this region are characteristic of this zone or
are native to the Khasi hills. One of the most popular examples of fauna found here is
the one-horned rhinoceros which is an endangered species found predominantly in Assam.

Coastal Region

It constitutes about 2.5% of the total Indian geographical area which contains mangroves,
sandy beaches, coral reefs, and mud flats. The region is also popular for the marine
angiosperm that makes the region unique and wealthy. The total coastline that is part of the
region from Gujarat to Sundarbans is a stretch of 5,423 km. The Lakshadweep is made up of
a total of 25 total coral islets and has a typical reef lagoon system which makes it rich in
marine biodiversity. The Lakshadweep, however, does not show any natural vegetation.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Covering an area of nearly 0.3%, Andaman and Nicobar Islands is home to one tropical moist
evergreen forest out of a total of three in India. The zone is home to a rich and diverse flora
that includes some of India’s finest evergreen forests. The islands are also home to rich and
diverse coral species. Endemic island biodiversity in India is only available in this region.
The notable fauna of this region that is endemic includes Narcondam Hornbill and South
Andaman Krait.

Value & Productive Use of Biodiversity

The importance of biodiversity is second to none. It boosts the ecosystem of productivity

where each species, irrespective of their size, have an important role to play. Greater diversity
in species ensure natural sustainability for all life forms. Hence, there is a need to preserve
the diversity in life on the earth.

According to the UN sources at least 40 percent of the world’s economy and 80 percent of
the needs of the poor are derived from biological resources. In addition, the richer the
diversity of life, the greater the opportunity for medical discoveries, economic development,
and adaptive response to such new challenges as climate change.

Significance of Biodiversity

Environmental services from species and smooth running cycles of ecosystems are necessary
at global, regional, and local levels.

Biodiversity is essential for maintaining the water cycles, production of oxygen, reduction in
carbon dioxide, protecting the soil, etc. It is also essential for preserving ecological processes,
such as soil formation, circulation of and cleansing of air and water, global life support,
fixing and recycling of nutrients, maintaining hydrological balance within ecosystems,
maintaining rivers and streams throughout the year, etc.

Biodiversity has many values such as consumptive use value, productive use value, social
values, ethical and moral values.

A healthy biodiversity offers many valuable services as follows.

 The more a region is rich in terms of biodiversity, better is the regulation of the
different cycles. For example, forests regulate the amount of carbon dioxide in the air
by releasing oxygen as a by-product during photosynthesis, and control rainfall and
soil erosion.
 Protects water resources from being depleted, contaminated, or polluted.
 Helps in soil formation and protection.
 Helps in nutrient storage and recycling.
 Helps check pollution.
 Contributes to climate stability.
 Helps an ecosystem in recovery from unpredictable events.
 Provides biological resources such as food, medicinal resources, and pharmaceutical
drugs, wood products, ornamental plants, breeding stocks, etc.
 Provides recreation and tourism facilities.
 Helps in research, education, and monitoring.
 Preservation of biological resources is essential for the well-being and long-term
survival of mankind.
 Productive Use Value of Biodiversity

Productive Use Value refers to the commercial value of products that are commercially
harvested for exchange in formal markets.

Modern civilization is invariably a gift of biodiversity. The food we eat, the medicine we take
in, the furniture we use, the industries, for example, are derivatives of biological diversity.

The agricultural crops of the present day have originated from wild varieties.
Biotechnologists use the wild plants for developing new, high-yielding, and pest or
diseaseresistant varieties. Biodiversity is home to original stock from which new varieties are
being developed.

Similarly, all our domesticated animals came from their wild-living ancestral species. With
the help of scientific breeding techniques, animals giving better yield of milk, meat, etc. are
being developed. The animal products used by modern society come from the advances made
in the fields of poultry farming, pisciculture, silviculture, dairy farming, etc.

Fossil fuels, considered to be pivotal in modern society, such as coal, petroleum, and natural
gas are gifts of biodiversity from the geological past.

Most of the pharmaceutical drugs and medicines used in the present time are extracted from
different plants.

Biodiversity provides rich storehouse for industrialists and entrepreneurs to develop new
products. It provides agricultural scientists and biotechnologists with ample scope for
developing new and better crops. New crop varieties are being developed using the genetic
material found in wild relatives of crop plants though biotechnology.

The need of the hour is the preservation of biodiversity for industrial, economic, and above
all, environmental safety. This is called ‘biological prospecting’.
Biodiversity has fundamental values, which can be categorised into:

1. Environmental values
2. Social values
3. Ecosystem services
4. Economic values
5. Value of consumptive use
6. Value of productive use
7. Moral and ethical values
8. Aesthetic values

1. Ecosystem values: The environmental values of biodiversity can be evaluated by

analyzing the functions of the ecosystem. Ecosystem services, such as intensive agricultural
production ecosystems, help in maintaining human needs and activities. These include the
establishment and maintenance of fertile soil, retention of fresh groundwater resources
through vegetation and the output of oxygen by ground plants and microalgae.
2. Economic Value: Biodiversity has a tremendous economic perspective on food, livestock
feed, medicative, ethical, and social ideals. Biodiversity is an important resource for many
industry sectors that regulate the world economy.

3. Consumptive use value: This refers to natural products that are used for food, such as
livestock feed, wood products, fuelwood, and other purposes. Humans consume 40,000 flora
and fauna species daily. Many people remain dependent on wildlife for the majority of their
necessities, such as nutrition, temporary housing, and clothing.

4. Productive Use Value: This implies products that are sourced and commercially
marketed. Almost all of the crops grown today have evolved from wild varieties.
Biotechnologists are continuously experimenting with wild plant species to create new, more
productive disease-resistant variants.

[Link] and Moral Value: Biodiversity has enormous economic potential in terms of food,
livestock feed, medications, etc. Biodiversity is vital for many areas of the economy.

[Link] Value: The beauty of our planet is due to biodiversity. Otherwise, it would have
looked like any other deserted planet, which is scattered throughout the universe. Biological
diversity enhances the quality of life and contributes significantly to some of nature’s most
beautiful aspects. Biodiversity makes a significant contribution to the gorgeousness of the
landscape.

Biodiversity Hotspots are biogeographical areas that have rich biodiversity and are
threatened by different destruction like overexploitation, climate change, pollution, and
other human activities. The word "Biodiversity Hotspot" was first coined by the British
biologist Norman Myers in 1988.
As per the IUCN "Red Data List," there are around 36 areas in the world that are qualified
as the Biodiversity Hotspots. These Biodiversity Hotspots represent only 2.3% of the total
Earth's surface. They contain around 50% endemic flora and 42% endemic fauna of the
whole Earth.
Table of Content
 Biodiversity Hotspots - Definition
 Biodiversity Hotspot Qualification Criteria- Conservation International
 Biodiversity Hotspots In India
 Biodiversity of India - Flora and Fauna
 Why Biodiversity Hotspots are Important?
 Endangered Species of India
 What is the IUCN Red List?
 Tiger Conservation in India

Biodiversity Hotspots –

Definition

A Biodiversity Hotspot is a geographical area with a high level of diverse endemic species
that is not found anywhere else in the world.
In simple words, a biodiversity hotspot is a region where a significant number of threatened
or endangered species live together. According to the British biologist Norman Myers, a
biodiversity hotspot must contain at least 1500 species of endemic vascular plants that have
lost around 70% of their original habitat. The marine hotspots, fish, snails, lobsters, and
coral reefs are also considered biodiversity hotspots.

Biodiversity Hotspot Qualification Criteria- Conservation International

Myers' hotspot theory was adopted by Conservation International (CI) in 1996. The
organization works to protect nature for the benefit of the people. Their mission is to
conserve the planet's biodiversity. Their work is mainly focused on making a balance
between the planet's biodiversity and humans. According to Conservation International
(CI), there are two strict criteria by which a region can be declared as a Biodiversity
Hotspot as mentioned below.
 It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants, of which more than 0.5% should
be the world’s total endemic vascular plants.
 The place should have lost at least 70% of its original habitat. In other words, the habitat
must be threatened somehow.

Biodiversity Hotspots In India

As per the IUCN "Red Data List," there are 36 areas in the world that are qualified as the
Biodiversity Hotspots. Of these 36, there are four biodiversity hotspots present in India.
Two of them are solely part of India, and rest two are distributed in South Asia.

Himalaya

Himalaya is the youngest and highest mountain chain present on the Earth. It is an arc that
stretches across north Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, north-west, and north-eastern states of
India. Here are some major features of the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot as mentioned
below:
 The Himalayan biodiversity hotspot is the most populous with so many large birds
and mammals.
 Many unique and diverse human groups are found in this hotspot.
 Mixed conifer and conifer forests are found in the higher hills of the Himalayan
biodiversity hotspot.
 Flora: Alpine Meadows, Coniferous Forests, Rhododendron Forests, Temperate
Broadleaf Forests, Bamboo Groves, Subtropical and Tropical Forests.
 Fauna: Snow Leopard, Red Panda, Himalayan Tahr, Blue Sheep, Himalayan Monal,
Golden Langur, Himalayan Musk Deer, Himalayan Griffon Vulture.

Indo-Burma

Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot includes the entire northeast India, except Assam and
Andaman groups of Islands. It also extended to Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam,
Laos, Cambodia, and southern China. Here are some major features of the Indo-Burma
Biodiversity Hotspot as mentioned below:
 The limestone karst formations of this region support a highly unique ecosystem.
 Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot is full of different plants, reptiles, and mollusks.
 In the last 12 years, six new big mammal species have been found in the area including
Large-antlered Muntjac, Annamite Muntjac, Grey-shanked Douc, Annamite Striped
Rabbit, Leaf Deer and Saola.
 Flora: Teak, Rhododendron arboreum, Amorphophallus titanum, Rafflesia arnoldii,
Orchids, Dipterocarp trees, Pitcher plants.
 Fauna: Bengal Tiger, Asian Elephant, Irrawaddy Dolphin, Red Panda, Clouded
Leopard, Gaur, Gibbons, Hornbills, Pygmy Hog, Sumatran Rhinoceros.

Western Ghats

The Western Ghats are also referred to as the Sahyadri Hills. They are made up of the
Malabar Plains. It is a group of mountains that extend 30 to 50 kilometers inland and
parallel to India’s western coast. Some parts of this region fall under Sri Lanka also. Here
are some details as mentioned below:
 The Western Ghats has became a World Heritage Site .
 The Western Ghats regulates the southwestern monsoon winds and control the rain
amount on peninsular India.
 As per the UNESCO, Western Ghats is the home to at least 325 globally threatened
flora, fauna, bird, amphibian, reptile and fish species.
 Flora: Black pepper, Sandalwood, Shola forests, Ceylon tea, Ceylon cinnamon.
 Fauna: Lion-tailed macaque, Malabar Giant Squirrel, Indian rock python, Sri Lankan
Leopard, Purple-faced langur, Sri Lankan Frogmouth.

Sundalands

The Sundaland hotspot covers a small portion of south Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore,
Brunei, and the western part of Indonesia. India's Nicobar Islands are part of the Sundaland
hotspot. Here are some major details as mentioned below:
 The hotspot is the home of so many iconic species.
 In Borneo, there are so many endangered species found including Orangutans, Pig-tailed
langurs, Javan, Sumatran rhinos, and Proboscis monkeys.
 The world's largest flowers are generally found in the Sundaland like Rafflesia.
 Flora: Rafflesia arnoldii, Durian trees, Dipterocarp trees, Orchids, Pitcher plants.
 Fauna: Sumatran Tiger, Bornean Orangutan, Sumatran Elephant, Sunda Clouded
Leopard, Proboscis Monkey.

Biodiversity is a paramount factor for the survival of the living world in general and mankind
in particular. The fewer species (animals and plants) we have, the fewer people we will have
on the earth. During the last few decades, loss of biodiversity is on the rise. Following are the
major causes of threat to biodiversity.

Habitat Loss

Today, major loss to biodiversity in the world has been done by man. Man has begun to
overuse or misuse most of these natural ecosystems.

Due to mindless and unsustainable resource use, once productive forest and grasslands have
been turned into deserts, and wastelands have increased all over the world. Rapid
industrialization, urbanization, and growth in population have resulted in massive
deforestation and consequential habitat loss around the world.
For instance, mangroves have been cleared for fuel-wood and prawn farming, which has led
to a decrease in the habitat essential for breeding of marine fish.

Forests all over the world, in particular tropical rainforests such as the Amazon, are under
unforeseen threat largely from conversion to other land-uses.

Scientists have estimated that human activities are likely to eliminate approximately10
million species by the year 2050. It is also estimated that at the present rate of extinction
about 25 percent of the world’s species will undergo extinction fairly rapidly. Rich
biodiversities such as tropical forests, wetlands, and coral reefs world over will constitute the
major part of this extinction.

Poaching of Wildlife

Poaching of wildlife for trade and commercial activities has been on the rise for the last many
decades. It has been a significant cause of the extinction of hundreds of species and the
endangerment of many more, such as whales and many African large mammal, Asian tigers,
etc. Most extinction over the past several hundred years is mainly due to overharvesting for
food, fashion, and profit.

Illicit trade in wildlife in current times is driving many species of wild animals and plants to
extinction. Elephants are poached for ivory; tigers and leopards for their skin; pangolins for
meat and scales; and rare timber is targeted for hardwood furniture.
The global illegal wildlife trade is estimated to be between $7 billion and $23 billion in illicit
revenue annually. It is now considered the most lucrative global crime after drugs, humans,
and arms.

In 2015, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution for tackling
illicit trafficking in wildlife. The Sustainable Development Goals has laid down specific
targets to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species.

Man-Wildlife Conflict

Man-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the
consequential negative impact on both of them. Human population growth and the resultant
destruction of wildlife habitat for human habitation and economic prosperity create reduction
of resources or life to some people and wild animals.

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) defines this conflict as “any interaction between
humans and wildlife that results in a negative impact on human social, economic, or cultural
life, on the conservation of wildlife population, or on the environment.”

Although man-wildlife conflict is as old as human civilization, in modern times the degree of
conflict has been on the rise due to high rise in human population in the past several
centuries.

Since human populations expand into wild animal habitats, natural wildlife territory is
displaced. Reduction in the availability of natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals
seeking alternate sources. Alternately, new resources created by humans draw wildlife
resulting in conflict. Competition for food resources also occurs when humans attempt to
harvest natural resources such as fish and grassland pasture.

There are many consequences of man versus wildlife conflicts. The major consequences are −

 Destruction of wildlife habitat

 Injury and loss of life of both humans and wildlife
 Crop damage and livestock depredation
 Damage to human property
 Decrease in wildlife population and reduction in geographic ranges
 Trophic cascades

Apart from the above, there are other causes of threat to biodiversity. Factors such as climate
change, invasion of non-native species also add to biodiversity losses in some or the other.

Biodiversity conservation involves the protection, management, and restoration of

biodiversity. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem
levels. Biodiversity can be conserved by various methods including in situ and ex situ
conservation methods that include establishing national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, etc.
Biodiversity should be conserved as it provides us with both economic and aesthetic
benefits. In this article we will study the definition of biodiversity conservation, methods of
conservation, and why it should be conservation
Biodiversity Conservation

Definition
Biodiversity Conservation can be defined as the practice to protect, manage, and restore
biodiversity for the sustainable use of resources.
What is Biodiversity Conservation?
The term Biodiversity has been derived from ‘biological diversity’, which denotes the
varied life forms existing on the Earth at different levels, starting from genes to the whole
ecosystem. It is focused on three major goals:
1. Diversity conservation of species.
2. Sustainability of ecosystem and species.
3. Management of important ecological processes.

The human activities responsible for increased industrialization and urbanization lead to
pollution, erosion and other environmental depletion factors. This negatively impacts the
biodiversity and ecosystem, and results in the loss of species or diversity of a species in the
natural habitat. Such depletion affects the food chain in the ecosystem and resistance
towards natural disasters gets hampered, plant production reduces, and variations in
ecosystem processes become more common. As a result, 12%, 23% and 32% of all bird,
mammal, and amphibian species in the world are listed in the category of extinction.

Biodiversity Conservation Methods

For a more stable environment, a balanced diversity among different species plays an
important role. We humans significantly depend on various species in one form or another
to satisfy our needs. Considering this fact and the associated ethical and economic benefits,
it is necessary to conserve biodiversity. There are two different ways that are considered for
biodiversity conservation. These are explained below:

In-situ Conservation

It involves the conservation and protection of species in their natural habitat, i.e., in the area
where they are found. For example, to save tigers from extinction, we save the entire forest.
Such an approach has the following benefits:
 Economical and cost-effective and preserves both natural habitat and species.
 Protects a large count of the population simultaneously.
 Species can easily adjust to the environment as they are in a natural ecosystem.
The concept of biodiversity hotspots was introduced to identify some of such regions that
are biologically rich yet threatened areas. The criteria considered to mark any region as a
hotspot are as follows:
 The region has lost at least 70% of its original native vegetation.
 It must have at least 1500 endemic species of plants. These endemic species refer to
such species which are found in that particular limited geographical area.
In India, biodiversity-rich regions have obtained legal protection and are declared in the
categories of biosphere reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, and national parks.

National Parks
They are natural parks which are used with the objective of conservation and are preserved
by the national government. Such regions are restricted from any human activities like
poaching, grazing, cultivation, forestry, etc. Some of the national parks in India are Corbett
National Park, Kaziranga National Park, and Gir National Park. These national parks help
in ecological development by preserving natural resources and varied species.

Wildlife Sanctuaries

These are the protected regions to preserve endangered wild animals. Some of the
forbidden human activities in these areas are hunting, poaching or animal trapping. No
particular boundaries or fencing are laid to restrict the movements of humans in the region
and any entry for research or education purposes is allowed. Some of the wildlife
sanctuaries are Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary in
Kerala, and Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka.
Also Read: Difference between National park and Wildlife Sanctuary

Biosphere Reserves

These reserves, in addition to plant and animal conservation, restore the traditional life of
human communities who are inhabited in the area. Some Biosphere Reserves are
Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve in West Bengal, Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in
Uttarakhand, and Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve in Great Nicobar. There are three
different zones associated with Biosphere Reserves. These are:
 Core Zone: This zone is the innermost region that is categorized as an undisturbed
ecosystem and human interventions are strictly restricted.
 Buffer Zone: This zone surrounds the core zone and involves educational and research
activities. These activities should not interfere with the objective of the core zone.
 Manipulation Zone: Human settlements and activities such as recreation, andforestry
are allowed in this zone to help resume the degraded area. Various conservation
agencies, researchers and local communities use the zone in a sustainable manner to
support human welfare in the region.

Gene Sanctuaries

These are the conservation areas which are specifically only for plants. India has one gene
sanctuary in Garo Hills, Meghalaya which aims at the conservation of wild species of
citrus.

Ex-situ Conservation

It involves the protection of endangered species in artificial ecosystems including

zoological parks, botanical gardens, and nurseries. As a result, a less competitive
environment is created in terms of food, space and water availability. The several
advantages of this method are as follows:
 Genetic strategies like preserving seeds of important plants for long periods can be
easily adopted.
 Cryopreservation techniques to preserve gametes of endangered species can be
practised.
 Propagation of plants can be done using tissue culture techniques.

Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation

The Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation are as follows:

 Develop and maintain protected areas like national park, sanctuaries to protect the
endangered and critical species.
 All the vulnerable animals should be identified and conserved.
 Efficient utilization of the resources.
 Focus on reforestation, wetland restoration, and other habitat rehabilitation efforts.
 Hunting and Poaching of wild animals should prevented.
 Sustainable agriculture practice should be followed.
 Local communities can be invloved in the conservation efforts.
 Raise awareness about the importance of biodiversity conservation.

Why should you conserve Biodiversity?

We should conserve biodiversity because:

 Biodiversity help in maintaing stability and resilience of the ecosystem.
 Ecosystem also provides various services like air, water, and food. Therfore, our
survival is dependent on it.
 Many medicines are derived from plants and animals.
 Biodiversity act as a reservoir of genetic resource.
 It provide various services like pollination, soil fertility, and climate regulation.

UNIT-IV

Environmental pollution or simply pollution refers to undesirable changes occurring in the

physical, chemical, and biological composition of natural environment consisting of air,
water, and soil. Pollution also means the presence of harmful pollutants in an environment
that makes this environment unhealthy to live in.

According to National Academy of Science, USA (1966), pollution is defined as, “An
undesirable change in physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water, air, and soil
that may harmfully affect human, animal, and plant life, industrial progress, living conditions
and cultural assets.

Pollution is also viewed as ‘an unfavorable alteration’ in the sustaining and carrying capacity
of the natural environment wholly or largely by the byproducts of human activities. Natural
environment has an inbuilt capacity to replenish the losses or reduction in its constituents to
restore it as sustainable and healthy as required.

Ever expanding population and evolution of man into modern homo sapiens have led to rapid
urbanization, industrialization and unprecedented rise in human habitations. All these human
endeavors have, in turn, virtually perpetuated deforestation, loss of habitats for flora and
fauna, depletion of natural resources at a large scale over the last couple of centuries, which
have told upon the inherent resilience of the natural environment. As a result, natural
environment continues to be undesirably polluted.

Pollutants

A pollutant is defined as any form of energy or matter or action that causes imbalance or
disequilibrium in the required composition of natural objects such as air, water, etc. A
pollutant creates damage by interfering directly or indirectly with the biogeochemical process
of an organism.

Pollutants may be −

 Natural Pollutants − Natural pollutants are caused by natural forces such as volcanic
eruption and forest fire.
 Man-made Pollutants − These refer to the release of excess amount of gases or
matter by human activities. For instance, increase in the number of automobiles adds
excess carbon monoxide to the atmosphere causing harmful effect on vegetation and
human health.

Classification of Pollution

Different types of pollution are classified based on the part of the environment which they
affect or result caused by a particular pollution. Each type of pollution has its own distinctive
cause and consequences.

The major types of pollution are as follows.

  Air pollution
 Water pollution
 Noise pollution
 Soil or land pollution

Every day, every moment, we breathe polluted air and may become a victim of air pollution.
It is estimated that an average adult exchanges 15 kg of air a day, in comparison to about 1.5
kg of the food consumed and 2.5 kg of water intake. It is obvious that the quantum of
pollutants that enter our body through respiration would be manifold in comparison to those
taken in through polluted water or contaminated food.

Air pollution is one of the most widespread forms of pollution all over the world. Wind is the
main agent of air pollution. It gathers and moves pollutants from one area to another,
sometimes reducing the concentration of pollutants in one location, while increasing it in
another.

Causes of Air Pollution

Apart from the natural causes of pollutants, as stated above, human interaction and resource
utilization is perhaps adding more pollutants to the atmosphere.

 Industrialization − Industries big or small require steam to run. The steam is

produced by burning fossil fuels such as coal, coke, and furnace oil. These fuels while
burning release toxic gases in large amount into the atmosphere.
  Automobiles − To meet the demands of exploding human population, the number of
automobiles is increasing at a great space. The automobile exhausts are responsible
for about sixty percent of air pollution. Released carbon monoxide from the
automobiles pollutes the air and harms trees and other natural vegetation. It also has
ill-effects on human health.
 Chlorofluorocarbons − Scientists are now alarmed regarding the increased
concentration of chemical substances together called chlorofluorocarbon in the
atmosphere. These substances are responsible for creating holes in the ozone layer
causing unwanted imbalance in the heat budget. These are produced by modern
gadgets such as air conditioners, refrigerators, dyers, etc.

The adverse effects of air pollution appear in the form of poor quality of air, acidic
precipitation (rain, snow and hail) and deposition, and other health hazards.

The main pollutants of air are carbon dioxide (CO2 ), carbonic acid (H 2SO2), water (H2O),
nitric acid (HNO3O ), and sulphuric acid (H2SO4 ).

Air pollution has harmful effects on natural vegetation and human health such as respiratory
illnesses. Acidic precipitation is highly fatal for aquatic flora and fauna, monuments, and also
for natural vegetation.

Air Pollution Control

Air pollution control is an onerous task as there are large number of pollutants involved in air
pollution. Some of these are even difficult to detect. However, there can be some basic
approaches to control air pollution. They are as follows.

Preventive Approach

It is well said that prevention is better than cure. We can prevent pollutants of air from being
produced by various ways. For instance, by changing raw materials used in industry or the
ingredient of fuel from conventional to non-conventional sources of energy; by maintenance
of vehicles and roads and efficient transport system; by reduction in garbage burning and
shifting cultivation areas; afforestation, etc.

Dispersal Approach

We can prevent air pollution by raising the heights of smokestacks in industries so as to

release the pollutants high into the atmosphere.

Collection Approach

Air pollution can be controlled by designing the equipment and machinery to trap pollutants
before they escape into the atmosphere. To meet the standards, automobile engines have been
re-designed and new cars have been equipped with devices such as the catalytic converter,
which changes the pollutants into harmless substances. Because of these new devices, air
pollution from car exhaust has also been reduced.

Legislation Approach
There have been many initiatives in different countries for making laws, setting standards and
norms to check air pollution and ensure quality air. All the highly industrialized countries of
the world have certain legislations to prevent and control air pollution. As pollutants of air are
carried by the wind from one country to another for thousands of miles, there should be
global initiatives agreed upon by all countries to save the earth from the menace of air
pollution.

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Water pollution may be defined as alteration in physical, chemical, and biological

characteristics of water, which may cause harmful effects on human and aquatic life.

Pollutants of Water

Following are some of the reasons for water pollution.

 Disposal of sewage and sludge into water bodies such as river, streams, and lakes.
 Inorganic compounds and minerals by mining and industrial activities.
 Use of chemical fertilizers for agricultural purposes.
 Synthetic organic compounds from industrial, agricultural, and domestic garbage.
 Oil and petroleum from tankers’ accident, offshore drilling, combustion engine, etc.
 Radioactive wastes

Water Pollution Control

  Environmental Education − Individuals and the masses should be educated about
the significance of quality of water and its impact on the economy, the society, and
ecology.
 Sewage Treatment − The household water should be treated properly to make it
environmentally safe. Necessary steps should be taken to ensure that effective sewage
treatment process is put in place and contaminated water doesn’t get mixed with the
fresh water bodies.
 Accountability of Industrial Units − The industrial setups should make provisions
for treatment of waste materials and water, and for its safe drainage.
 Afforestation − Planting trees can reduce the water pollution to a large extent as they
check surface soil runoff by running water.
 Soil Conservation − Soil conservation add many inorganic substances in the surface
and underground water. Soil conservation is, therefore, a useful technique to reduce
water pollution.
 Reduced Use of Chemical Fertilizers − Chemical fertilizers add nitrates in water
bodies. Use of compost manures can help reduce the problem of eutrophication in the
water bodies.
 Financial Support − Governments should make provisions for adequate funds to the
civic bodies for water pollution control.
 Legislation and Implementation of Stringent Environmental Laws − The need of
the hour is that the government should legislate and implement strict environmental
laws for the protection of water bodies, treatment of waste water, etc. The violators of
such laws should be given exemplary punishment.

Noise pollution refers to any unwanted and unpleasant sound that brings discomfort and
restlessness to human beings. Like air and water pollution, noise pollution is harmful to
human and animal life.

Noise pollution is also an important environmental hazard, which is becoming growingly

injurious in many parts of the world. Noise beyond a particular level or decibel (unit of noise)
tends to become a health and environmental hazard.
Sources of Noise Pollution

 Household appliances such as grinders, electric motor, washing machines

 Social gatherings such as marriages and other social parties
 Places of worship
 Commercial activities
 Construction activities
 Industrial activities
 Automobiles and transport system
 Power generators
 Agricultural equipment

Noise Pollution Control

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), of all the environmental pollution,
noise is the easiest to control.

Noise pollution can be checked at home by −

 Turning off sound-making appliances when they are not in use.

 Shutting the door when noisy machines are being used.
 Lowering the volume of appliances such as television to a desirable level.
 Using earplugs while listening to music.

At mass level it can be checked by −

  By planting trees in large number to create vegetation buffer zones, which absorb
noise.
 Public awareness about the need of control of noise pollution.
 Application of engineering control techniques such as alteration and modification of
design to reduce noise from equipment and machinery, and by construction of sound
barriers or the use of sound absorbers in industrial and factory sites can reduce
exposure to noise to a great extent.
 Construction of institutions and hospitals away from airports, railways, and highways.
 Improved building design may also reduce the impact of noise pollution.
 Stringent legislations at central and state levels to check air pollution at workplaces,
urban centers, etc.

Soil pollution refers to an undesirable decrease in the quality of soil, either by man-induced
sources or natural sources or by both.

Soil is vital not only for the growth of plants and growing food but also cultivating raw
materials for agro-based industries. Health soil is a significant prerequisite for human
survival.

Causes of Soil Erosion

 Deforestation at large scale

 Over-grazing
 Mining
 Decrease in soil microorganisms
 Excessive use of chemical fertilizers
 Excessive use of irrigation
 Lack of humus content
 Improper and unscientific rotation of crops

Soil pollution leads to many harmful consequences such as decrease in agricultural

production; reduced nitrogen fixation; reduction in biodiversity; silting of tanks, lakes and
reservoirs; diseases and deaths of consumers in the food chain due to use of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides, etc.

Soil Pollution Control

 Adoption of soil-friendly agricultural practices.

 Use of compost manures in place of chemical fertilizers; Use of bio-fertilizers and
natural pesticides help in minimizing the usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
 Scientific rotation of crop to increase soil fertility.
 Proper disposal of industrial and urban solid and liquid wastes.
 Planting of trees to check soil erosion in slopes and mountainous regions.
 Controlled grazing.
 Reduction in the heaps of garbage and refuse.
 The principles of three R’s − Recycle, Reuse, and Reduce − help in minimizing
generation of solid waste.
 Formulation and effective implementation of stringent pollution control legislation.
  Improved sewage and sanitation system in urban areas.

Solid waste management refers to the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material
that is discarded or is no longer useful. Solid waste management is an important aspect of
urban area management. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste can create unsanitary
conditions, which can lead to environmental pollution and the outbreak of vector-borne
disease.

The task of solid waste management presents complex technical challenges. They also pose
various economic, administrative, and social problems which need urgent attention.

The major sources of solid waste are households; agricultural fields; industries and mining,
hotels and catering; roads and railways; hospitals and educational institutions; cultural centers
and places of recreation and tourism, etc. Plastic waste is also a solid waste.

Classification of Solid Wastes

 Municipal Waste
 Hospital Waste
 Hazardous Waste

Effective Solid Waste Management can be carried out in the following ways −

 Sanitary landfills
 Composting
 Landfills
 Incineration and pyrolysis (a process of combustion in the absence of oxygen)
 Vermiculture or earthworm farming
 Bioremediation or the use of micro-organism (bacteria and fungi)
  Reuse, reduce, and recycle

A Natural disaster is defined as an adverse event brought about by the natural processes of
earth disrupting the normal functioning of society. It causes widespread destruction to the
natural environment and leads to loss of life. The occurrence of a natural hazard is a
precondition for a natural disaster. In other words, only when natural hazards happen in a
vulnerable area does it become a disaster.

Different Types of Natural Disaster

Geological disaster

Natural disasters caused by geological processes are called geological disasters. Some causes
are shifts in tectonic plates, seismic activity etc. They are also called geophysical disasters.
Regions of earth where there is active plate movement are often prone to earthquakes.

Earthquakes- An earthquake is a result of the forces in the earth’s surface or crust. Sudden
breaks on the surface can lead to vibration of the ground, damage to buildings and roads etc.
They often happen at the joining points of plates, called fault plates. Earthquakes can lead to
other natural disasters like landslides and tsunamis also. There are often aftershocks which
take a huge toll on the survivors’ mental state. The immediate search and rescue programme
is accompanied with efforts to provide food, shelter and medical services.

The magnitude of an earthquake is understood by the Richter Scale. Anything above 6 on the
scale has devastating effects. Approximately 100-150 such earthquakes happen every year.

The damage depends on the intensity and epicenter of the earthquake. The 2002 Bhuj
earthquake in Gujarat recorded 6.9 on the Richter scale killing over 13000 people.
 Avalanches– Avalanche is triggered when a mass of material gets detached from its
surroundings and slides down a slope. On the way down, avalanches acquire more strength as
more material gets added to it. The different types of avalanches are rock avalanche, ice
avalanche and debris avalanche. Snow avalanches are most common in ice clad mountains.
Small quantities of snow or sometimes large slabs of ice slide down wreaking enormous
havoc. Adventure sports persons and tourists are most likely to get involved in this natural
disaster. Rescue operations are most difficult due to the climatic conditions and lack of
accessibility.

Landslides– Landslides are similar to avalanches. The material that slides down is usually
soil and rock. It can be superficial or deep. It is caused by soil erosion and heavy rains. They
are usually associated with severe cyclonic storms, flooding in rivers etc. Human activities
like mining, construction of buildings and roads also lead to landslides. Gravity is the major
player of a landslide. The western ghats of India are very prone to landslides during the
monsoon season.

Volcanic eruptions– The eruption of volcanoes lead to massive outburst of lava to the
surrounding areas damaging the flora and fauna. The ash that comes out is very harmful for
human beings. The formation of a cloud-like structure made of hot gas and volcanic matter,
called the pyroclastic flow, is the most dangerous outcome of a volcanic eruption. It is
believed that Pompeii was destroyed by such an eruption. The 1985 Armero tragedy in
Colombia destroyed a town completely, killing 23000 people, as the volcano exploded
unexpectedly.

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Hydrological Disasters

Hydrological disasters are caused by a sudden change in the quantity or movement in the
earth’s water sources.

1. Flood- A flood is the overflow of a water body submerging land near its basin.
Human changes like construction of dams increase the frequency and severity of
floods. Unexpected rainfall and mismanagement of water catchment areas are also a
reason. The Brahmaputra river is infamous for its annual flooding creating difficult
conditions for life. Recently, urban flooding has also increased due to lack of channels
for diverting flood water away from inhabited areas. Cities like Mumbai and Chennai
have borne the brunt of such mismanagement.
2. Tsunami- A tsunami is caused by a sudden displacement in the quantity of water in a
large lake or usually the ocean. Earthquakes and underwater landslides or volcanoes
can lead to tsunamis. Tsunami is consisted of subsequent waves that can last for
minutes or even hours. They usually affect the coastline destroying the entire built
environment and enormous loss of human life. The 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean
was the deadliest tsunami in the recent decades leading to a loss of over 2 lakh people.

.
Meteorological disasters

These are disasters that are caused by meteorological events like thunderstorms, blizzards,
hailstorms, cyclones, tornadoes, droughts etc. These are extreme weather conditions that
affect the normal functioning of society. They wreak huge economic damage every year.
Massive damage to crops and buildings lead to severe humanitarian crises.

Other Disasters

There are also other kinds of disasters like forest fires which can’t be classified into either of
the above categories. Forest fires are unplanned and difficult to control fires occurring due to
combustible vegetation. Droughts, warmer weather conditions etc are ideal conditions
for forest fires.