Devices use to connect network/ internetworking device

various devices are used to connect network of a computer The most common devices are: 1) Routers 2) Gateways 3) Repeaters 4) Bridges 5) Switches

ROUTER
Routers are devices which connect two are more networks that use similar protocol. A router consists of hard ware and software. Hard ware can be a computer is specific device. Software consists of special management program that controls flow of data between networks. Routers operate at a network layer of O.S.I model. Routers use logical and physical address to connect two or more logically separate network. They make this connection by organizing the large network into logical network segment (some times small sub network or sub nets). Each of these sub nets is given a logical address. Data is grouped into packets or block of data. Each packet in addition to having a physical device address, has a logical address. The network address allows routers to calculate more accurately and efficiently the path of the computer.

Advantages of Router
They use high level of intelligence to rout data Routers can also act as a bridge to handle non rout able protocols such as NetBEUI (Network Bios Extended User Interface ) Disadvantages of Router: High level of intelligence take more processing time which can effect performance Routers are very complicated which installation and maintenance difficult.

Gateways

GATEWAYS
Gateways are devices which connect two are more networks that use different protocols. They are similar in function to routes but they are more powerful and intelligent devices. A gateway can actually convert data so that network with an application on a computers on the other side of the

gateway e.g a get way can receive email messages in one format in convert them into another format. Gateway can operate at all seven layer of OSI model. Since Gateway perform data conversion so they are slower in speed and very expensive devices.

REPEATERS
Repeaters are used within network to extend the length of communication. Data process through transmission media in the farm of waves or signals. The transmission media weaken signals that move through it. The weakening of signal is called attenuation. If the data is to be transmitted beyond the maximum length of a communication media, signals have amplified. The devices that are used to amplify the signals are called repeaters. Repeaters work at the physical layer of OSI model. Repeaters are normally two ports boxes that connect two segments. As a signal comes in one port , it is Regenerated and send out to the other port. The signal is read as 1s and 0s. As 1s and 0s are transmitted, the noise can be cleaned out.

Advantages of Reapeater
Repeaters easily extend the length of network. They require no processing over head, so very little if any performance degradation occurs. It can connect signals from the same network type that use different types of cables.

Disadvantages of Repeaters
Repeaters can not be used to connect segments of different network types. They cannot be used to segment traffic on a network to reduce congestion . Many types of network have a limit on the number of network s that can be used at once .

BRIDGES
Bridges are used to connect similar network segments. A bridge does not pass or signals it receives. When a bridge receive a signal , it determines its destination by looking at its destination and it sends the signals towards it. For example in a above figure a bridge has been used to join two network segments A AND B. When the bridge receives the signals it read address of both sender and receiver. If the sender is a computer in segment A and the receiver is also segment A, it would not pass the signals to the segments B. It will however pass signals if the sender is in one segment and the receiver in other segment. Bridge works at the data link layer of O.S.I model.

Advantages of Bridges
Bridge extends network segments by connecting them together to make one logical network. They can affect the segment traffic between networks by filtering data if it does not need to pass. Like repeaters they can connect similar network types with different cabling.

Disadvantages of Bridges
Bridge possess information about the data they receive with can slow performance.

Switch
Definition: A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within one local area network (LAN). Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model. Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch generally contains more intelligence (and a slightly higher price tag) than a hub. Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting data packets as they are received, determining the source and destination device of each packet, and forwarding them appropriately. By delivering messages only to the connected device intended, a network switch conserves network bandwidth and offers generally better performance than a hub. As with hubs, Ethernet implementations of network switches are the most common. Mainstream Ethernet network switches support either 10/100 Mbps Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet (10/100/1000) standards. Different models of network switches support differing numbers of connected devices. Most consumer-grade network switches provide either four or eight connections for Ethernet devices. Switches can be connected to each other, a so-called daisy chaining method to add progressively larger number of devices to a LAN.

Routing Algorithms Within Routing Protocols

Many properties separate routing protocols from each other. Characteristics such as the speed with which they operate, the way they conduct updates, and the information they gather to perform their job make routing protocols unique. However, one feature that routing protocols share with one another is their routing algorithm. While many different routing protocols are available for you to use on your network, they all utilize one of only two different algorithms.

Distance Vector Algorithms

Distance vector algorithms are similar to the simple algorithm used in Table 3.1. A distance vector algorithm uses metrics known as costs to help determine the best path to a destination. The path with the lowest total cost is chosen as the best path. When a router utilizes a distance vector algorithm, different costs are gathered by each router. These costs can be completely arbitrary, administrator-assigned numbers, such as five. Although the number five might not be of any significance to an outside observer, the administrator might have assigned it to a particular link to represent the reliability of that link. Costs can also be dynamically gathered values, such as the amount of delay experienced by routers when sending packets over one link as opposed to another. All the costs (assigned and otherwise) are compiled and placed within the router's routing table. All the costs gathered are then used by the algorithm to calculate a best path for any given network scenario. Although there are many resources that will offer complex mathematical representations of what distance vector algorithms are and how they compute their decisions, the core concept remains the sameby adding the metrics for every optional path on a network, you will come up with at least

one best path. The formula for this is as follows:

M(i,k) = min [M(i,t) + M(t,k)]

This formula states that the best path between two networks (M(i,k)) can be found by finding the lowest (min) value of paths between all network points. Let's look again at the routing information in Table 3.1. Plugging this information into the formula, we see that the route from A to B to C is still the best path:
5(A,C) = min[2(A,B) + 3(B,C)]

Whereas the formula for the direct route A to C looks like this:
6(A,C) = min[6(A,C)]

This example illustrates how distance vector algorithms use the information passed to them to make informed routing decisions. Do not spend too much time memorizing the algorithm, as you will rarely see it in the real world. The algorithms used by routers and routing protocols are not configurable, nor can they be modified. Another major difference between distance vector algorithms and link state protocols (covered in the next section) is that when distance vector routing protocols update each other, all or part of the routing table (depending on the type of update) is sent from one router to another. By this process, each router is exposed to the information contained within the other router's tables, thus giving each router a more complete view of the networking environment and enabling them to make better routing decisions. The process of router updates is described in more detail in the next section. Examples of distance vector algorithms include RIP and BGP, two of the more popular protocols in use today. Other popular protocols such as OSPF are examples of protocols which use the link state routing algorithm.

Link-State Algorithms
Link-state algorithms work within the same basic framework that distance vector algorithms do in that they both favor the path with the lowest cost. However, link-state protocols work in a somewhat more localized manner. Whereas a router running a distance vector algorithm will compute the end-to-end path for any given packet, a link-state protocol will compute that path as it relates to the most immediate link. That is, where a distance vector algorithm will compute the lowest metric between Network A and Network C, a link-state protocol will compute it as two distinct paths, A to B and B to C. This process is best for larger environments that might change fairly often. Link-state algorithms enable routers to focus on their own links and interfaces. Any one router on a network will only have direct knowledge of the routers and networks that are directly connected to it (or, the state of its own links). In larger environments, this means that the router will use less processing power to compute complicated paths. The router simply needs to know which one of its direct interfaces will get the information where it needs to go the quickest. The next router in line will repeat the process until the information reaches its destination. Another advantage to such localized routing processes is that protocols can maintain smaller routing tables. Because a link-state protocol only maintains routing information for its direct interfaces, the routing table contains much less information than that of a distance vector protocol that might have information for multiple routers. Like distance vector protocols, link-state protocols require updates to share information with each other. These routing updates, known as Link State Advertisements (LSAs), occur when the state of a

router's links changes. When a particular link becomes unavailable (changes state), the router sends an update through the environment alerting all the routers with which it is directly linked. Link-state and distance vector protocols handle certain routing situations quite differently. As we discuss each protocol in the remaining lessons of this book, we'll look at how these protocols handle particular routing situations.