Assignment : 8086 Microprocessor (Title, History, definition, features, Architecture diagrams, Examples, Registers, Workings, etc.

ANS: History- The Intel 8086 microprocessor was developed by Intel Corporation in 1978. It was a 16-bit processor and laid the
foundation for modern x86 architecture. It was designed as an enhancement of the 8085 (8-bit processor) and was later followed
by 80286, 80386, and Pentium series processors. It played a crucial role in the development of personal computers, especially in
the early IBM PC models.

Definition- The Intel 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor designed by Intel with a 20-bit address bus, allowing it to address 1MB of
memory. It supports multiprogramming, pipelining, and segmented memory architecture. The 8086 is capable of performing
arithmetic, logic, and control operations efficiently.

Features-

o 16-bit processor: Can handle 16-bit data at a time.

o 20-bit address bus: Can address up to 1MB of memory.
o Segmented Memory Architecture: Divides memory into segments (Code, Data, Stack, Extra).
o Instruction Queue (Pipelining): Prefetches up to 6 instructions to improve execution speed.
o Registers: 14 registers including General-Purpose, Segment, Index, and Flag registers.
o Operating Modes:
• Minimum mode: For single processor operation.
• Maximum mode: For multiprocessor systems.
o Clock Speed: Ranges from 5 MHz to 10 MHz.
o Supports both byte and word operations.

Architecture diagrams –

The 8086 microprocessor is divided into two functional units:

o Bus Interface Unit (BIU)

o Execution Unit (EU)

Block Diagram of 8086 Architecture:

Bus Interface Unit (BIU)

• Handles communication between the processor and memory.

• Contains Segment Registers, Instruction Queue, Address Calculation Unit.

• Fetches instructions in advance using pipelining.

Execution Unit (EU)

• Decodes and executes instructions.

• Contains General-Purpose Registers, ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), and Control Unit.

• Works on the instructions fetched by the BIU.

Registers in 8086:

8086 has 14 registers, which can be classified as:

1. General-Purpose Registers

• AX (Accumulator Register) – Used for arithmetic operations.

• BX (Base Register) – Used for indirect addressing.

• CX (Counter Register) – Used in loop operations.

• DX (Data Register) – Used in I/O operations.

2. Segment Registers

• CS (Code Segment) – Stores executable instructions.

• DS (Data Segment) – Stores data used in the program.

• SS (Stack Segment) – Stores stack-related data.

• ES (Extra Segment) – Additional segment register.

3. Pointer and Index Registers

• SP (Stack Pointer) – Points to the top of the stack.

• BP (Base Pointer) – Used for accessing stack data.

• SI (Source Index) – Used in string operations.

• DI (Destination Index) – Used in string operations.

4. Flag Register

• Holds condition flags like Zero Flag, Carry Flag, Parity Flag, Sign Flag, Overflow Flag, etc.

Working Principle of 8086:

1. Fetch Stage: The Bus Interface Unit (BIU) fetches the instruction from memory and places it in the instruction queue.

2. Decode Stage: The Execution Unit (EU) decodes the instruction.

3. Execute Stage: The ALU performs arithmetic or logical operations.

4. Memory/IO Operations: The result is either stored in registers or sent to memory/I/O devices.

5. Next Instruction: The BIU fetches the next instruction, and the cycle continues.

Example Assembly Language Program (Adding Two Numbers):

MOV AX, 05H ; Load AX with 5

MOV BX, 03H ; Load BX with 3

ADD AX, BX ; Add BX to AX (AX = 5 + 3)

Result: AX = 08H
8086 Microprocessor Architecture Explanation

The 8086 microprocessor is a 16-bit processor developed by Intel. It follows a CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing)
architecture and uses segmentation to manage memory efficiently. The 8086 architecture consists of two main units:

1. Bus Interface Unit (BIU)

2. Execution Unit (EU)

These units work together to fetch, decode, and execute instructions.

1. Bus Interface Unit (BIU)

The BIU is responsible for fetching instructions, reading/writing data, and managing the memory and I/O addresses. It works
independently of the execution unit to improve performance.

Main Functions of BIU:

• Fetches instructions from memory

• Reads and writes data from/to memory or I/O ports
• Calculates physical addresses using segment and offset values
• Stores fetched instructions in the instruction queue (pipelining)

Components of BIU:

• Segment Registers (CS, DS, SS, ES): Holds the base addresses of memory segments
• Instruction Pointer (IP): Holds the offset of the next instruction to be executed
• Instruction Queue: A 6-byte queue used for pipelining (pre-fetching instructions to improve speed)
• Address Generation Circuit: Generates physical addresses using Segment × 16 + Offset
• Bus Control Logic: Controls communication between the processor and memory/I/O

2. Execution Unit (EU)

The EU is responsible for executing instructions fetched by the BIU. It processes data and performs arithmetic, logic, and control
operations.

Main Functions of EU:

• Decodes and executes instructions

• Performs arithmetic and logic operations
• Controls operations using the control unit
• Interacts with the BIU for fetching/storing data

Components of EU:

• General-Purpose Registers (AX, BX, CX, DX): Used for data storage and operations
• Pointer & Index Registers (SP, BP, SI, DI): Used for addressing and memory operations
• Flag Register: Holds status flags (Zero, Carry, Sign, Overflow, etc.)
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations
• Control Unit: Decodes instructions and controls execution

Conclusion: The 8086 microprocessor architecture is designed for efficient memory access and instruction execution. The BIU
and EU work together to improve speed and efficiency through pipelining and segmentation. These features make it a
foundational microprocessor in computing history.
CT: 1. What were the key differences between the Intel 4004 and 8086 microprocessors?

Ans: The Intel 4004 and Intel 8086 microprocessors were both significant in the evolution of computing, but they had major
differences in terms of architecture, data width, performance, and capabilities. Here’s a detailed comparison:

Feature Intel 4004 (1971) Intel 8086 (1978)

Bit-width 4-bit 16-bit
Clock Speed 740 kHz 5 MHz to 10 MHz
Address Bus 12-bit (4 KB memory) 20-bit (1 MB memory)
Data Bus 4-bit 16-bit
Registers 16 general-purpose registers (4-bit each) 14 registers (8-bit/16-bit)
Instruction Set Simple (45 instructions) More complex (117 instructions)
Memory Addressing Direct addressing only Segmented memory addressing
Execution Speed Slow, limited operations Faster with pipelining
Applications Calculators, embedded systems Personal computers, industrial control
Multiprocessing Support No Yes (in Maximum Mode)

2. Explain the role of buses in a microprocessor system. What and explain roles of Buses? Draw the diagram of the block diagram
of a computer system showing the address, data and Control bus structure??

Ans: A bus in a microprocessor system is a set of parallel wires or connections that transfer data, addresses, and control signals
between different components of the computer, such as the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. The efficiency of buses significantly
impacts the speed and performance of the system.

The 8086 microprocessor and other microprocessors typically use three main types of buses: Address Bus, Data Bus, Control Bus.

The diagram effectively shows how the 8085 microprocessor interacts with memory, input, and output devices through
address, data, and control buses. This bus organization ensures smooth communication and data transfer within the system.

1. Address Bus (Unidirectional):

• Purpose: Carries memory addresses from the CPU to memory and I/O devices.
• Direction: Unidirectional (only from the CPU to memory or I/O).
• Size in 8086: 20-bit (can address 1 MB of memory).
• Example: When the CPU wants to read data from a memory location (e.g., address 0x12345), the address is sent via the
address bus to memory.

2. Data Bus (Bidirectional):

• Purpose: Transfers actual data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
• Direction: Bidirectional (data flows both to and from the CPU).
• Size in 8086: 16-bit (can transfer 16-bit data at a time).
• Example: If the CPU requests a value stored at memory address 0x12345, the memory sends back the data (e.g.,
10101010 11001100) via the data bus.
3. Control Bus (Unidirectional & Bidirectional):

• Purpose: Carries control signals that manage and coordinate operations between components.
• Direction: Both Unidirectional and Bidirectional.
• Examples of Control Signals:
• Read (RD̅ ) Signal: Instructs memory or I/O devices to send data.
• Write (WR̅ ) Signal: Instructs memory or I/O devices to store data.
• Interrupt (INT) Signals: Used to handle external events like keyboard input.
• Clock Signals: Synchronize operations.

Importance of Buses in a Microprocessor System

• Facilitates Communication: Connects CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

• Defines System Speed: Wider and faster buses improve system performance.
• Efficient Data Transfer: Organized movement of data prevents conflicts.
• Manages Control Signals: Ensures proper execution of instructions.

Example of Bus Operation in 8086

• The CPU places the memory address (0x12345) on the address bus.
• The control bus activates the Read (RD̅ ) signal.
• The memory sends the requested data (e.g., 10101010 11001100) via the data bus.
• The CPU receives the data and processes it.
• This cycle repeats for every instruction execution.

3. What were the major improvements introduced in 32-bit microprocessors compared to 16-bit ones?

Ans: Major Improvements in 32-bit Microprocessors Compared to 16-bit Microprocessors

The transition from 16-bit to 32-bit microprocessors brought several key advancements in performance, memory addressing,
processing power, and efficiency. Below are the major improvements:

1. Increased Data Bus Width (Faster Data Processing)

• 16-bit processors (e.g., Intel 8086, 80286) could process 16-bit data at a time.
• 32-bit processors (e.g., Intel 80386, Pentium) could handle 32-bit data at a time, doubling the processing speed and
efficiency.
• Example: A 32-bit CPU can perform 32-bit additions in one cycle, whereas a 16-bit CPU may require multiple cycles.

2. Larger Memory Addressing Capability

• 16-bit processors used a 20-bit address bus (8086) or 24-bit address bus (80286), allowing them to address 1MB to 16MB
of memory.
• 32-bit processors used a 32-bit address bus, supporting up to 4GB (2³² bytes) of memory.
• Impact: Enabled advanced computing, multitasking, and large applications.

3. Improved Instruction Set and Execution Efficiency

• 32-bit processors introduced new instruction sets such as x86-32, supporting faster arithmetic, logical, and memory
operations.
• Introduction of Pipelining and Parallel Execution: Many 32-bit CPUs (like Intel 80486 and later) introduced pipelining,
allowing multiple instructions to execute simultaneously.
• Enhanced Floating-Point Operations: Improved math coprocessor (FPU) performance, making graphics, simulations, and
calculations faster.

4. Better Multitasking and Operating System Support

• 16-bit processors had limited multitasking due to restricted memory and register size.
• 32-bit processors supported true multitasking with better memory protection, enabling stable operating systems like
Windows 95, Linux, and later versions.
5. Enhanced Register Set (Larger and More Efficient)

• 16-bit processors had 16-bit general-purpose registers, limiting data storage and processing speed.
• 32-bit processors used 32-bit registers, allowing:
o Faster processing of large numbers.
o More efficient loop execution and function calls.
o Improved graphics, gaming, and scientific computations.

6. Advanced Memory Management (Virtual Memory and Paging)

• 16-bit processors relied on segmented memory architecture, which was complex and less efficient.
• 32-bit processors introduced flat memory models and paging, enabling:
o Virtual memory (efficient memory usage).
o Memory protection (preventing one program from corrupting another’s memory).

7. Better Peripheral and I/O Support

• 32-bit processors supported faster data transfer rates for peripherals like hard drives, graphics cards, and network
adapters.

• Allowed high-speed buses like PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) and AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) for graphics
and gaming.

8. Increased Clock Speed and Performance

• 16-bit CPUs like the 8086 ran at 5-10 MHz.

• 32-bit CPUs like the Intel 80386 & 80486 ran at 16-100 MHz, and later versions reached even higher speeds.

• This resulted in faster program execution and overall system performance.

Conclusion: The shift from 16-bit to 32-bit microprocessors was a major technological leap that enabled better performance,
multitasking, gaming, and software development. It laid the foundation for modern computing, operating systems, and high-
performance applications.

4. What are the key differences between 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit microprocessors in terms of data processing capabilities?

Ans: Microprocessors are classified based on their data bus width, address bus width, processing power, and memory handling
capabilities. Here’s a detailed comparison of 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit microprocessors:

Feature 8-bit Microprocessor 16-bit Microprocessor 32-bit Microprocessor

Examples Intel 8080, 8085, Zilog Z80 Intel 8086, 80286, Motorola Intel 80386, 80486, Pentium
68000 series
Data Bus Width 8-bit (processes 8-bit data at a 16-bit (processes 16-bit data 32-bit (processes 32-bit data
time) at a time) at a time)
Address Bus Width 16-bit (can address up to 64 KB 20-bit or 24-bit (can address up 32-bit (can address up to 4 GB
memory) to 1 MB or 16 MB memory) memory)
Processing Speed Slow, processes 8-bit data at a Faster, processes 16-bit data Much faster, processes 32-bit
time in one cycle data in one cycle
Instruction Set Simple instructions, limited More instructions with better Advanced instruction sets
Complexity operations arithmetic and logic with floating-point and
operations multimedia capabilities
Memory Access Limited, requires multiple cycles Improved but still segmented Flat memory model, better
for larger data memory model efficiency
Multitasking Capability Minimal, mostly used in Limited multitasking Supports true multitasking
embedded systems and protected mode
Floating Point Operations Very slow, requires external Some support but still slow Fast floating point operations,
coprocessor built-in FPU
Use Cases Calculators, simple embedded Personal computers, High-performance
systems, early computers industrial automation, early computing, gaming,
gaming multimedia applications
Chapter 1:

1. Definition of Microprocessor and Microprocessor 8086.

Ans: Microprocessor: A microprocessor is the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer system, implemented on a single
integrated circuit (IC). It performs arithmetic, logic, control, and data processing operations, acting as the brain of the computer.

Example Microprocessors:

• 8-bit: Intel 8085, Zilog Z80

• 16-bit: Intel 8086, Motorola 68000
• 32-bit: Intel 80386, Pentium
• 64-bit: Intel Core i7, AMD Ryzen

Key Characteristics of a Microprocessor

• Single-chip CPU: Contains ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), Control Unit, and Registers.
• Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle: Processes instructions sequentially.
• Bit-width Classification: 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit, etc.
• Performs Logic & Arithmetic Operations: Addition, subtraction, comparisons, etc.
• Controls Data Flow: Communicates with memory and I/O devices.

Microprocessor 8086: The Intel 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor developed by Intel in 1978. It is based on the x86 architecture and
was one of the first processors used in early personal computers (PCs). The 8086 is known for its powerful instruction set,
segmented memory addressing, and pipelined execution, which significantly improved computing performance compared to its
predecessors.

Key Features of 8086 Microprocessor

• 16-bit processor (processes 16-bit data at a time).

• 20-bit address bus (can address up to 1 MB of memory).
• Segmented memory architecture (divides memory into Code, Data, Stack, and Extra segments).
• Instruction queue (pipelining) for faster execution.
• Supports both Minimum and Maximum modes (for standalone or multiprocessor systems).
• 117 instructions for better arithmetic, logic, and control operations.

Applications

• Early IBM Personal Computers (PCs).

• Industrial control systems.
• Embedded systems.

2. Microprocessor based personal computer system.

Ans: A microprocessor-based personal computer (PC) system is a computing device where the microprocessor (CPU) serves as the
central unit for processing data and executing instructions. It integrates various components such as memory, input/output
devices, and storage units to perform computing tasks efficiently.

Main Components of a Microprocessor-Based PC System

1. Microprocessor (CPU)

• Acts as the brain of the computer.

• Executes instructions using the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
• Examples: Intel 8086, Intel Core i7, AMD Ryzen.

2. Memory Unit

• Stores data and instructions temporarily or permanently.

Types:

• RAM (Random Access Memory) – Temporary storage for active processes.

• ROM (Read-Only Memory) – Stores firmware and startup programs.
• Cache Memory – Speeds up processing by storing frequently used data.

3. Input Devices

• Allow users to provide input to the system.

• Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Touchscreen.

4. Output Devices

• Display or present processed information to the user.

• Examples: Monitor, Printer, Speakers.

5. Storage Devices

• Store data permanently.

• Examples: Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Solid State Drive (SSD), USB Flash Drives.

6. System Bus

• Connects various components and facilitates data transfer.

Types:

• Address Bus – Specifies memory locations.

• Data Bus – Transfers actual data.
• Control Bus – Manages signals for execution.

7. Power Supply Unit (PSU)

• Converts AC power to DC voltage required for system operation.

8. Operating System (OS)

• Manages hardware and software resources.

• Examples: Windows, Linux, macOS.

Working Principle of a Microprocessor-Based PC System

• The user provides input through input devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse).
• The microprocessor fetches instructions from memory.
• The CPU decodes and executes the instructions.
• Processed data is stored in memory or sent to output devices.
• The results are displayed on a screen or stored in storage devices.

Examples of Microprocessor-Based PCs

• IBM PC (Intel 8086, 8088)

• Modern Laptops & Desktops (Intel Core, AMD Ryzen)
• Embedded Systems & Industrial PCs
3. Age of Microprocessor.

Ans: The age of microprocessors began in 1971 with the introduction of the Intel 4004, a 4-bit microprocessor that revolutionized
computing by integrating the CPU onto a single chip. Over the years, microprocessors have evolved significantly in terms of speed,
memory capacity, instruction sets, and processing power.

Early Microprocessors (4-bit & 8-bit Era)

Intel 4004 (1971) – The First Microprocessor

• 4-bit processor, capable of addressing 4096 memory locations.

• Contained 45 instructions, operating at 50 KIPs (kilo instructions per second).
• Used P-channel MOSFET technology, limiting its performance.
• Mainly used in early video games, calculators, and control systems.

Intel 4040 & Other 4-bit Microprocessors

• Intel 4040 was an improved version of the 4004, with a slightly higher speed.
• Texas Instruments (TMS-1000) also introduced 4-bit microprocessors for control applications.
• Even today, 4-bit microprocessors are used in microwave ovens, small appliances, and calculators.

Rise of 8-bit Microprocessors (1972 - 1980s)

• Intel 8008 (1972): The first 8-bit processor, expanded memory support (16K bytes) and 48 instructions.
• Intel 8080 (1973): The first truly modern 8-bit processor, much faster and more powerful than its predecessors.
• Motorola MC6800 (1974): Competed with Intel’s 8080, influencing the evolution of microprocessors.
• Zilog Z80 (1976): An improved version of the 8080, widely used in early home computers.
• MOS Technology 6502 (1975): Used in iconic systems like the Apple I, Commodore 64, and Nintendo Entertainment System (NES).

Expansion into 16-bit and 32-bit Microprocessors

As computing demands grew, the limitations of 8-bit processors became evident. This led to the introduction of 16-bit and later
32-bit microprocessors.

Intel 8086 (1978) – The Start of the x86 Era

• 16-bit architecture, could address 1MB of memory.

• Introduced segmented memory architecture for better performance.
• Led to the IBM PC revolution, forming the basis of modern computing.

Intel 80386 (1985) – 32-bit Processing

• 32-bit architecture, supporting multitasking and virtual memory.

• Allowed for faster data processing, used in early Windows-based PCs.

Modern Microprocessors: 64-bit Multi-Core Era

• Today’s microprocessors are multi-core, 64-bit, AI-powered, and energy-efficient, with applications in everything from
personal computers to smartphones, AI systems, and cloud computing.

Key Features of Modern Processors

• Multi-core architecture (Dual-core, Quad-core, Octa-core, etc.).

• Clock speeds exceeding 5 GHz for high-speed processing.
• Advanced instruction sets for AI, gaming, and multimedia.
• Power efficiency and high-performance computing.

Conclusion: The microprocessor age has transformed computing, from basic 4-bit chips in the 1970s to today’s powerful multi-
core, 64-bit processors that drive everything from PCs to AI systems.
4. Age of Mechanical.

Ans: The concept of mechanical computing predates modern electronic devices by centuries. Humans have sought ways to
automate calculations using mechanical systems long before the invention of electrical computers.

Early Mechanical Calculators

1. The Abacus (500 BC) – The First Mechanical Calculator

• Invented by the Babylonians, used for counting and calculations.

• Consisted of beads and rods, allowing basic arithmetic operations.
• Still in use today in some parts of the world.

2. Pascal’s Calculator (1642) – Gear-Based Arithmetic Machine

• Invented by Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician.

• Used gears and wheels to perform addition and subtraction.
• Functioned similarly to modern odometers.
• The PASCAL programming language was later named in his honor.

The Birth of Programmable Mechanical Computing

3. Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine (1823) – The First Mechanical Computer

• Commissioned by the Royal Astronomical Society of Britain to create a machine for navigational calculations.
• Designed to store 1000 numbers (each with 20 digits).
• Used punched cards for input, inspired by Jacquard’s loom (1801).
• Concept of a variable program – a machine that could modify its function dynamically.

4. Augusta Ada Byron (Countess of Lovelace) – The First Programmer

• Worked with Babbage to design algorithms for the Analytical Engine.

• Recognized as the first computer programmer.
• The Ada programming language was later named after her.

Challenges in the Mechanical Age

• Precision issues: The machining technology of the 1800s was not advanced enough to produce the 50,000+ parts required
for Babbage’s Analytical Engine.
• Limited capabilities: Mechanical systems were slow, bulky, and required manual operation.
• High costs: Developing these machines required significant financial resources.

Impact on Modern Computing: Despite its limitations, the Mechanical Age laid the foundation for modern computing. Concepts
from this era, such as automation, programming, and input/output systems, directly influenced the development of electronic
computers in the 20th century.

5. Example and definition of 8086 first gen etc.

Ans: The Intel 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1978 as the first processor in the x86 family. It was designed
for high-performance computing and became the foundation of modern processors. It has a 20-bit address bus, which allows it to
access 1MB of memory, and a 16-bit data bus, meaning it can process 16-bit data at a time.

Examples of 8086 Microprocessor Usage:

The 8086 microprocessor was widely used in early personal computers and embedded systems. Some examples include:

• IBM PC (1981) – One of the first personal computers, powered by the 8088 (a variant of 8086 with an 8-bit data bus).
• Industrial Automation – Used in CNC machines and robotics for process control.
• Military Applications – Found in early radar and missile guidance systems.
• Embedded Systems – Used in early automotive electronics, such as engine control units (ECUs).
• Gaming Consoles – Some early arcade machines used microprocessors similar to the 8086.
First-Generation Microprocessors:

The first generation of microprocessors (1971-1978) includes the early 4-bit, 8-bit, and 16-bit processors.

Key Characteristics of First-Gen Microprocessors:

• Built using NMOS technology (Later processors moved to CMOS for better efficiency).
• Limited processing power (4-bit or 8-bit initially, with 16-bit arriving later).
• Single-chip processors with a basic ALU, control unit, and registers.
• Used in calculators, control systems, and early computers.

Examples of First-Generation Microprocessors:

• Intel 4004 (1971) – The first commercial microprocessor (4-bit).

• Intel 8008 (1972) – An 8-bit processor with a 16KB memory limit.
• Intel 8080 (1974) – The first widely used 8-bit microprocessor, used in the Altair 8800.
• Motorola 6800 (1974) – A competitor to the 8080, used in embedded systems.
• Intel 8086 (1978) – The first 16-bit microprocessor, starting the x86 architecture.

6. Example memory based Microprocessor and I/O system working of a Microprocessor based computer system?

Ans. A microprocessor-based system consists of a microprocessor, memory (RAM/ROM), and input/output (I/O) devices that work
together to execute instructions and perform tasks. The 8086 microprocessor, for example, interacts with memory and I/O devices
through its buses (address, data, and control buses).

Example: 8086 Microprocessor-Based System

A simple microprocessor-based system can be illustrated as follows:

Components Involved:

• Microprocessor (8086) – The central processing unit that fetches, decodes, and executes instructions.
• Memory (RAM & ROM) –
• RAM (Random Access Memory): Stores temporary data and program execution results.
• ROM (Read-Only Memory): Stores firmware or permanent programs.
• I/O Devices – Includes keyboard, display, sensors, and external storage devices.
• Buses –
o Address Bus (20-bit in 8086) to access 1MB memory locations.
o Data Bus (16-bit in 8086) for data transfer between memory, CPU, and I/O.
o Control Bus for sending signals like Read (RD), Write (WR), and Interrupts.
• Clock Generator (8284A) – Provides clock signals for synchronization.
• Interrupt Controller (8259) – Manages hardware interrupts from I/O devices.

Working of a Microprocessor-Based Computer System

Step-by-Step Execution Process:

1. Instruction Fetching

• The microprocessor (8086) fetches the instruction from ROM (or RAM) using the address bus.
• The BIU (Bus Interface Unit) helps in fetching data and instructions.

2. Decoding the Instruction

• The Control Unit (CU) decodes the fetched instruction to understand what operation needs to be performed.

3. Executing the Instruction

• The ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) performs the necessary operations (addition, subtraction, logical operations, etc.).
4. Memory and I/O Access

• If the instruction requires data from memory, the 8086 sends an address through the address bus and fetches the data
via the data bus.
• If the instruction involves I/O devices (keyboard, display, printer), the control bus signals the appropriate I/O port to
perform the operation.

5. Storing the Result

• The result is either stored in the registers, memory, or sent to an output device.

6. Interrupt Handling (if needed)

• If an interrupt occurs (e.g., user presses a key), the Interrupt Controller (8259) signals the CPU to handle it.
• The processor temporarily stops execution, processes the interrupt service routine (ISR), and then resumes normal
execution.

Example Application: Simple Microprocessor-Based Traffic Light System

A traffic light controller using an 8086 microprocessor works as follows:

• ROM stores a program that cycles through red, yellow, and green lights.
• The microprocessor reads input signals from sensors (e.g., vehicle detectors).
• Based on the inputs, it sends signals to control traffic lights (I/O output ports).
• The system continues looping until power is turned off.

Conclusion: A microprocessor-based computer system operates by continuously fetching, decoding, and executing instructions,
communicating with memory and I/O devices using buses. This process allows computers and embedded systems to perform
complex tasks efficiently.

7. Compare feature and improvement Between and data processing capabilities?

[ 8086 and 8685 ] [ 4046 and ENIAC ] [ 8086 and 80286 ] [ 16bit and 32 bit ] [ 4004 and 8086 ]

Ans: To compare the features and improvements between the microprocessors you mentioned, I'll break it down by each pair of
processors and the differences in their data processing capabilities:

1. 8086 vs. 8051: If referring to 8051, the 8086 has a wider data bus (16 bits vs. 8 bits) and supports more memory (1 MB vs. 64
KB). The 8086 is more suited for general-purpose computing, whereas the 8051 is used for embedded applications.

8086:
• Data Bus Width: 16 bits.
• Address Bus Width: 20 bits (1 MB of addressable memory).
• Processing: Primarily used for basic integer operations. It lacks advanced memory management features.

8051:
• Data Bus Width: 8 bits.
• Address Bus Width: 16 bits (64 KB of addressable memory).
• Processing: The 8051 is an 8-bit microcontroller designed for embedded applications. It has a small instruction set and is
slower than the 8086 for general-purpose computing tasks.

2. 4046 vs. ENIAC: 4046 vs. ENIAC: The ENIAC, being a massive machine from the 1940s, had much more computing power and
speed than the 4046, which was a smaller microprocessor.

4046:
• This is likely referring to the Intel 4046, which was a microprocessor used in early computing, with an architecture similar
to the Intel 4004 but more focused on specialized applications.
• Data Bus Width: 4 bits.
• Processing: Limited processing power with small memory addressing capabilities. The 4046 was used in control and timing
operations rather than general-purpose computing.
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer):
• Data Bus Width: 10 decimal digits (around 40 bits per word).
• Processing: ENIAC was one of the first general-purpose computers, capable of handling large-scale computations,
especially for scientific and military applications.
• Improvements: ENIAC was significantly faster than earlier electromechanical computers, but it was still much slower
compared to later processors. It was programmed using plugboards and had no internal memory, relying on external
storage.

3. 8086 vs. 80286: The 80286 brought protected mode, allowing better multitasking and memory management, while the 8086
was limited to real mode with a smaller address space.

8086:
• Data Bus Width: 16 bits.
• Address Bus Width: 20 bits (1 MB of addressable memory).
• Processing: Basic data processing with 16-bit operations. It operated mainly in real mode, meaning that it had limited
memory access and management.

80286:
• Data Bus Width: 16 bits.
• Address Bus Width: 24 bits (16 MB of addressable memory).
• Processing: The 80286 introduced protected mode, which allowed better memory management, multitasking, and
protection between processes.
• Improvements: The 80286 introduced a larger memory space and basic support for multitasking, a significant step forward
in system stability and efficiency compared to the 8086.

4. 16-bit vs. 32-bit: A 32-bit processor can handle larger data, more memory, and provides better multitasking, while a 16-bit
processor is limited in all those aspects.

16-bit Processors (e.g., 8086):

• Data Bus Width: 16 bits.
• Address Bus Width: Usually 20 bits (1 MB of addressable memory).
• Processing: Can handle 16-bit data at a time, with limited processing power and addressing capacity.

32-bit Processors (e.g., 80386):

• Data Bus Width: 32 bits.
• Address Bus Width: 32 bits (4 GB of addressable memory).
• Processing: Can handle 32-bit data at a time, offering much higher performance, especially in scientific, multimedia, and
complex data processing tasks.
• Improvements: 32-bit processors allow larger memory addressing, better multitasking capabilities, and faster execution
of more complex algorithms. They also introduced protected mode and advanced memory management (paging).

5. 4004 vs. 8086: The 8086 is far more powerful, with a larger data bus (16 bits vs. 4 bits), more memory addressing, and better
processing power compared to the 4004, which was more suited for control and embedded applications.

4004:
• Data Bus Width: 4 bits.
• Address Bus Width: 12 bits (4 KB of addressable memory).
• Processing: The 4004 was Intel’s first microprocessor, designed for simple embedded applications and basic data
processing. It had very limited memory addressing and computing power compared to later processors.
8086:
• Data Bus Width: 16 bits.
• Address Bus Width: 20 bits (1 MB of addressable memory).
• Processing: The 8086 marked a major leap forward, with 16-bit processing, significantly higher memory capacity, and
better instruction sets for handling more complex tasks.
• Improvements: The 8086 introduced 16-bit processing and was suitable for general-purpose computing tasks, unlike the
4004, which was more suitable for control applications.
8. Suppose a 16-bit processor contain: 16 bit, data bus and 20-bit address bus. Calculate total memory space of that
processor. [16-bit]--- (8bit - 1 byte) (16 bit-2 byte).

Ans:

To calculate the total memory space of a processor, we need to use the address bus width to determine the amount
of memory the processor can access.

Given:

• Address Bus Width = 20 bits

• Data Bus Width = 16 bits (this is the size of the data that the processor can read or write in one operation, but
it doesn't directly impact the total memory size calculation)
• 1 byte = 8 bits

Step-by-step Calculation:

The address bus width determines the number of unique memory locations the processor can access.

• With a 20-bit address bus, the total number of unique memory locations is:
Number of Memory Locations=2Address Bus Width=220=1,048,576memory locations

• Since each memory location typically holds 1 byte of data (this is a common convention unless otherwise
specified), the total memory space the processor can access is:

Total Memory Size=1,048,576bytes=1MB

Answer:

The processor with a 20-bit address bus can access a total of 1 MB of memory.

Since each 16-bit word is equivalent to 2 bytes, we need to adjust the calculation accordingly.

Given:

• Address Bus Width = 20 bits

• Data Bus Width = 16 bits (which is 2 bytes per memory location)

Step-by-step Calculation:

1. Number of Memory Locations: The number of unique memory locations that can be accessed is determined
by the address bus width:

Number of Memory Locations=2Address Bus Width=220=1,048,576memory locations

2. Memory Size per Location: Since each location stores a 16-bit word (2 bytes), the total memory space is:

Total Memory Size=Number of Memory Locations×Memory Size per Location

Total Memory Size=1,048,576 locations×2 bytes/location=2,097,152 bytes

3. Convert to Megabytes (MB):

Total Memory Size=2,097,152bytes / 1,024×1,024=2MB

Final Answer:

The processor with a 20-bit address bus and 16-bit data bus (2 bytes per location) can access a total of 2 MB of memory.
9. what is opcode Microprocessor 8086.

Ans: In the 8086 microprocessor, an opcode (short for operation code) is the part of an instruction that specifies the
operation to be performed. The opcode tells the microprocessor what type of operation is to be executed, such as
addition, subtraction, data transfer, comparison, or logical operations.

Key Points about Opcodes in the 8086 Microprocessor:

1. Instruction Format: An instruction in 8086 consists of an opcode followed by operands (data or addresses), and
possibly some additional bytes for specific addressing modes or instruction extensions.

• Example of an instruction: MOV AX, 05h

a) Opcode: MOV (Move data) b) Operands: AX (destination register), 05h (immediate value)

2. Size: The opcode size in the 8086 instruction set is typically 1 byte, but some instructions can have multi-byte
opcodes, depending on the operation and addressing mode.

3. Categories of Opcodes in 8086:

• Data Transfer Instructions: Examples include:

-MOV (Move data) -PUSH (Push data onto the stack) -POP (Pop data from the stack)
• Arithmetic Instructions: Examples include:
-ADD (Add) -SUB (Subtract) -INC (Increment) -DEC (Decrement)
• Logical Instructions: Examples include:
-AND (Logical AND) -OR (Logical OR) -XOR (Logical XOR) -NOT (Logical NOT)
• Control Flow Instructions: Examples include:
-JMP (Jump) -CALL (Call procedure) -RET (Return from procedure)
• Comparison Instructions: Examples include:
-CMP (Compare) -TEST (Test bits)
• String Operations: Examples include:
-MOVS (Move string) -LODS (Load string) -STOS (Store string)

4. Instruction Length: The length of an instruction in 8086 varies depending on the opcode and the operands. Some
instructions are 1 byte long, while others may be 2, 3, or 4 bytes long.

5. Example:

• MOV AX, 5 (Move immediate value 5 into register AX)

o The opcode is MOV, and the instruction is 2 bytes long: MOV and the operand AX, 5.
• ADD AX, BX (Add the contents of BX to AX)
o The opcode is ADD, and the instruction is typically 2 bytes long (1 byte for the opcode, 1 byte for the
operands).

List of Common Opcodes in 8086:

MOV: Data transfer ADD: Addition SUB: Subtraction MUL: Multiplication DIV: Division

INC: Increment DEC: Decrement AND: Bitwise AND OR: Bitwise OR XOR: Bitwise XOR

CMP: Compare JMP: Jump CALL: Call procedure RET: Return from procedure

Opcode Format: Each opcode is represented by a binary code that the microprocessor understands. For example:

a. MOV might be represented by the binary 1011. b. ADD might be represented by 0000.

These binary codes are part of the machine code that the 8086 microprocessor uses to perform operations. In summary, opcode
in the 8086 is the part of the instruction that specifies which operation the processor should perform, and there is a wide range of
opcodes for different types of operations
10. What are the instruction set of 8086 Microprocessor.

Ans: The 8086 microprocessor has a rich instruction set that allows it to perform a wide variety of operations, from data transfer
to arithmetic and logical operations, control flow, and string manipulation. The instructions are divided into different categories
based on the type of operation they perform. Here's a breakdown of the major instruction categories and some of the instructions
in each category:

1. Data Transfer Instructions

These instructions are used to move data from one place to another (registers, memory, or I/O ports).

-MOV: Move data from source to destination. -PUSH: Push a value onto the stack.

-POP: Pop a value from the stack into a register or memory. -XCHG: Exchange values between two operands.

-IN: Read data from an I/O port. -OUT: Write data to an I/O port.

2. Arithmetic Instructions

These instructions perform arithmetic operations.

-ADD: Add two operands. -SUB: Subtract the second operand from the first.

-MUL: Unsigned multiplication. -IMUL: Signed multiplication.

-DIV: Unsigned division. -IDIV: Signed division.

-INC: Increment operand by 1. -DEC: Decrement operand by 1.

3. Logical Instructions

These instructions perform bitwise logical operations.

-AND: Bitwise AND of two operands. -OR: Bitwise OR of two operands.

-XOR: Bitwise XOR of two operands. -NOT: Bitwise NOT (invert bits) of the operand.

4. Control Flow Instructions

These instructions alter the flow of program execution.

-JMP: Jump to a specific address unconditionally. -CALL: Call a procedure (subroutine).

-RET: Return from a procedure. -JE/JZ: Jump if equal/zero (conditional jump).

-JNC: Jump if carry flag is not set. -JC: Jump if carry flag is set.

-JNE/JNZ: Jump if not equal/not zero (conditional jump).

5. Comparison and Test Instructions

These instructions are used to compare or test values.

• CMP: Compare two operands (subtracts the second operand from the first but does not store the result).
• TEST: Perform a bitwise AND operation but does not store the result.

6. String Instructions

These instructions are used to manipulate strings of data.

MOVS: Move string (byte or word). LODS: Load string (byte or word).

STOS: Store string (byte or word). CMPS: Compare string (byte or word).

SCAS: Scan string (byte or word).

7. Shift and Rotate Instructions

These instructions are used to shift or rotate the bits in a register.

SHL/ROL: Shift left/rotate left. SHR/ROR: Shift right/rotate right.

SAL: Shift arithmetic left. SAR: Shift arithmetic right.

8. Flag Control Instructions

These instructions control the processor's flags.

-CLC: Clear the carry flag. -STC: Set the carry flag.

-CLI: Clear the interrupt flag. -STI: Set the interrupt flag.

-CMC: Complement the carry flag.

11. Draw and explain the pins of the Pin Diagram of 8086 microprocessor?

Ans: The 8086 microprocessor has a 40-pin dual in-line package (DIP), with each pin serving a specific function for various
operations such as data transfer, memory access, control signals, and more. Below is a diagram followed by an explanation of the
function of each pin. 8086 Microprocessor Pin Diagram

+-------------------+
Pin Function
Vcc --| 1 40 |-- Vss
Vcc (Pin 1) Power supply (+5V)
A19/S6 --| 2 39 |-- A18/S5 Vss (Pin 40) Ground (0V)
A0 to A19 (Pins 2 to 21) Address bus (20-bit address)
A17 --| 3 38 |-- A16/S4 D0 to D15 (Pins 34 to 19) Data bus (16-bit data)
A15 --| 4 37 |-- A14/S3 BHE/S7 (Pin 12) Bus High Enable / Status 7
DEN (Pin 29) Data Enable
A13 --| 5 36 |-- A12/S2 RD (Pin 13) Read operation
WR (Pin 28) Write operation
A11 --| 6 35 |-- A10/S1
M/IO (Pin 27) Memory/I/O operation
A9 --| 7 34 |-- A8/S0 ALE (Pin 25) Address Latch Enable
INTA (Pin 14) Interrupt Acknowledge
A7 --| 8 33 |-- A6 NMI (Pin 15) Non-Maskable Interrupt
A5 --| 9 32 |-- A4 INT (Pin 16) Interrupt
INTR (Pin 21) Interrupt Request
A3 --| 10 31 |-- A2 RESET (Pin 19) Reset the processor
CLK (Pin 24) Clock signal input
A1 --| 11 30 |-- A0
CLKOUT (Pin 17) Clock output signal
BHE/S7 --| 12 29 |-- DEN READY (Pin 20) External device readiness signal
SID (Pin 23) Serial Data Input
RD --| 13 28 |-- WR
SOD (Pin 22) Serial Data Output
INTA --| 14 27 |-- M/IO 8086 Pin diagram. Explain every pin.

NMI --| 15 26 |-- INT

TEST --| 16 25 |-- ALE

CLKOUT --| 17 24 |-- CLK

GND --| 18 23 |-- SID

RESET --| 19 22 |-- SOD

READY --| 20 21 |-- INTR

+-------------------+
The 8086 microprocessor has 40 pins that serve various functions related to power, memory addressing, data transfer, control, and
communication. Here's a brief summary:

1. Power and Ground Pins:

-Vcc (Pin 1): Power supply (+5V). -Vss (Pin 40): Ground (0V).

2. Address Bus Pins (A0 - A19):

-Pins 2 to 21: Used for specifying memory or I/O addresses. The 8086 has a 20-bit address bus, allowing access to 1MB of
memory.

3. Data Bus Pins (D0 - D15):

-Pins 19 to 34: 16-bit data bus used for transferring data between the processor and memory or I/O devices.

4. Control and Status Pins:

-BHE/S7 (Pin 12): Indicates if the high or low byte of data is being transferred.
-RD (Pin 13): Read control (low means read operation).
-WR (Pin 28): Write control (low means write operation).
-M/IO (Pin 27): Indicates if the operation is to memory or I/O.
-ALE (Pin 25): Latches the address for external components.
-INTA (Pin 14): Interrupt Acknowledge.

5. Interrupt and Reset Pins:

-NMI (Pin 15): Non-Maskable Interrupt, a high-priority interrupt.

-INT (Pin 16): Interrupt signal.
-RESET (Pin 19): Resets the processor to a known state.

6. Clock and Timing Pins:

-CLK (Pin 24): Synchronizes internal operations.

-READY (Pin 20): Signals that the external device is ready for data transfer.

7. Serial Data Pins:

-SID (Pin 23): Serial Data Input.

-SOD (Pin 22): Serial Data Output.

These pins collectively manage memory access, data transfer, interrupt handling, and synchronization in the 8086 microprocessor.

Chapter 2:

1. Function of EU (Execution Unit)? Flag Registers? Explain Conditional Flags.

Ans: Function of EU (Execution Unit) in the 8086 Microprocessor:

The Execution Unit (EU) is responsible for carrying out the operations of the 8086 microprocessor. It fetches instructions from
memory, decodes them, and executes them. It works in coordination with the Bus Interface Unit (BIU). Here’s the primary role of
the EU:

• Fetch: The EU receives instructions from the memory via the BIU.

• Decode: The instructions are decoded to determine the operation to be performed.

• Execute: Executes the decoded instruction by performing the necessary arithmetic or logical operations.

The EU is where the actual processing of data occurs (arithmetic operations, logical operations, etc.).
Flag Registers in the 8086 Microprocessor:

The Flag Register in the 8086 microprocessor is a 16-bit register used to store the status of the processor based on the outcome
of operations. It contains flags that are set or cleared depending on the result of the last executed instruction.

• Bit 15 (Sign Flag): Set if the result of the operation is negative (MSB is 1).
• Bit 14 (Zero Flag): Set if the result of the operation is zero.
• Bit 13 (Auxiliary Carry Flag): Set if there’s a carry from bit 3 to bit 4 in a binary operation (used for BCD operations).
• Bit 12 (Parity Flag): Set if the number of 1's in the result is even (parity).
• Bit 11 (Carry Flag): Set if there’s a carry out or borrow into the most significant bit during an operation (used in
arithmetic).
• Bit 10 (Overflow Flag): Set if there’s an overflow during a signed arithmetic operation.

Conditional Flags:

Conditional flags are used to indicate the status of the processor after executing certain instructions, which can then be used to
make decisions in control flow (like jumps, loops, etc.).

Here’s a brief explanation of each conditional flag:

• Sign Flag (SF): Indicates the sign of the result of the last operation. If the result is negative, SF is set (1), and if positive, it’s
cleared (0). It's based on the most significant bit (MSB) of the result.
• Zero Flag (ZF): This flag is set if the result of the last operation is zero, meaning the operands were equal or the result was
zero.
• Auxiliary Carry Flag (AF): Used in BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) operations to indicate a carry from bit 3 to bit 4.
• Parity Flag (PF): Set if the number of 1’s in the result of the last operation is even (even parity).
• Carry Flag (CF): Set if there was a carry out of the most significant bit during an addition operation or if a borrow occurred
during subtraction.
• Overflow Flag (OF): Set if there was an overflow in a signed operation, i.e., when the result is too large to be represented
in the given number of bits.

These flags are used in conditional branching and help in decision-making for branching operations (such as JZ, JNZ, JO, etc.),
influencing the flow of a program depending on the state of these flags.

2. Define bit and explain the RIP, EIP.IP?

Ans: -Definition of Bit:

A bit (short for binary digit) is the most basic unit of information in computing and digital communications. It can have one of two
possible values: 0 or 1, representing the two states of a binary system (off/on, false/true, etc.). Bits are the foundation of all data
storage and processing in a computer system.

• A byte consists of 8 bits.

• Data in a computer is represented as sequences of bits, and various operations are performed on these bits to carry out
computations.

-Explanation of RIP, EIP, and IP:

These are Instruction Pointers used in different types of processors to point to the address of the next instruction to be executed.

IP (Instruction Pointer):

• Used in: 16-bit processors (like the 8086).

• Description: The IP is a register that holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched and executed in memory. In
the 8086 microprocessor, the IP is used in conjunction with the CS (Code Segment) register to calculate the full address
of the next instruction.
• Physical Address Calculation: The CS register holds the code segment base address, and the IP register holds the offset.
The full address is calculated as: [Physical Address=(CS×16)+IP]
EIP (Extended Instruction Pointer):

• Used in: 32-bit processors (like the 80386 and later x86 processors).
• Description: The EIP register is an extension of the IP register used in 32-bit processors. It holds the address of the next
instruction to be executed, but since it’s a 32-bit register, it can address a larger memory space than the IP register in the
16-bit processor.
• Physical Address Calculation: Like the 8086, the CS register holds the code segment, and the EIP register holds the offset.
The full address is calculated similarly, but with the extended address range (32 bits).

RIP (Relative Instruction Pointer):

• Used in: 64-bit processors (like the x86-64 architecture).

• Description: The RIP register is used in 64-bit systems, and it points to the next instruction to be executed. Unlike the IP
and EIP in 16-bit and 32-bit processors, the RIP register typically uses a relative addressing mode, meaning that it is not
directly modified by jumps and calls but is instead modified relative to its current value. This helps to simplify the handling
of code within a program, particularly with position-independent code.
• Relative Addressing: The RIP value is incremented by the processor as it fetches instructions. In the case of branch
instructions, the jump is made relative to the current RIP value.b

-Summary of Key Differences:

Register Processor Type Address Space Description

IP 16-bit 16-bit Holds the offset address for the next instruction in memory.
EIP 32-bit 32-bit Extended instruction pointer with a wider address space for 32-bit
systems.
RIP 64-bit 64-bit 64-bit instruction pointer with relative addressing for modern 64-bit
processors.
These pointers (IP, EIP, RIP) are crucial for the flow of program execution, determining where the processor fetches its next
instruction and allowing jumps, loops, and function calls to be handled properly.

3. what is memory segmentation?

Ans: - Memory segmentation is a memory management scheme used in some microprocessors (such as the 8086) to divide the
computer's memory into different segments, each designed to store different types of data or instructions. This allows for more
organized and efficient use of memory, especially in systems with limited resources.

In the case of the 8086 microprocessor, memory segmentation is used to overcome the limitation of addressing only 64KB of
memory with a 16-bit address bus. By dividing memory into different segments, the processor can access up to 1MB of memory
(2^20 bytes) despite having a 16-bit address bus.

Segment Registers Architecture:

CODE

DATA S1
CODE
DATA DATA S2

STACK
STACK
EXTRA

Memory
4. what is offset Address?

Ans: Offset Address: An offset address refers to the position or the distance (in bytes) within a specific segment of memory. It is
used alongside a segment address to calculate the physical memory address in a segmented memory architecture.

In segmented memory systems like the 8086 microprocessor, memory is divided into segments, and each segment can have an
addressable range of 64 KB (16-bit address space). The offset is essentially the location within that segment where the processor
needs to access the data or instruction.

Default 16-bit segment and offset combinations.[PAGE 60, TABLE 2–3]

Segment Offset Special Purpose

CS IP Instruction address
SS SP or BP Stack address
DS BX, DI, SI, an 8- or 16-bit number Data address
ES DI for string instructions String destination address

5. BIU Based math and theory? .Calculate the corresponding physical address for the, address bytes in CS, DS and SS?

[ CS=1111 H ] [ DS=3333 H ] [ SS=2526 H ] [ IP = 1232 H ] [ SP=1100 H ] [ D1=0020 H ]

Ans: The Bus Interface Unit (BIU) in the 8086 microprocessor is responsible for accessing memory and interfacing with the external
bus. The BIU takes care of segmenting the memory and addressing it. To calculate the corresponding physical address, the 8086
microprocessor combines segment addresses (CS, DS, SS) with offset addresses (IP, SP, D1), and the result is a physical address.

Formula for Physical Address Calculation:

The physical address is calculated by shifting the segment address left by 4 bits (multiplying by 16) and then adding the offset.

Physical Address = (Segment Address×16)+Offset

Given Values:

• CS (Code Segment) = 1111H

• DS (Data Segment) = 3333H
• SS (Stack Segment) = 2526H
• IP (Instruction Pointer) = 1232H
• SP (Stack Pointer) = 1100H
• D1 (Data Segment Offset) = 0020H

1. Physical Address for CS and IP (Code Segment + Instruction Pointer):

Physical Address=(CS×16)+IP
CS=1111H,IP=1232H
CS×16=1111H×10H=11110H
Physical Address=11110H+1232H=12342H

Result: Physical Address for CS + IP = 12342H

2. Physical Address for DS and D1 (Data Segment + Offset): 3. Physical Address for SS and SP (Stack Segment + Stack
Pointer):
Physical Address=(DS×16)+D1 Physical Address=(SS×16)+SP
DS=3333H,D1=0020H SS=2526H,SP=1100H
DS×16=3333H×10H=33330H SS×16=2526H×10H=25260H
Physical Address=33330H+0020H=33350H Physical Address=25260H+1100H=26360H

Result: Physical Address for DS + D1 = 33350H Result: Physical Address for SS + SP = 26360H
6. Multipurpose Registers: [RAX, RBX, RCX]

-What is RAX and what are its different addressing modes?

Answer: RAX is a multipurpose register that can be referenced as a 64-bit register (RAX), 32-bit register (EAX), 16-bit register (AX),
or two 8-bit registers (AH and AL). The RAX register is used for arithmetic operations like multiplication and division and can hold
an offset address of a memory location in 64-bit processors like Pentium 4 and Core2. It is a special-purpose register but can be
used for general-purpose operations.

-What is the purpose of the RBX register and how is it addressed?

Answer: RBX is a multipurpose register and can be addressed as RBX, EBX, BX, BH, or BL. It often holds the offset address of a
memory location in the system. In 80386 and above, EBX can also hold memory data, and in 64-bit processors like Pentium 4 and
Core2, RBX can also address memory data.

-Explain the register and its special usage.

Answer: RCX is a general-purpose register that can be addressed as RCX, ECX, CX, CH, or CL. It holds a count for various instructions,
especially in repeated string operations (REP/REPE/REPNE) and for shift, rotate, and loop instructions. In 64-bit mode, the RCX
register is used for loop counters and as an operand in other instructions. ECX and RCX are used to address memory data in 80386
and later versions of the processor.

-What is the purpose of the RDX register and how is it used in multiplication or division?

Answer: RDX is a general-purpose register that holds part of the result of a multiplication operation or part of the dividend in a
division operation. It is addressable as RDX, EDX, DX, DH, or DL, and in processors from the 80386 and above, RDX can also be used
to address memory data.

-Explain the function of RBP in memory addressing.

Answer: RBP, also addressed as EBP or BP, is the base pointer register used to point to a memory location for memory data transfers.
It helps in stack operations and function calls by holding the base address of the stack frame or data segment.

-What is the role of RDI in string operations?

Answer: RDI is used as the destination index register in string operations. It can be addressed as RDI, EDI, or DI, and it points to the
destination string for instructions like string copy or move. It helps in managing memory addressing for string operations.

-What is the function of the RSI register in string operations?

Answer: RSI, also referred to as ESI or SI, is used as the source index register in string operations. It points to the source string that
needs to be manipulated. As a general-purpose register, it is used in string instructions and also as a regular data register.

7. Special Purpose Register in 8086 Microprocessor.

Special-purpose registers in the 8086 microprocessor are dedicated to specific tasks and have a unique role in the microprocessor's
functioning. Unlike general-purpose registers, which can store data or addresses for any use, special-purpose registers have fixed
roles for managing system operations, control flow, or status. Here are the Special Purpose Registers in the 8086 microprocessor:

1. Program Counter (PC)/Instruction Pointer (IP): The Program Counter (also known as Instruction Pointer in x86
architecture) keeps track of the address of the next instruction to be fetched for execution..
2. Stack Pointer (SP): The Stack Pointer register is used to manage the stack. It points to the top of the stack in memory.
3. Base Pointer (BP): The Base Pointer register is used to point to a specific location in the stack frame.
4. Flag Register: The Flag Register holds various individual flags that are set or cleared based on the outcome of arithmetic
and logical operations.
5. Code Segment (CS): The CS register holds the segment address of the currently executing program code.
6. Data Segment (DS): The DS register points to the segment containing the program's data.
7. Extra Segment (ES): The ES register points to an extra segment, typically used for string operations.
8. Stack Segment (SS): The SS register holds the segment address for the stack.

These special-purpose registers are critical for the internal functioning of the 8086 microprocessor, handling everything from code
execution to memory management and status tracking.
8. Flags in 8086 Microprocessor.

Answer: Flags are individual bits in a special register that indicate the status of the processor and control the operations of the
microprocessor. The 8086 microprocessor has a 16-bit flag register, which can be divided into status flags, control flags, and system
flags. These flags are used to store the results of arithmetic and logical operations, control the execution flow, and interact with
the external system.

Here’s a breakdown of the flag register and its components:

1. Status Flags:

These flags reflect the outcome of arithmetic, logical, or comparison operations.

1. Carry Flag (CF):

• Bit Position: Bit 0

• Description: This flag is set (1) if there is a carry out from the most significant bit (in an addition) or if there is a borrow
in a subtraction. It is cleared (0) otherwise.

2. Parity Flag (PF):

• Bit Position: Bit 2

• Description: This flag indicates whether the number of 1s in the result is even or odd. It is set if the number of 1-bits
is even (parity), and cleared if the number is odd (no parity).

3. Auxiliary Carry Flag (AF):

• Bit Position: Bit 4

• Description: This flag is used in BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) arithmetic operations. It is set if there is a carry from bit
3 to bit 4 (during addition or subtraction).

4. Zero Flag (ZF):

• Bit Position: Bit 6

• Description: This flag is set (1) if the result of an operation is zero. It is cleared (0) if the result is non-zero.

5. Sign Flag (SF):

• Bit Position: Bit 7

• Description: This flag reflects the sign of the result of an arithmetic operation. It is set if the result is negative (i.e.,
the most significant bit of the result is 1), and cleared if the result is positive or zero.

6. Overflow Flag (OF):

• Bit Position: Bit 11

• Description: This flag is set when there is an arithmetic overflow, i.e., when the result of an operation is too large to
be represented in the destination register.

2. Control Flags:

Control flags control the processor's operation and are used to enable or disable certain operations.

1. Interrupt Enable Flag (IF):

• Bit Position: Bit 9
• Description: This flag enables or disables interrupts. If the flag is set (1), the processor will respond to interrupt
requests. If the flag is cleared (0), interrupts are disabled.
2. Direction Flag (DF):
• Bit Position: Bit 10
• Description: This flag controls the direction of string operations. If set (1), string operations move from high memory
to low memory (decrementing addresses). If cleared (0), the operations move from low memory to high memory
(incrementing addresses).
3. System Flags: These flags control the processor's mode of operation and its interactions with external devices.

1. Trap Flag (TF):

• Bit Position: Bit 8

• Description: This flag is used to enable single-step operation for debugging. When set, the processor generates an
interrupt after executing each instruction, which allows the debugger to take control and inspect the state of the
machine after every instruction.

2. Resume Flag (RF):

• Bit Position: Bit 5

• Description: This flag is used in debugging. It is set when the processor is resuming execution after a debug trap.

9. Segment Registers in 8086 Microprocessor?

• In the 8086 microprocessor, segmentation is used to organize memory into different segments, each of which has a base
address. The segment registers help in accessing specific segments of memory, enabling the processor to address a larger
memory space than the physical address bus would normally allow.
• The 8086 has four segment registers, each of which is 16 bits wide. These segment registers hold the base address of the
corresponding memory segment, and they are used to form a physical address in combination with an offset.

The four segment registers are:

-Code Segment Register (CS) -Data Segment Register (DS) -Stack Segment Register (SS) -Extra Segment Register (ES)

Summary of Segment Registers:

Segment Registe Purpose Used For

CS (Code Segment) Stores the base address of the code Instructions and program code
DS (Data Segment) Stores the base address of data Variables and data used by the program
SS (Stack Segment) Stores the base address of the stack Temporary data like function calls, return
addresses
ES (Extra Segment) Stores the base address of extra data String operations and extra data

Physical Address Calculation

To calculate a physical address in 8086, the base address stored in the segment register is multiplied by 16 (or shifted left by 4 bits)
and then added to the offset address.

Physical Address=Segment Base Address×16+Offset Address

10. Opcode in 8086 Microprocessor

Opcode: An Opcode (Operation Code) is the part of a machine language instruction that specifies the operation to be performed.
It tells the processor what action to take, such as addition, subtraction, data movement, or logical operations.

For example, in the instruction: MOV AX, BX

• MOV is the Opcode (it tells the processor to move data).

• AX, BX are the operands (they specify the source and destination).

Structure of an Opcode in 8086

An 8086 instruction consists of two parts:

1. Opcode (Specifies the operation)

2. Operands (Specifies the data or registers involved)

Opcodes can be 1-byte, 2-byte, or multi-byte depending on the instruction.

Example of Opcodes in 8086:

Instruction Opcode (Hex) Description

MOV AX, BX 89 D8 Move BX to AX
ADD AX, BX 03 C3 Add BX to AX
SUB AX, BX 2B C3 Subtract BX from AX
MUL BX F7 E3 Multiply AX by BX
DIV BX F7 F3 Divide AX by BX
Types of Opcodes in 8086

• Data Transfer Instructions (MOV, PUSH, POP, XCHG, LEA, IN, OUT)
• Arithmetic Instructions (ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV, INC, DEC)
• Logical Instructions (AND, OR, XOR, NOT, TEST)
• Control Transfer Instructions (JMP, CALL, RET, JNZ, JZ)
• String Instructions (LODS, STOS, MOVS, CMPS, SCAS)

Opcode Fetch Cycle in 8086

The Opcode Fetch Cycle is the process where the BIU (Bus Interface Unit) fetches the opcode from memory and stores it in the
Instruction Queue for execution.

Steps:

• BIU fetches the opcode from memory.

• Instruction queue stores it (pipelining feature).
• EU decodes and executes the opcode.

Conclusion

• An Opcode is the part of an instruction that tells the processor what to do.
• 8086 Opcodes vary in size (1 to 6 bytes).
• The BIU fetches the opcode, and the EU executes it.
• Understanding opcodes is essential for assembly language programming

MATH

1. Performance of Microprocessor.

2. Max memory size.

3. Segments.

Book Name: Intel Microprocessors (Barry B. Brey)