CONTENTS

PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION………………………………….……………………………………………….………………………….1

II. PRODUCT TYPE……………………………………………………………………….………………………………………2

III. PROPERTIES OF POLYCARBONATE……………………………………………………………………………..…..4

IV. APPLICATIONS……………………………………………………………………………………….…….…………………6
APPLICATION OVERVIEWS……………………….………………………………..………….…….…………………7

V. PRODUCTION METHODOLOGY ………………….…………………………………………….……………..…..13

VI. TECHNOLOGY AND MACHINES……………………………….………………………….….………………..…..16

1. INJECTION MOLDING……………………………….………………………………..…………..….…………………16
2. THERMOFORMING………..……………………………………………………………….……..….…………………19
2.1. PRE-DRYING……………….………………………….…………………………………………….…………….20
2.2. THERMOFORMING TECHNIQUES………………………………………………………….…………….20
2.3. HEATING AND COOLING………………………………….………………………………….……………..21
2.4. DRAPE FORMING………………………………………………………………………….…….……………..22
2.5. PRESSURE FORMING…………………………………………………………………….…….……………..23
2.6. TWIN SHEET FORMING……………………………………………………………………….……………..24
3. SAMPLE INJECTION MOLDINE PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY.……..….………………………..……26
3.1. REQUIREMENTS…………………………………….…………………………………………….…………….26
3.2. MOLD DESIGN……………………………………….…………………………………………….…………….29
3.3. MANUFACTURE…………………………………….…………………………………………….……………..33

VII. CONCLUSION………………………………………………….…………………………………………….…….……….33

VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………………….…………………………………….……………34
1. Raw Materials……………………………………….………………………………….…………….…………….34
2. Mold Design and Manufacturing…………………………………………………………….…………….34
3. Machineries…………………………………….…………………………………………………….……………..35
I. INTRODUCTION

As we know the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has introduced a five year growth and
Transformational plan; so to make this plan successful Ethiopia has set various strategies in every
agricultural and industrial sectors throughout the country, and at this moment already the job has
started according to the plans. Ethiopia Plastic Industry under METEC is one of the Industries that
have given the national responsibilities according to its ability and the plastic industry which it is
belongs to. For Ethiopia Plastic Industry the situation is taken as good opportunity, because within
this process the Industry can grow its production capability, can increase its production segments,
also it can develop its production technologies and through these processes the Industry can
increase its profitability.
For this industry to perform its assignments and to take part in the country development it is
mandatory to do research and developments and to increase its production scope according to
the country‟s need. By now Ethiopia Plastic Industry has started the study and analysis on
different kinds of polymer technologies. According to that; this paper has presented to show the
analysis of polycarbonate polymer products production technology.
Materials science and engineering plays a vital role in this modern age of science and technology.
Various kinds of materials are used in industry, housing, agriculture, transportation, etc. to meet
the plant and individual requirements. The rapid developments in the field of quantum theory of
solids have opened vast opportunities for better understanding and utilization of various materials.
The spectacular success in the field of space is primarily due to the rapid advances in high-
temperature and high-strength materials.
Polycarbonate (PC), trade name Lexan was developed about 40 years ago by Bayer in Germany.
Later, companies in Europe, America and those in Japan developed their own production
technologies and began manufacturing polycarbonates.
Polycarbonate is an engineering plastic with outstanding transparency, impact resistance, and
heat resistance, which is used in a wide range of applications basic to the modern lifestyle
including optical discs, automobiles, office equipment, sheets, construction accessories, electrical
and electronics materials, etc.
Polycarbonate (PC) is the largest volume engineering thermoplastic and has enjoyed strong
demand growth due to its combination of technical performance characteristics. These properties
include strength, light weight, thermal stability and, most importantly for some applications,
excellent polymer clarity.
Polycarbonate has also replaced glass on windscreens for motorcycles due to its light weight and
safety factors. Development of scratch-resistant multi-layer polycarbonates is expected to drive its

1 MB
 wider application in automotive glazing. PC offers important weight savings over glass as well as
more design options and easier handling within automotive production processes.

II. PRODUCT TYPES

Mainly there are two distinct categories of polycarbonate polymers; optical grade used for optical
media substrates such as CDs and DVDs, and general industrial grade used for automobile safety
glass, window glazing and sheet. These categories differ significantly in the selling prices they
command, because of the expense of the processing needed to achieve the low level of
contaminants required in optical grade.
Also in addition to the above classification Polycarbonate Polymers are categorized in detail as
follows:

Category Features Application

Ultra-high flow
Optical disc shells, vending machine components,
High flow
vacuum cleaners, irons, driers, lamp covers,
Natural grade Unified Standard viscosity
goggles, helmets, etc.
Medium viscosity
High viscosity Sheeting, corrugated sheeting.
Standard Printer and copy machine components, liquid
Glass fiber
FR(Non-bromine, non-phosphorus) crystal projector components, portable terminal
reinforced grades
Good surface FR(Non-bromine) housings, power tools.
Non-bromine, non-phosphorus.
Printer and copy machine different part, liquid
Heat retardant, FR-free.
Flame Retardant crystal projector components, terminal boards,
Heat retardant high flow, FR-free.
grades relay cases, connectors, modular plugs, lamp
Palatable, FR-free.
covers, LED lamps, battery cases.
High flowability, Non-bromine.
Light guiding.
LCD light guide panels.
Ultrahigh-flow, light guiding.
Highly reflective, light shielding effect, non-
bromine, non-phosphorus, FR.
Highly reflective, light shielding effect, FR, not LCD reflective sheets, LCD lamp holders, guide
containing FR additives. light reflective sheets, LED reflective parts.
LCD, LED grades
High reflection, high flow, non-bromine non-
phosphorus, flame retardant.
High transmittivity-high diffusion, non-bromine
non-phosphorus, injection molding grade.
LED light bulbs.
High transmittivity-high diffusion, non-bromine
non-phosphorus, extrusion grade.

2 MB
 High heat resistant, high steam, light-guiding. Optical secondary lenses.
Blow molding Standard
Bottle profile extrusion.
grades Flame retardant
Palatable Inner door handles, bumper modules (Automotive)
High strength, chemical resistance.
Alloy grades
Chemical resistance, high flow. Outer door handles (Automotive)
Chemical resistance, high strength, high stiffness

Within each category and product types there are also various sub-categories and classifications;
for instance the Polycarbonate plastic sheet has the following types, classes and grades:
Type I - Standard sheet
Class 1 - Ultraviolet (UV) stabilized
Class 2 - Non-UV stabilized
Type II - Flame resistant
Class 1 - UV stabilized
Class 2 - Non-UV stabilized
Type III - Mar resistant, UV stabilized
Class 1 - Mar resistant, UV stabilized
Grade A - High abrasive resistance
Grade B - Medium abrasive resistance
Class 2 - Mar resistant, Non-UV stabilized
Type IV - Coated sheet with UV resistant surface
Class 1 - Monolithic
Class 2 - Profiled/structured
Grade A - Corrugated or ribbed
Grade B - Double-walled

3 MB
III. PROPERTIES OF POLYCARBONATE

Polycarbonate is a very durable material and it is an amorphous material with a glass transition
(Tg) around 150 °C. Because it is amorphous, it is clear and rigid. Like all amorphous plastics, its
shrinkage is low over a wide temperature range. PC has a typical shrinkage of 0.005 mm/mm. and
this low shrinkage helps to achieve high dimensional tolerances. Although it has high impact-
resistance, it has low scratch-resistance and so a hard coating is applied to polycarbonate
eyewear lenses and polycarbonate exterior automotive components. The characteristics of
polycarbonate are quite like those of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, acrylic), but polycarbonate
is stronger, usable in a wider temperature range but more expensive. This polymer is highly
transparent to visible light and has better light transmission characteristics than many kinds of
glass.

Polycarbonate has a glass transition temperature of about 150 °C (302 °F), so it softens gradually
above this point and flows above about 300 °C (572 °F). Tools must be held at high temperatures,
generally above 80 °C (176 °F) to make strain- and stress-free products. Low molecular mass
grades are easier to mold than higher grades, but their strength is lower as a result. The toughest
grades have the highest molecular mass, but are much more difficult to process.

Unlike most thermoplastics, polycarbonate can undergo large plastic deformations without
cracking or breaking. As a result, it can be processed and formed at room temperature using
sheet metal techniques, such as forming bends on a brake. Even for sharp angle bends with a
tight radius, no heating is generally necessary. This makes it valuable in prototyping applications

4 MB
where transparent or electrically non-conductive parts are needed, which cannot be made from
sheet metal. Note that polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)/Plexiglas, which is similar in appearance
to polycarbonate, is brittle and cannot be bent at room temperature.

General purpose grades of polycarbonate used in plastic injection molding typically exhibit Heat
Deflection Temperatures of 270°F at 264 psi. Adding glass fiber reinforcement will increase the
Heat Deflection Temperature by 25°F; increase rigidity but lower impact strength, an important
property of polycarbonate in many applications. The coefficient of thermal expansion for unfilled
grade is 3.75 x 10-5 in/in/°F dropping to 1.49 x 10-5 in/in/°F for a 20 % glass filled grade. As with
all amorphous thermoplastics used in plastic injection molding, the mechanical properties of
polycarbonate such as tensile strength, flexural strength and flexural modulus decrease steadily
with increasing temperature, while the impact strength drops dramatically as temperatures
approach 0°F.

The chemical resistance of this high impact material, as with all plastic injection molding materials,
is an important design consideration. In general, it is stable in organic and mineral acids, but will
decompose in strong alkaline solutions, aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Stress crazing is
another consideration when Polycarbonate is used in a high stress, moist hot water environment.

A true industrial thermoplastic, polycarbonate (PC) is widely used throughout industry. When
combined with the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) systems, polycarbonate is ideal for the rapid
production of prototypes, tooling and tool-less manufacturing of production parts.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Density (ρ) 1.20-1.22g/cm3 Young‟s modulus (E) 2.0-2.4 GPa
Abbe number (V) 34.0 Tensile strength (σt) 55-75 MPa
Refractive index (n) 1.584-1.586 Compressive strength (σc) >80 MPa
Flammability V0-V2 Elongation (ε) @ break 80-150%
Limiting Oxygen index 25-27% Poisson‟s ratio (V) 0.37
Water absorption Equilibrium (ASTM) 0.16-0.35% Hardness-Rockwell M70
Water absorption (over 24 hours) 0.1% Izod impact strength 600-850 J/m
Radiation resistance Fair Notch test 20-35 kJ/m2
Abrasive resistance-ASTM
Ultraviolet (1-380nm) resistance Fair 10-15 mg/1000
D1044 cycles
THERMAL PROPERTIES Coefficient of friction (μ) 0.31
Melting temperature (Tm) 267 0C Speed of sound 2270 m/s

5 MB
 Glass transition temperature (Tg) 150 0C ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Heat deflection temperature (10 KN) 145 0C Dielectric constant (εr) @ 1MHz 2.9

Heat deflection temperature (0.45MPa) 140 0C Permittivity (ε) @ 1MHz 2.568 x 10-11F/m
Heat deflection temperature (1.8MPa) 128 0C-138 0C Relative permeability (μr) @ 1MHz 0.866 (2)
Upper working temperature 115 0C-130 0C Permeability (μ) @ 1MHz 1.089(2) μN/A2
Lower working temperature -40 0C Dielectric strength 15-67kV/mm

Linear thermal expansion coefficient (α) 65-70 x 10-6 /K Dissipation factor @ 1MHz 0.01
Specific heat capacity (c) 1.2-1.3 kJ/Kg*K Surface resistivity 1015Ω/sq
Thermal conductivity (k) @ 23 0C 0.19-0.22W/m*K Volume resistivity(ρ) 1012-1014 Ω*m
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE GAS PERMEATION @ 20 0C

Acids-concentrated Poor Nitrogen 10-25 cm3*mm/(m2*day*Bar)

Acids-dilute Good Oxygen 70-130 cm3*mm/(m2*day*Bar)
Alcohols Good Carbon dioxide 400-800 cm3*mm/(m2*day*Bar)

Alkalis Good-Poor Water vapor 1-2 gram*mm/(m2*day) @ (85%-

0% RH Gradient)
Aromatic Hydrocarbons Poor
Grease and Oils Good-Fair
Halogenated Hydrocarbons Good-Poor
Halogens Poor
Ketones Poor

IV. APPLICATIONS

Polycarbonate is a versatile, tough plastic used for a variety of applications, from bulletproof
windows to compact disks (CDs). The main advantage of polycarbonate over other types of plastic
is unbeatable strength combined with light weight. While acrylic is 17% stronger than glass,
polycarbonate is nearly unbreakable. Bulletproof windows and enclosures as seen inside banks or
at drive-throughs are often made of polycarbonate. Add to this the advantage that polycarbonate
is just one-third the weight of acrylic, or one-sixth as heavy as glass, and the only drawback is that
it is more expensive than either acrylic or glass.

Compact disks and digital versatile discs (DVDs) are perhaps the most readily recognized
examples of polycarbonate.

Clear polycarbonate is used to make eyeglasses because of its excellent transparency, durability,
and high refractive index. This means that it bends light to a far greater degree than glass or other

6 MB
plastics of equal thickness. Since prescription lenses bend light to correct vision, polycarbonate
lenses can be far thinner than glass or conventional plastic, making polycarbonate the ideal
material for heavy prescriptions. Thin polycarbonate lenses correct poor vision beautifully
without distorting the face or the size of the eyes, yet this extremely thin lens is virtual
indestructible, an important safety factor for children and active adults.

Polycarbonate lenses are also used in quality sunglasses that incorporate filters to block ultra-
violet (UV) rays and near-UV rays. The lenses can also be polarized to block glare, and their high
impact resistance makes them perfect for sports. Many sunglasses manufacturers choose
polycarbonate because it can be easily shaped without problems like cracking or splitting,
resulting in extremely lightweight, distortion-free, fashionable glasses that feature all of the health
benefits doctors recommend.

Polycarbonate is also used in the electronics industry. Apple‟s original iMac featured
polycarbonate mixed with clear colors for a transparent computer case. Many cell phones, pagers,
and laptops also use clear or opaque polycarbonate in their casings.

Other uses for polycarbonate include greenhouse enclosures, automobile headlights, outdoor
fixtures, and medical industry applications, though the list is virtually endless. Somewhat less toxic
than polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to produce, polycarbonate nevertheless requires toxic chemicals in
its production phase. It is, however, recyclable and environmentally preferable to PVC in
applications for which either material can be used.

APPLICATION OVERVIEWS

Optical Media

7 MB
  Compact Discs
 CD-ROMs
 Digital Versatile Discs
 HD-DVDs
 Blue-Ray Discs
 Holography Discs
 Innovative Data Storage Technology (e.g. Near Field Recording Discs)
 Forgery-proof holographic shadow pictures in ID cards

Construction: Buildings

 Sheets for roofing, conservatory glazing

 Architectural glazing (e.g. sports arenas)

8 MB
  Green house glazing
 Cover for solar panels
 Noise reduction walls for roads and train tracks
 Car port covers
 Glazing for buss top shelters
 Road signs
 Internal safety shields for stadiums
 Transparent cabins for ski lifts
 Housing sand fittings for halogen lighting systems
 Front panels for advertising posters, signboards (e.g. fuel stations)
 Large advertising displays
 Dust& water-proof luminaries for street lights and lamp globes
 Diffusing reflectors for traffic lights

Safety

 Safety goggles
 Protective visors for welding or handling of hazardous substances
 Protective visors for motorbikes
 Motor bike and cycle helmets
 Fencing helmets
 Safety shields for policemen

9 MB
  Guards to protect workers from moving machine parts

Leisure

 Ski goggles
 Sun glasses
 Mouth pieces for musical instruments
 Compass housings
 Binocular housings
 Seats for sleighs
 Ball point pen casings
 Transparent roof modules in caravans
 Instrumentation housings in boats
 Suitcase shells

Bottles& Packaging

 Reusable water bottles

 Unbreakable baby bottles
 Reusable milk bottles
 Cutlery
 Food containers (plates, glasses, bowls)
 Drinking water generators (Water-cone)

10 MB
Medical& Healthcare

 Prescription spectacles
 Connectors
 Scalpel cases
 Laparoscope handles
 Contact lens holders
 Syringe tops
 Medical packaging film
 Ampoules
 Three-way stopcocks and stopcocks Manifolds
 Tweezers with integrated lighting
 Single-use operating instruments

Electrical& Electronics

11 MB
  Housings for cell phones, cameras, electrical razors, hairdryers, steam irons, mixers,
computers, monitors, TVs, copiers, printers, telephones, microwaves, coffeemakers
 Front panels for electric cookers
 Electrical kettles
 Transparent front panels for vending machines
 Interior lighting panels for trains and airplanes
 Back light units for TVs
 Housings for switch modules, distributor boxes, fuses, battery power stations, sockets, and
electrical meters
 Illuminated rotary switches
 Plug connectors
 Switches
 Sockets
 Plugs
 Lamp holders

Automotive

12 MB
  Fixed side windows
 Transparent and retractable roof modules
 Winds tops in convertibles
 Rear windows
 Transparent rear body parts
 Head lamp lenses
 Headlamp, taillight, indicator reflectors
 Interior light covers
 High-mount brake lights
 Housings for license-plate lights
 Bumpers
 Radiator grills
 Dashboards
 Inner & Outer door handles

V. PRODUCTION METHODOLOGY

There are two polycarbonate resin manufacturing methods, the Solvent Method and the Melt
Method (Ester Interchange Method).

Synthesis by Solvent Method

13 MB
Non-reacted bisphenol A and other by-products are removed in the separating and purifying
stages of the synthetic process. Non-reacted carbonyl chloride does not remain in the resin as it is
removed after 100% decomposition through reaction with caustic soda.

Synthesis by Melting Method

Non-reacted bisphenol A, diphenyl carbonate and the phenol of by-products, etc are removed by
deration in the molten polymerization stage.

How are polycarbonate resin pellets for molding and extrusion produced?
Additives and coloring agents are added to polycarbonate resin (base polymer), synthesized by
the methods described above, before particle-shaped molding materials, called pellets, are made
by melt-extrusion using an extruder.
The base polymer is mixed with additives, and coloring agents, then melted and extruded in a
string-shape and cut into particle-shapes called pellets using a pelletizer. As shown in the
photograph below, the pellet is cylindrical, about 3 mm in diameter and about 3 mm in length.

14 MB
How is polycarbonate products produced?
Polycarbonate resin, in the form of pellets, is melted at a high temperature (280°C–300°C), then
injection-molded to make everyday products and industrial goods and parts. For making sheets
and films an extruder is used. Bottles are made by blow molding.

Injection Molding (Typical Molding Method): Polycarbonate is a thermoplastic resin, which is a

solid at normal temperatures, but melts at high temperatures and solidifies at low temperatures.
Molders melt pellets at a high temperature before the same amount as that of the weighed product
is poured into a mold under high pressure, then cooled and removed from the mold.

Production process of Polycarbonate Products

15 MB
 In the polycarbonate production process, there is a stage to remove non-reacted bisphenol A and
other non-reacted substances, but they cannot be removed completely. That is why trace amounts
of bisphenol A remain in polycarbonate products.
In the process of polycarbonate production, for example, in the solvent method, it is necessary for
bisphenol A molecules to be brought into contact with carbonyl dichloride molecules. Immediately
after the reaction starts, the reaction of the bisphenol A and carbonyl dichloride proceeds rapidly.
However, as the reaction proceeds, the increasing presence of polycarbonate polymers reduces
the frequency of bisphenol A and carbonyl dichloride reactions. The reaction is accordingly slowed
and finally stops. Therefore some trace amounts of non-reacted bisphenol A and carbonyl
dichloride remain in the polycarbonate.

VI. TECHNOLOGY AND MACHINES

1. INJECTION MOLDING

Schematic of Injection molding machine

16 MB
Plastic has, quite literally, become the cornerstone of our society. We make so many things from
plastic that it is hard to imagine what our lives would be like if it was never invented. With so many
of our everyday products being made of plastic, it is easy to understand why plastic injection
molding is such a huge industry.

Approximately 30% of all plastic products are produced using an injection molding
process. Of this 30%, a large amount of these products are produced by using custom injection
molding technology. Steps involved in the injection molding process after the prototype has been
made and approved are as follows:

The first step to the injection molding process is the clamping of the mold. This clamping unit is
one of three standard parts of the injection machine. They are the mold, the clamping unit and
the injection unit. The clamp is what actually holds the mold while the melted plastic is being
injected, the mold is held under pressure while the injected plastic is cooling.

Next is the actual injection of the melted plastic. The plastic usually begins this process as pellets
that are put into a large hopper. The pellets are then fed to a cylinder; here they are heated until
they become molten plastic that is easily forced into the mold. The plastic stays in the mold, where
it is being clamped under pressure until it cools.

The next couple of steps consist of the dwelling phase, which is basically making sure that all of
the cavities of the mold are filled with the melted plastic. After the dwelling phase, the cooling
process begins and continues until the plastic becomes solid inside the form. Finally, the mold is
opened and the newly formed plastic part is ejected from its mold. The part is cleaned of any
extra plastic from the mold.

As with any process, there are advantages and disadvantages associated with plastic injection
molding. The advantages outweigh the disadvantages for most companies; they include being
able to keep up high levels of production, being able to replicate a high tolerance level in the
products being produced, and lower costs for labor as the bulk of the work is done by machine.
Plastic injection molding also has the added benefit of lower scrap costs because the mold is so
precisely made.

However, the disadvantages can be a deal breaker for smaller companies that would like to utilize
plastic injection molding as a way to produce parts. These disadvantages are, that the equipment
needed is expensive, therefore, increasing operating costs.

17 MB
INJECTION MOLDING TECHNOLOGY AND PROCESS IN DETAIL

Preparing the Mold

Feeding the polymer resin (pellets) down to the auger (screw) is a large open-bottomed container.
An electric (or hydraulic) motor is responsible for turning the auger inside a heated cylinder which
feeds the pellets up through the grooves of the auger. A gate before the mold cavity restricts the
flow of the melt into the mold and limits backflow. The pressure created by pushing the forward
through the grooves up to the gate also produces heat on the inside of the cylinder which helps to
melt the polymer and prepare it for injection into the mold.

Injection of Polymer Melt Into the Mold

As the auger moves forward it injects polymer melt into the mold at high pressure (typically 10,000
- 30,000 psi), holds it, and adds more melt to ensure the contraction due to cooling and
solidification does not leave gaps in the final product. Eventually the gate solidifies and isolates
the mold from the injection cylinder.

Cooling the Mold

Molds are typically air or water cooled. Sometimes small holes are bored into the mold that allow a
cooling liquid (such as water) to be circulated. Injection mold cooling consumes about 85% of the
cycle time for the entire process.

Unloading / Demolding

After solidification, the clamp holding the two halves of the mould together closed is opened
allowing the part to be removed. The injection molding process can then be repeated.

INJECTION BLOW MOLDING PROCESSING PARAMETERS

There are basically four types of blow molding used in the production of polycarbonate and other
plastics. These four types are:

1. Extrusion blow molding

2. Injection blow molding
3. Stretch blow molding
4. Reheat and blow molding.

 Melt temperatures: The standard melt temperatures for processing are between 280 °C
and 320 °C. Lower melt temperatures lead to surface defects - particularly in the case of
18 MB
 glass fiber reinforced grades. The cylinder temperature should be reduced to between
160°C and 180 °C during production breaks, but the heating should not be switched off.
 Mold temperatures: It should be possible to heat the mold intensively and uniformly, and
the mold temperature should be between 80 and 130 °C. High mold temperatures reduce
the level of stress and improve the surface quality of the moldings for filled grades in
particular. The holding pressure should also be set at a low level in order to obtain stress-
free moldings.
 Processing pressures: The pressures required to produce injection blow moldings
(injection pressure and holding pressure) depend on the molded part in question and must
thus be established in tests. The back pressure should generally be set at 50 bar to 150 bar
(hydraulic pressure).
 Screw speed: The screw speed should be selected in such a way that the circumferential
velocity of the screw is between 0.05 and 0.2 m/s. A speed of 0.3 m/s should not be
exceeded.
 Shot weight and metering: To produce molded parts with a defined shot weight, it is best
to use screws of just one particular size range (diameter range). This then makes it
possible to achieve a favorable metering stroke of between 1 x D and 3 x D (D = screw
diameter). It is a good idea for a screw of defined diameter to be used exclusively for
molded parts in the appropriate weight or shot volume range. Outside this range, quality
impairments may occur in the form of surface defects, molecular weight reductions or
entrapped air.

2. THERMOFORMING

From high speed trains to street furniture, and from snowmobiles to motorway signs, Lexan sheet
products are designed and manufactured in a diverse range of shapes and sizes. One of the most
economical methods of producing these parts is thermoforming. Thermoforming Lexan
polycarbonate sheet is an established process that offers the designer the freedom to develop
complex shapes and forms with cost/performance characteristics that have significant advantages
over more traditional methods of production. Low cost tooling, large part production and reduced
lead times all contribute to the advantages of producing sheet products in this way. Thermoformed
applications can be produced in both added value surface treated products, providing the
engineer with enhanced design opportunities. Whilst the thermoforming process is basically very
simple, the number of different processing, production, design and finishing steps are quite varied.
To assist the designer and the converter in the selection of a suitable production method, the

19 MB
following section outlines some of the techniques used in the design and manufacture of
thermoformed products in Lexan polycarbonate sheet.

2.1. PRE-DRYING
The majority of thermoplastic resins, including sheet products, are hygroscopic, which means that
they absorb moisture. Moisture builds up in the polymer sheet during manufacture, transportation
and storage. In the „as extruded‟ condition it presents no problem. However, during forming,
excess moisture can cause bubbling and other surface appearance problems as well as a
reduction in property performance. Whilst the amount of water absorbed is not significant
compared to other hygroscopic materials, it is essential that it is removed prior to forming. A hot-
air circulating oven at 125°C ± 3°C is recommended. To avoid warpage, drying temperatures
should not exceed 125°C and the air volume in the oven should be changed six times per hour to
allow for the removal of water vapor. After removing the protective masking, the sheets should be
hung vertically in the drying oven and pre-dried. Alternatively, the sheets can be placed in racks
with a separation of approximately 1.0 to 2.5 cm between the sheets. Following predrying the
sheet should be processed within a few hours. The time limit depends upon the wall thickness and
local environmental conditions.

2.2. THERMOFORMING TECHNIQUES

Lexan polycarbonate sheet products are easily thermoformed and a wide variety of applications
can be produced using the process. The basic steps involve the heating, shaping and cooling of a
thermoplastic sheet product. There are a number of different forming techniques, some of which
only require heating to allow the sheet to conform to a simple positive or negative mould as in
drape forming. Others, such as vacuum and pressure forming require that, after heating, the sheet
is made to conform to a mould by applying pressure or a vacuum. Whilst each process is slightly
different, as illustrated in Figures 2.1-2.4, the basic steps are very similar. The sheet is firstly
clamped along all edges inside a clamping frame. A heat source is moved over the sheet raising
its temperature until it is elastic. The heat source is removed and the mould table rose. The air in
the space between the sheet and the mould is evacuated and the sheet is drawn towards the
mould and takes its form. Pressure can also be applied to the positive side of the mould to
reproduce detailed mould features. The sheet is cooled, the mould moved downwards, and the
product taken out of the machine. The clamping edges are removed from the product and, if
necessary, additional machining is carried out to finish the product. As a manufacturing process
the technique offers significant advantages and is widely used for its simplicity and low production

20 MB
costs. However, in order to preserve its protective coatings, Lexan Margard cannot be
thermoformed. The major benefits of thermoforming are listed below:
 Small to large part production
 Short lead times
 Small to medium size series
 Flexibility

2.3. HEATING AND COOLING

HEATING: Controlled and uniform heating of Lexan polycarbonate sheet is the critical factor in the
production of good quality thermoformed parts. Sandwich type heaters are recommended as they
provide slow even heat on both sides of the sheet. These may be of the ceramic or quartz infra-
red type. Proportional timers, together with a controlled heating rate are recommended, and due
care and attention should be paid to the influence of power variations and air draughts. Slow
heating rates will balance out hot spots and allow the sheet edges to reach the required
forming temperature. Pre-heating of the clamping frame to 120°C-130°C is recommended. Since
Lexan polycarbonate sheet cools rapidly, it is essential that final control and heating is carried out
on the forming machine itself. Normal sheet temperatures are in the range of 170°C-225°C for
mechanical and vacuum forming. Optimum forming conditions depend upon part design, draw
ratio, sheet thickness and the forming technique employed. However, the following basic rules still
apply:

21 MB
  Forming at low temperatures gives the best hot strength, minimum spot thinning, and
generally shorter cycle time.
 Forming at high temperatures gives the lowest internal stress levels but it increases mould
shrinkage and material thickness may not be uniform.
 A compromise between the two will usually produce parts with acceptable properties within
a satisfactory cycle time.
COOLING: Cooling times are dependent upon a number of factors. These include ambient,
forming and mould temperatures, mould material, cooling system, part thickness and design
geometry. However, since Lexan polycarbonate has a relatively high heat distortion temperature,
formed parts can be removed from the mould at around 125°C. Forced cooling air or water
cooling is not recommended.

2.4. DRAPE FORMING

Drape forming is the simplest of all the thermoforming techniques. Using a male or a female
mould, the sheet is heated and allowed to conform to the shape of the mould under its own weight
or with slight mechanical pressure. The process involves placing the sheet (without the masking)
and mould in a hot-air circulating oven. The temperature is raised to the point where the sheet
sags (between 140°C-155°C) and conforms to the shape of the mould. Both items can then be
removed from the oven and allowed to cool. Figures 2.6 and 2.7 illustrate the basic steps.
Exceeding the glass transition point of Lexan materials will result in a decreased optical
quality. Pre-drying is not necessary due to the low processing temperatures.
The drape forming process can be a combination of different methods. These include:

22 MB
  Shaping under its own weight at a temperature of 155°C.
 Shaping under its own weight with a slight mechanical pressure. (Temp. 155°C)
 Cold curving into a jig and placing in an oven at temperatures between 140°C-155°C.
 Cold curving the sheet over a mould, exposure to a temperature of 150°C and application
of vacuum to obtain a 3D shape.
Cold curving guide-lines must be strictly followed, to avoid surface cracking of coated products.
Always allow for slow and unforced cooling. When shaping is carried out under the sheet‟s own
weight, use oversized sheets in order to avoid material shrinkage problems. Alternatively, the
sheets can be placed in the oven with the mould directly outside.
Once the sheet has reached the required temperature, it should be quickly removed and allowed
to drape itself over the mould. The transition between the oven and the mould should be handled
very fast since the Lexan sheet sets-up rapidly once it has been removed from the oven. Typical
applications include visors and automotive safety glazing where the Lexan sheet products
easily meet the demanding quality requirements. In these types of application the mould needs to
be made from a high gloss material such as steel, aluminium, or even glass in order to achieve
the necessary optical quality.

2.5. PRESSURE FORMING

Pressure forming is basically the same as vacuum forming. However, during the final forming
stage, compressed air is applied to the positive side of the mould to force the sheet to conform
more closely to the mould. The result is a component with sharp features and detailed geometry.
The basic steps are illustrated in Figure 1.8, showing the pressure chamber mounted above the
mould. Textured surfaces and small radii are typical of the fine detail which can be achieved with
this process.
23 MB
 Fig: 2.8 Pressure Forming

2.6. TWIN SHEET FORMING

Twin sheet forming is a development of vacuum forming technology whereby two sheets are
formed at the same time producing an application with a hollow sealed section. The basic steps in
the process are outlined in Figures 2.9a-d. Accurate temperature control is an essential element
when using this technique since only one side of the sheet is heated. The ability to control heating
in individual areas of the sheet is vital. Photocells also need to be installed to control sagging and
hot-air is often used to keep the two sheets from touching each other. As a highly competitive
process for producing hollow sectioned parts, it is particularly suited to the production of large
applications. These typically include luggage boxes, air ducts, roof domes and roof hatches.

24 MB
The connection joint between the two parts is obtained by a combination of melting of the two
materials and the exposed pressure of the moulds. No additional glue or other adhesive is
therefore necessary. This method can be used to produce parts consisting of two different
materials, colors and gauges.

Fig: 2.9 Twin Sheet Forming

Fig: 2.9 a

Fig: 2.9 b

Fig: 2.9 c

Fig: 2.9 d

25 MB
3. SAMPLE INJECTION MOLDING PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

As we have seen in the above discussions; from polycarbonate polymers different kinds of
products can be produced; since the products are many in number and their production processes
and technologies are almost the same, it is enough to take and see one sample product which can
have a common production technology and machine with most products. Therefore let‟s have a
look on a sample product Helmet and the production technology that has been used:

The Visor in the Helmet Mounted Display

The visor is an essential element of a Helmet Mounted Display (HMD) system. The visor is the
optical combiner, which displays information from the relay optics to the user. For tactical aircraft,
the visor must also provide personal protection, such as in the case of ejection, where the
mechanical stresses on the pilot are extreme. The Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System
(JHMCS) visor is shown in Figure1. This part of the paper also discusses the manufacturing
development of the injection molding process to produce a visor for the JHMCS system.

The Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS)

Moffett and Melzer provide an excellent introduction to HMDs in their monograph. The JHMCS
system is the first mass-produced HMD system for the U.S. military. It is currently flying on F-15,
F-16 and F/A-18 aircraft, for the Navy and Air Force. Initial deployment is on the F/A-18E/F Super
Hornet, manufactured by Boeing.

3.1. REQUIREMENTS

Optical requirements for the visor

The optical properties of the visor include both the reflective and transmissive properties. For see-
through, maximal transmission and minimal haze are obviously desired. Transmission
characteristics of the visor may be modified by additives in the polymer resin. Examples are
neutral gray filters, which provide a sunshield; and short wavelength-blocking dyes to provide UV
protection or high contrast.

26 MB
 Figure1
Reflective properties of the visor are also essential. The display image source is reflected on the
visor surface. The inner, concave surface (i.e., towards the pilot) is the optical combiner for the
display. The Fresnel reflection, due to the air-visor interface, is not adequate to provide a bright
display to the pilot. Therefore, the visor reflectivity is enhanced in the region of the display by
depositing a thin-film beam splitter coating on the visor surface.

Mechanical Requirements for the visor

The visor is protective equipment for the pilot. This mechanical requirement determines the choice
of optical resin. Polycarbonate is the preferred material because of its superior impact
resistance. The impact strength of polycarbonate compensates for its reduced transmission and
birefringence properties, relative to other optical resins (i.e., acrylic, polystyrene and cyclic olefin
polymers). Polycarbonate is also the preferred material for less sophisticated protective
optical visors, such as for ice hockey and motorcycles. [Polycarbonate is also used for non-
optical products which require strong impact resistance, such as ice hockey helmets.]

Figure 2. The visor and HMD after ejection sled testing

27 MB
Hard coat
The injection molded visor requires coatings to enhance both mechanical and optical properties. A
protective hard-coat is used to provide abrasion and scratch resistance, which is the primary wear
and failure mode for the visors. Typically, these hard-coat materials are thermally cured
polysiloxane materials, although urethanes and other chemistries have been used. These
materials may be dip-coated or spray-coated. Thicknesses are on the order of 0.0001”. The
hard-coat itself provides a partial anti-reflective coating. This is because the refractive index of the
hard-coat is typically less than that of the polycarbonate (RI = 1.58). Refractive indices of available
hard-coats vary from about 1.42 to about 1.53, depending upon chemistry.

Optical Coatings and Secondary Reflections

Thin film optical coatings provide an AR (anti-reflective) coating on the exterior surface, and a
beam-splitter coating on the interior, concave imaging surface. As noted above, the beam-splitter
coating is necessary to provide sufficient image intensity to the pilot. The display source intensity
and the beam-splitter coating reflectivity determine the luminance to the pilot.
Note that the AR coating on the exterior surface is superfluous to allow sufficient light to transmit
to the pilot from the outside environment. The purpose of the AR coating on the exterior of the
visor is to reduce secondary reflections (i.e., “ghosts”) to the pilot from the display source. The
ghost image is a result of the reflections from both interior and exterior surfaces of the visor. The
display is imaged on the interior surface of the visor. However, some light passes through the
visor and is reflected off of the exterior surface, back to the pilot. This reflection, off the exterior
surface, causes the ghost or secondary reflection. The secondary reflection is optical noise and
could be a distraction to the pilot. It is desired to minimize the secondary reflection, with respect to
the display image (i.e., the primary reflection). Therefore, the exterior anti-reflective coating is
applied.
This expression neglects the effect of the hard-coat and other second order effects. The balance
between visor transmission, image intensity and optical noise intensity dictates the design choices
for the visor.
This balance is dictated by the environmental conditions (i.e., day or night), the intensity of the
image source and tolerable level of optical noise. This balance between image intensity and
transmission in the display region, together with the outside environment, determine the pilot‟s
visual acuity. The secondary reflection is an additional factor. Manufacturing tolerances of the thin
film optical coatings must also be considered when calculating intensity of the secondary
reflection. Due to standard manufacturing variances, the reflectivity of the beam-splitter coating
can vary by several per cent, from article to article.

28 MB
3.2. MOLD DESIGN
Injection Molding Tool Design and Dimensional Tolerances
Injection molding has existed as a technology for more than a century. Plastics injection molding
became prevalent after World War II. General Electric commercialized polycarbonate as a
molding resin in1955.
The prerequisite to successful molding is to design and build a good tool (i.e., the injection mold,
shown in Figures 3, 4 and 6). Design for manufacture and concurrent engineering are essential.

Figure 3. The core-side of the mold, showing internal action and cavity for external action
Unique features of this visor mold are the internal core actions. Two visor mounting features are
toward either ear, on the interior and exterior surfaces of the visor. To mold the interior mounting
features, internal core actions are necessary, shown in Figure 3. These actions are pneumatically
activated.
The alternative to molding these features would be a secondary operation to affix these mounting
features to the visor after molding. This could be done by use of an adhesive, or by sonic or
solvent welding. However, the dimensional tolerance requirements of the system design could not
have been satisfied by any method other than molding-in these mounting features. The visor
dimensional tolerances derive from the functionality of the HMD system. In addition to the display
providing information to the pilot, there is also a camera which records what the pilot is viewing.
The camera provides documentation, recording what the pilot sees in the display and in the
environment. Fidelity between the display and the camera is critical. The visor contributes to the
optical fidelity between the display and camera. Specifically, the visor dimensions must be within a
narrow tolerance to ensure that camera/display fidelity is maintained, when replacing one visor for
another (such as when changing from Day Visor to Night Visor when the sun goes down). The
position of the visor in space, with respect to the display optics and camera, should be constant.

29 MB
Two factors affect the position of the visor: the mounting points and the visor shape. It is these two
factors that should be the same, from visor to visor.
Typical injection molding manufacturing tolerances for polycarbonates (and other resins) are
available in trade publications. Closer (i.e., tighter) tolerances can be achieved, with greater
attention to detail, multiple metrology checks during the mold build process and optimization of the
injection molding process parameters. Iterative checks, between machining and metrology are
necessary. Trial molding is done before final finishing of the tool, to check for dimensional fidelity
and allow for adjustment. During the manufacture of this visor mold, such greater attention to
detail was devoted.
Such greater care during the mold design and build process necessarily increases the cost of the
mold. However, it does not increase the recurring cost of the visor. Manufacturing the visor, once
the processing parameters are established, is no more costly than an analogous commercial
commodity. The complete mold is a combination of sheer mass the mold weighs in excess of
3,000 lbs. and is designed to operate in a 300-500 ton press and intricate mechanical and
pneumatic actuators, capable of reproducibly molding precision features as fine as 0.001”. The
well-manufactured visor saves time and money for the designer, the manufacturer, the customer
and the user. To ensure low cost system manufacture and low-cost system maintenance, we want
all visors to be identical, within tolerance. If visors are identical, less adjustment latitude is
necessary for design into the system; less adjustment is necessary during the system
manufacturing process; and less system adjustment is necessary when the user changes a visor.

Concurrent Engineering and Transition to Manufacturing

Contract award for the injection molding tool was made after a national search and review of
competitive bids. Both cost and technical capability explicitly including technical risk were primary
down select criteria.

30 MB
 Figure 4. Mold-Flow analysis showing melt front advancement during cavity fill

System requirements and design reviews were necessary to ensure that the tool was made
correctly the first time. Following contract award, a Systems Design Review was held to clarify the
product requirements and ensure that the requirements were consistent with the toolmaker‟s
capabilities. Some design changes were made to the visor in order to improve manufacturability. A
Preliminary Design Review was held to present the toolmaker‟s design concept, including the
strategy to ensure that all dimensional requirements were met. The Critical Design Review
presented the final tool design for evaluation, along with all modeling and simulation results to
justify the design choices. The product design was necessarily frozen prior to the CDR. All
modeling and simulation work were complete prior to CDR, and provided input to the design.

Modeling of Molding Process

Computer modeling is an important tool in design for manufacture of precision plastic parts. The
mold simulations included cavity fill, gate design, pressure distribution, weld line prediction,
shrinkage, and percent polymer frozen at shut-off. Of critical importance to this development was
the cooling analysis. To achieve uniform dimensions and meet design tolerances, it is essential
that the mold be at a uniform temperature and that there are no significant temperature gradients
across the mold. The cooling analysis emphasized the need for the copious cooling lines that
were machined into the mold. This was particularly important for the core side and actions, where
space constraints made it challenging to add sufficient cooling lines. Cooling line temperature
modeling is shown in Figure 5.

31 MB
 Figure 5. Mold-Flow analysis showing mold coolant temperature calculations

Optical Finish
Excellent surface properties are essential for optical quality. The fine quality surface of the mold is
a prerequisite to surface quality of the part, which is prerequisite to optical quality. It is noteworthy
that this surface quality for optical molds exceeds those specifications listed in international
publications. Mold surface quality is achieved by hand polish with fine grits, after the best
achievable machine-polish with diamond tools. The fine polish of the cavity side of the mold is
shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Cavity-side of mold, showing polish of optical surface

32 MB
 3.3. MANUFACTURE
Polymer Resin
The resin and the processing information including recommended injection press settings and
temperatures for its injection molding resin are provided by the resin manufacturing companies.
These suggested parameters are the usual starting point when the mold is first used. Processing
is then optimized for the specific press and mold, including screw temperatures, press
temperature, screw speed and pressure.

Design of Experiments
A Design of Experiments was performed, to determine the optimal processing parameters for the
visor. The variables evaluated included cycle speed, residence time of the part in the mold, and
injection speed. A note on terminology: some injection molders use “cure time” for the time the
part spends in the mold and use “residence time” for the length of time that the resin melt is in the
screw cavity).

Results
The molded visors met the requirements to which they were designed. Dimensional tolerances on
mounting features were as close as 0.001”, which was better than expectations. Such precision
exceeds the published standards for fine dimensional tolerances for injection molded
polycarbonate.
An interesting result of the process design of experiments was that dimensional fidelity was not
increased by residence time in the mold, relative to that normally used for commodity products. As
a starting point, a residence time of sixteen seconds was used; increasing this to eighteen
seconds did not increase part quality. The JHMCS system is now flight qualified.

VII. CONCLUSION

As we have seen in the above presentations polycarbonate is one of a versatile, tough plastic
used for variety of applications, from bullet proof windows to compact disk (CDs). Polycarbonate is
an amorphous engineering plastic with outstanding transparency, impact resistance, and heat
resistance, which is used in a wide range of applications basic to the modern life style.
The production technology of Polycarbonate materials is not as such new and difficult task to
Ethiopia Plastic Industry, because the Industry has the experience of producing plastic products
by using PVC, polyethylene, HDPE and other plastic resins. Since the Industry has the experience

33 MB
 of producing such products; the production technology and process of polycarbonate products is
similar to the Industry‟s existing products production technology and process.
The only questions raised in the production of polycarbonate products are the issue of raw
materials, the capacity of the Industry‟s existing machineries, the need for additional injection
machineries and other related key factors.
Polycarbonate products are recyclable and therefore polycarbonate products can be crushed and
reprocessed to produce similar or other type of products which are used for general industrial
grade products.

VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS

In the development of the country; Ethiopia Plastic Industry has a big responsibility in cooperation
with other Industries under METEC and out of METEC, this condition has never been taken as
burden, it is a good opportunity.
Since the Industry‟s workers and management are committed to do the assignments given from
the government, it is important to give attention on the necessary plastic products. As the aim of
this paper is on the production technology and process of the polycarbonate resin products, the
following conditions need attention:

1. Raw materials
At this time the polycarbonate resin is not produced with in the country, therefore when we
think the production of such various range and huge amount of polycarbonate products the
raw material availability, price and the way we get it must be considered.
As the global engineering resins report indicates, on the month ending price index of March
2011 the price of Polycarbonate within different parts of the world was the following:
Raw material North America West Europe Asia & the Pacific
Grade
US $/MTon
Polycarbonate General Purpose 3,750 - 4,410 3,054 – 3,610 3,200 – 3,400
Optical Media 2,200 – 3,640 3,120 - 3,680 2,900 – 3,100

2. Mold Design and manufacturing

Rather than any other plastic products polycarbonate products need greater attention and
require high accuracy in the manufacture and design of molds. As we have seen above in
the sample product production technology and process the prerequisite to successful

34 MB
 molding is to design and build a good tool, the other important condition during mold design
is computer modeling for manufacture of precision plastic parts.

3. Machineries

To fulfill the vast demands on plastic products when we consider the technology, the
capacity and the number of machineries within the Industry, especially to produce
polycarbonate products according to the demand for the products; the number of
machineries within the industry are insignificant, their capacity is poor and their
technologies are outdated.
As we have seen in the application overviews the application of polycarbonate are many in
number and these products are matching to the products which are METEC interested to
produce. Most of these products are produced by injection molding machineries and they
need a greater accuracy, cleanness and fine surface finish. Some of the products are
taking large area and are irregular shapes. So to produce these products by using the
existing Ethiopia Plastic Industry machineries might be difficult; the main reasons are that
the machineries are old and their capacity is not matching to METEC‟s interest and the
market demand. In the other option if we want to outsource the production orders that we
would took from customers to other Plastic Industries in the country; the accuracy,
cleanness and capacity interests are also here under question. So the main solution for
these problems is to purchase more new technology and high capacity injection molding
and blow molding machineries.
 As most of the Injection molding machinery price quotes indicate the cheapest estimate
prices are within the following ranges:
10,000 – 171,000 USD/Set, which is approximately 175,000 – 3,000,000 Birr
 And the capacity ranges are:
 Combined module force 750 -7,800KN (75 – 780 ton)
 Injection volume 100 – 5000g (100g - 5000g)

35 MB