MEVE 019

ENVIRONMENTAL
Indira Gandhi ISSUES
National Open University
School of Agriculture

Block

1
ATMOSPHERIC ISSUES
Unit 1
Air Pollution 7

Unit 2
Climate Change 23

Unit 3
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 40

Unit 4
Persistent Organic and Radioactive pollutants 55
PROGRAMME DESIGN COMMITTEE
Dr. Himanshu Pathak, Director, Prof. R. Baskar, Department Prof. Jaswant Sokhi, SOS, Prof. Shubhangi Vaidya,
ICAR-National Rice Research of Environmental Science IGNOU, New Delhi. SOITS, IGNOU, New
Institute Cuttack, Odisha & Engineering, Guru Delhi.
Prof Neera Kapoor, SOS,
Jambheshwar University of
Prof. P.A. Azeez, Director, IGNOU, New Delhi. Prof. B. Rupini, SOITS,
Science & Technology, Hisar,
SACON, Coimbatore Haryana IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik,
Prof I.S. Thakur, School of SOS, IGNOU, New Delhi. Dr. Sadananda Sahoo,
Dr. Surendra Singh Suthar,
Environmental Sciences, JNU, School of Environment & SOITS, IGNOU, New
Prof. P.K. Biswas, STRIDE,
New Delhi Natural Resources, Doon Delhi.
IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof Uma Melkania, Dean, University, Dehradun Dr. Sushmitha Baskar,
Prof. S.K.Yadav, SOA,
College of Basic Sciences and Dr. Tanushree Bhattacharya, SOITS, IGNOU, New
IGNOU, New Delhi.
Humanities, GBPUAT, Pantnagar Department of Civil and Delhi.
Environmental Engineering, Prof. Shachi Shah, Director
Prof. Nidhi Rai, University Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan,
Birla Institute of Technology, SOITS, IGNOU, New
College of Science, M.L. SOITS, IGNOU, New
Mesra, Ranchi Delhi.
Sukhadia University, Delhi.
Udaipur Dr. Pulak Das, School of Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapoor,
Dr. Deeksha Dave, SOITS,
Human Ecology, Ambedkar SOITS, IGNOU, New
Prof. Jitendra Pandey, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Delhi.
Department of Botany, Faculty of University, Delhi
Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman, SOITS,
Science, BHU
IGNOU, New Delhi.

PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Prof. Shachi Shah, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU
Dr. V. Venkatramanan, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU
Dr. Deeksha Dave, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU

COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. V. Venkatramanan, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU

BLOCK AND COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Unit Unit Writer
BLOCK 1 ATMOSPHERIC ISSUES

Unit 1 Air Pollution Prof. B. Rupini, SOITS, IGNOU

Dr. Umesh Chandra Pandey, Director, RSD, IGNOU,
Unit 2 Climate Change
New Delhi.
Stratospheric Ozone
Unit 3 Prof. B. Rupini, SOITS, IGNOU
Depletion
Persistent Organic and Dr. Geetha Tiwari, Associate Professor, Department of
Unit 4
Radioactive pollutants Chemistry, Kumaun University, Nainital.

BLOCK 2 LAND AND SOIL ISSUES

Unit 5 Threats to Biodiversity Dr. Ragini Kumari, ARD, IGNOU, New Delhi.

Dr. Shiv Prasad, Principal Scientist, CESCRA, IARI,

Unit 6 Biomass Burning
New Delhi.
 Soil Pollution, Land
Dr. Shiv Prasad, Principal Scientist, CESCRA, IARI,
Unit 7 Degradation and
New Delhi.
Desertification
Prof. Shachi Shah, Environmental Studies, School of
Unit 8 (Adopted
Waste Management Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU,
from MEV 023)
New Delhi.

BLOCK 3 WATER-RELATED ISSUES

Dr. Vikas Singhal, ARD, IGNOU (RC Delhi-1).

Unit 9 Eutrophication
Dr. Nurul Hasan, ARD, IGNOU (RC Port Blair).
Dr. Vikas Singhal, ARD, IGNOU (RC Delhi-1).
Unit 10 Marine pollution
Dr. Nurul Hasan, ARD, IGNOU (RC Port Blair).

Unit 11 Inland Water Pollution Dr. Ragini Kumari, ARD, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Arsenic and Fluoride
Unit 12 Dr. Bir Abhimanyu Kumar, SRD, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Pollution

BLOCK 4 SECURITY AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES

Environmental Changes
Unit 13 Dr. Ragini Kumari,ARD, IGNOU, New Delhi.
and Nutritional Security
Dr. Puneeta Pandey, Assistant Professor, Centre for
Urbanization and Environmental Sciences and Technology, School of
Unit 14
Consumerism Environment and Earth Sciences, Central University of
Punjab, Bathinda.
Dr. Puneeta Pandey, Assistant Professor, Centre for
Multidrug-resistant Environmental Sciences and Technology, School of
Unit 15
Organisms Environment and Earth Sciences, Central University of
Punjab, Bathinda.
Prof. Shachi Shah, Environmental Studies, School of
Unit 16 (Adopted Sustainable Development
Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU,
from MEV 025) Goals
New Delhi.

CONTENT EDITORS
Prof. Shachi Shah, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU,
New Delhi.
Dr. V. Venkatramanan, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies,
IGNOU, New Delhi.

FORMAT EDITORS AND LANGUAGE EDITORS

Prof. Shachi Shah, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU,
New Delhi.
Dr. V. Venkatramanan, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies,
IGNOU, New Delhi.
PRINT PRODUCTION
Section Officer (P)
MPDD, IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New DelhiJanuary, 2021
Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN :
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
MEVE 019 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The course “Environmental Issues” deals with atmospheric issues, land and soil
issues, water-related issues and security and development issues.
Objectives
After studying this course, you should be able to:
•• explain various types of air pollutants and their sources;
•• explain the mechanism and causes of climate change;
•• explain the impacts of climate change;
•• describe the process of ozone layer depletion and its impacts;
•• identify the sources of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and radioactive
waste;
•• describe management and policy for POPs and radioactive waste;
•• discuss the causes of threats to biodiversity;
•• explain the likely impacts of biodiversity loss;
•• explain the causes and impacts of biomass burning;
•• discuss the sustainable alternatives to biomass burning;
•• explain the causes of soil pollution, land degradation and desertification;
•• explore the inter-linkages between waste generation and climate change;
•• describe the sources, causes, extent and intensity of eutrophication;
•• explain the ecological impacts of eutrophication;
•• describe the sources, causes, extent and intensity of marine pollution;
•• explain the ecological impacts of marine pollution;
•• explain the causes of inland water pollution;
•• explain the mechanism and impacts of inland water pollution;
•• explain the sources and impacts of arsenic and fluoride pollution;
•• explain the effects of agricultural intensification;
•• explain the challenges faced by the agriculture sector in the 21st century;
•• explain the causes of urbanization;
•• explain the causes, extent and impacts of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms and
•• explain the genesis of sustainable development and sustainable development
goals.
We hope that you would enjoy reading the self-learning material.
BLOCK 1 ATMOSPHERIC ISSUES
Block 1 “Atmospheric Issues” aims to give detailed information on air pollution,
climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs) and radioactive waste.
•• Unit 1 “Air Pollution” deals with types and sources of air pollutants;
tropospheric ozone formation and health impacts of tropospheric ozone;
sources, impacts and management of volatile organic compounds; and
atmospheric deposition of air pollutants.
Unit 2 “Climate Change” aims to give detailed information about the definition,
causes, mechanism, impacts, extent, intensity and policy on climate change.
Unit 3 “Stratospheric Ozone Depletion” deals with the formation and dissociation
of ozone, causes of ozone depletion, impacts of ozone layer depletion and
international conventions to control stratospheric ozone depletion.
Unit 4 “Persistent Organic and Radioactive Pollutants” highlights the sources,
mechanism of transport, impact and management of Persistent Organic
Pollutants and radioactive waste.

Objectives
After studying this block, you will be able to:
•• explain various types of air pollutants and their sources;
•• describe sources of volatile organic compounds and their impacts;
•• explain tropospheric ozone and describe its effects;
•• describe air pollution management techniques and policies;
•• explain the mechanism and causes of climate change;
•• explain the extent and intensity of climate change through some case studies;
•• explain the impacts of climate change;
•• explain the implications of climate change on the policies;
•• describe the process of ozone formation;
•• describe the process of ozone layer depletion and its impacts;
•• explain the important ozone management policies;
•• identify the sources of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and radioactive
waste;
•• explain the mechanism of transport of wastes in the environment;
•• describe the impact of POPs and radioactive waste and
•• describe management and policy for POPs and radioactive waste.

We hope that after studying this block, you will acquire an understanding of
atmospheric issues.
Wishing you success in this endeavour!
UNIT 1 AIR POLLUTION
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Definition of Air Pollution
1.4 Types of Air Pollutants and their Sources
1.4.1 Primary Air Pollutants
1.4.2 Secondary Air Pollutants
1.5 Tropospheric Ozone
1.5.1 Tropospheric Ozone Formation
1.5.2 Tropospheric Ozone Concentration
1.5.3 Health Impacts
1.6 Volatile Organic Compounds
1.6.1 Sources
1.6.2 Impacts
1.6.3 Management and Policy
1.7 Atmospheric Deposition of Air Pollutants
1.7.1 Photochemical Smog
1.7.2 Industrial Smog
1.7.3 Acid Precipitation
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Suggested Further Reading/References
1.11 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Our present climatic conditions are relatively different from the pre-industrial
period’s atmosphere concerning pollution. We cannot find clean air nowadays due
to atmospheric pollution. Although, developing nations like India especially with
an upcoming economy, face infinite challenges with its increase in population and
ubiquitous scarcity and deprivation, in meeting consequential loyalty connected
with Sustainable Development Goals such as “poverty and hunger eradication”. In
the last 30 years, India has been growing steadily towards industrialization which
leads to environmental pollution specifically air pollution. We can realize that air
pollution started only after anthropogenic activities such as the burning of fossil
fuels. Continuous addition of air pollutants to the atmosphere from diversified
sources are accumulated in the atmosphere and changes its natural composition and
show adverse effects on the environment. In the environment, the duration of stay
of these pollutants will depend on the quantity of pollutants that accumulate from
different sources and the ability of the cleaning mechanism of the atmosphere either
to absorb or to disintegrate into harmless substances and disperse them. If it is so
we need to understand some of the facts about pollution that damages the health of
our beautiful natural environment including us. This unit makes you understand the
basic concepts of air pollution-related facts.
Atmospheric
Issues 1.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to
•• define air pollution and describe its constituents;
•• explain various types of air pollutants and their sources;
•• describe sources of volatile organic compounds and their impacts;
•• explain tropospheric ozone and describe its effects and
•• describe air pollution management techniques and policies.

1.3 DEFINITION OF AIR POLLUTION

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2007), air
pollution is defined as “the presence of contaminants or pollutant substances
in the air that interfere with human health or welfare, or produce other harmful
environmental effects”.
“Air pollution can also be defined as the presence of impurities in the air like toxic
gases, particulate matter of solid and liquid material at elevated concentrations,
aerosols that interfere with human health or welfare, or produce other harmful
environmental effects by changing the chemical composition of the natural
environment. In other words, a substance which is potentially harmful to the
natural environment and humans as well is known as air pollutant”. Now we
have to understand exactly what do you mean by harmful? Harmful means
any negative effect that can damage and destroy all living things and the
natural environment. Let us first discuss the air pollutants and their sources.
Air pollutants are the substances such as any gaseous substance or aerosols or
complex chemical mixtures in the atmosphere which have negative effects on
living things and the environment. Air pollution is considered an alphabetical
soup of gaseous and particulate pollutants mixed with the normal unpolluted
constituents of air. The level of air pollution is depending on the following.
i. Quantity of pollutants released into the atmosphere
ii. Dispersion area of pollutants
iii. Removal mechanism of air pollutants.

1.4 TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS AND THEIR

SOURCES
Pollutants are categorized into two groups. They are primary and secondary
pollutants.
1.4.1 PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS
Primary air Pollutants: Primary pollutants are the pollutants that are the direct
products of combustion and evaporation of fossil fuels. Most of the combustion
processes are incomplete and involve complex compounds. The evaporation
of volatile organic compounds combined with dust and smoke enters the
atmosphere.
Particulate matter (PM) / Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): They exist
in liquid and gaseous form and their size is measured in terms of aerodynamic
8 diameter (Table1.1).
 Table 1.1 Size of air pollutants and their description Air Pollution
Particle size Description
‘Inhalable’ particles, enter the nose & mouth
Less than 100 microns
easily
‘Fine’ particles known as 'thoracic' enter the
Less than 10 microns (PM10)
respiratory system easily

‘Respirable’ particles enter the blood

Less than 4 microns
through the respiratory system

Less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5) ‘Fine’ particles

Less than 0.1 microns (PM0.1) ‘Ultrafine’

The particulate matter is in the form of smoke, soot, metal powder, and dust
released by wind and by atmospheric reactions. This suspended particulate
matter is generated from the condensation of gases and the pattern of the wind.
These particles scatter in space and absorb visible light and diminish visibility.
Fine particles are composed of precursor gas such as sulphuric acid that is
generated in the atmosphere by Sulphur dioxide oxidation. SO2 is released by
the combustion of fossil fuels, volcanic eruptions and various other sources.
Because of the low vapour pressure of H2SO4, they condense into aqueous
sulphate particles under any atmospheric conditions. It is produced by the various
combustion process. These sulphate particles further react with gases that have
low vapour pressure such as ammonia, nitric acid and organic compounds. The
other key component in the SPM is organic carbon, which is a major fraction
formed by the condensation of hydrocarbons released from anthropogenic and
biogenic sources. Earth’s surface releases soil dust, sea salt and detritus of
vegetation by the mechanical action of wind. These SPM consists of particles
with 1-10 micrometre diameter. Another type of SPM which is produced by
gaseous condensation during the combustion process is soot mainly consists
of elemental carbon and accumulated black carbon. In the atmosphere, these
particles scatter the radiation beam in its path without absorption. The scattering
of light radiation takes place by the process of reflection, refraction or diffraction
of the beam of radiation. These particles affect the lungs, trigger cardiovascular
disease, and impair the growth of lungs in children with increased mortality.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), Carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide
(CO2), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX), Oxides of Sulphur (SOX) and Radon (Rn) are
examples of primary pollutants.
Source: Combustion of fossil fuels, and waste liberates soot or smoke which
contains carbon particles. Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels releases Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOC). In the presence of air and at high temperatures
combustion of fuels generates nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and
nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). Sulphur present in the coal oxidized during combustion
releases SO2. These oxides of sulfur are the reason to cause Sulphur Smog’ due
to the light absorption witnessed in the year 1952, as the London Smog episode.
Chemical toxins like benzene are produced from the combustion of fuels used in
transportation. Lead was added to gasoline as an anti-knocking agent and other
heavy metals were also primary pollutants released from automobile exhaust.
Some primary pollutants, their sources and their effects are discussed here.
9
Atmospheric Carbon monoxide: It is formed by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. It
Issues binds to haemoglobin in the blood and blocks the oxygen delivery to the tissues
which leads to dizziness, headache, unconsciousness and finally, death occurs.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC): They are produced from incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels, emissions from various industries, and evaporation
of gasoline and solvents. VOCs are carcinogenic. VOCs are described in detail
in the latter part of this unit.
Oxides of Sulfur (SOx): Burning of sulfur-containing fossil fuels such as coal,
volcanic emissions, sea spray and microbial processes release oxides of sulphur.
It reacts with nitric acid droplets to form acid rain and impairs breathing.
Exposure for a longer duration to SO2 can cause bronchitis.
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx): Oxides of nitrogen are generated and released
into the atmosphere by burning nitrogen-containing fuels, biomass at high
temperatures, lightening and microbial processes. It reacts with sulphuric acid
droplets in the atmosphere to contribute to acid rain. Chronic exposure may
impair lung function and affect the immune system.
Radon (Rn): Radon breakdown of radium and uranium-containing rocks.
Exposure to radon for a longer duration causes lung cancer.
Lead (Pb): Previously lead was used to prevent engine knockout by adding it
to gasoline. It is also emitted by the burning of lead-containing fuels and solid
waste and remained airborne. Lead shows toxic effects at low concentrations
also. Once it is accumulated in the body that can lead to death by damaging the
brain.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): CFCs are released into the atmosphere from
leakages from refrigerants and aerosols. CFCs are one main cause of
depleting the ozone layer and cause skin cancer.
According to Clean Air Act (1970) established National Ambient Air Quality
Standards, Particulate matter, ozone, carbon monoxide, Sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide and lead are considered ‘criteria air pollutants’ because US-EPA
controlled them by primary and secondary pollution criteria standards. Primary
standards protect public health and secondary standards prevent environmental
damage.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Define air pollution.
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1.4.2 SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS

Secondary air Pollutants: Primary pollutants undergo some chemical reactions
and produce additional unwanted compounds known as secondary pollutants.
Ex: Ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN), H2SO4 and HNO3.
10 Sources: In the presence of sunlight VOC and NOX both undergo reactions in the
atmosphere to form ozone and these are collectively known as photochemical Air Pollution
oxidants. NO2 splits into atomic oxygen and NO in the presence of UV radiation
and forms ozone by further oxidation. In the presence of VOCs, nitric oxide
form highly reactive peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN), Aldehydes and ketones by the
process of oxidation. These repeated reactions increase the ozone concentrations
in rural and urban areas. Sulfuric acid and Nitric acid produced from SOX and
NOX are the main components of acid rain.
Ozone O3: Tropospheric ozone is a secondary pollutant and is emitted into
the atmosphere by photochemical reactions of VOCs & NOx. The ozone
concentrations are likely to increase by afternoon and damage the rubber
material by oxidation, damage the lungs and show adverse effects on animals
and plants.

1.5 TROPOSPHERIC OZONE

Tropospheric ozone is considered a Secondary Pollutant because it is generated
by a series of reactions in the Troposphere mainly by the reaction between
primary pollutants such as NO2 and oxygen-containing organic compounds. It
can be easily identified even at the 0.02 ppm concentrations. Tropospheric ozone
is also known as ground-level ozone, which cannot be emitted directly into
the environment but is generated in the atmosphere by the chemical reactions
between NOx and VOC. Since it is formed in the lower atmosphere and present
in the ambient air and exposed daily to humans and the ecosystem.
These chemical reactions occur when these pollutants emitted from point
sources and non-point sources react with each other in the presence of UV
radiation. This reaction is also known as the photodissociation reaction of NOx.
The concentration of ozone increases in the summer season in urban areas but in
some countries, it can reach even higher levels in the winter season. Ozone will
travel for longer distances by wind, hence rural areas can also experience the
effects of ozone. In contrast to stratospheric ozone, tropospheric ozone present
in the air we breathe is a harmful secondary air pollutant that has adverse health
effects on the environment hence it is known as bad ozone.
The tropospheric ozone is a secondary air pollutant and not easily controlled
because it is continuously created with the continuous emissions from
automobile exhaust and the presence of sunlight. Ozone is continuously formed
by the reaction of VOCs, NOx and atmospheric oxygen at low levels. In the
winter season due to low temperatures, low intensity of light and high wind
speeds the ozone concentrations are low. Whereas in the summer season at high
temperatures, high intensity of light and stagnation of wind the concentrations
of ozone are high relatively.
1.5.1 Tropospheric Ozone Formation
The tropospheric ozone formation is dependent on many precursors. Dear
learner here we would like to give a simple way to understand the formation of
tropospheric ozone.
1. Some portion of the ozone is transported from stratosphere to troposphere
through tropopause which is a precursor for tropospheric hydroxyl ion
(OH). The transportation rate of ozone is in the range of 1-2 X 1013 moles/
year. Each ozone molecule that enters the troposphere can produce two
hydroxy molecules. A portion of the transferred ozone is consumed by some 11
Atmospheric reactions in the troposphere and the remaining portion is deposited on the
Issues surface of the earth. Apart from this, in the troposphere, the ozone is formed
by the following reactions.
2. The tropospheric ozone is formed by the reaction between oxides of nitrogen,
carbon monoxide and VOC in the presence of sunlight, hence these are also
called ozone precursors. The major source of these ozone precursors are
emissions from vehicles, industries and solvents. The reactions involved in
the formation of ozone are as follows.
Oxidation of CO by hydroxyl ion generates peroxyl radical (R1), which
undergoes self-reaction that gives rise to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (R2). Some
of the hydrogen peroxides undergo photolysis to produce hydroxyl radicals and
because of their high soluble nature in water, they can be removed from the
atmosphere by rain (R3). Hydrogen peroxide reacts with additional hydroxyl
radical to produce peroxyl radical again (R4). The peroxyl radical in the
presence of nitric oxide regenerates hydroxyl radical and nitrogen dioxide (R5)
that immediately photolyze to produce ozone (R6). Hence, the net reaction is
the generation of ozone (R7) in a chain reaction initiated by peroxyl radical and
terminated by the loss of peroxyl radical in reaction (R2) through propagation
reactions in the presence of abundant NOx. The coupling reaction between
ozone, oxides of nitrogen and peroxyl radical is shown in Figure 1.1.
O2
CO+ OH CO2+HO2 (R1)
HO2+HO2 H2O2+O2 (R2)
H 2O 2 hυ 2OH (R3)
H2O2+OH HO2+H20 (R4)
HO2+NO NO2+OH (R5)
NO2+O2 hυ NO+O3 (R6)
CO+2O2 CO2+O3 (R7)

12 Fig. 1.1 Mechanism of O3 generation in a chain reaction cycle

1.5.2 Tropospheric Ozone Concentration Air Pollution

The concentrations of tropospheric ozone depend on the influence of various

concomitant processes such as precursors gas-phase surface emission,
transportation, meteorological parameters like temperature and wind, hydrologic
cycle, solar radiation and exchanges between stratosphere-troposphere (STEs).
Monitoring of ozone can be done both horizontally and vertically in space. If
we will consider the vertical dimension, the space is divided into lower, middle
troposphere and stratosphere. The lower troposphere is termed the boundary
layer where ambient air is present. In the horizontal dimension, often the space
is divided into socio-economic zones like urban, rural and remote regions. The
tropospheric ozone concentrations at the ground level are due to the following
reasons.
• Local photochemical reactions between NOx and VOCs are emitted from
both natural and anthropogenic sources. Once ozone is formed it travels for
long distances. This dispersion is also known as the Urban O3 plume.
• Mixing of O3 rich air at the lower tropospheric boundary layer with ambient
air results in an increase in the O3 concentrations during the morning and
this increase in ozone levels is independent of local region production of
photochemical reactions.
• Due to the mesoscale transport of ozone from long distances and present in
an area where the production of ozone is nil.
• Invasion of stratospheric ozone into the troposphere due to the tropopause
folding events that occurred on the backside of a frontal system that results
in a hole in the tropopause, through which the stratospheric ozone enters into
the troposphere. And this exchange is minimum from July-October in a year.
• Mid tropospheric ozone formed from photochemical reactions transported
to the lower troposphere.
• Removal of tropospheric ozone by chemical scavenging by most potential
chemical scavengers such as nitric oxide.
• Removal of tropospheric ozone is also done by physical scavengings
such as rain washout and chemical decomposition mechanisms which are
temperature-dependent.
Tropospheric ozone is a secondary pollutant and a greenhouse gas. The source
of earth’s heat is solar energy, which is transferred from the Sun to the Earth
by radiation energy and is transformed to heat energy on the surface of Earth.
The earth has to balance this input of absorbed solar radiation with an output
of terrestrial radiation. Some of the reflected solar radiation from the earth is
captured by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and radiated back to the Earth,
resulting in the surface warming known as the greenhouse effect. Dear learner
as you have learnt, in the previous courses trapping terrestrial radiation by
natural greenhouse gases is one of the key factors for maintaining the Earth’s
surface temperature above the freezing point. The ozone concentrations in the
troposphere are influenced by other greenhouse gases in different regions.
For example, the NOx and CO concentrations are high at midlatitudes of the
northern region in the lower troposphere showing that there is more fossil fuel
combustion. In the upper troposphere, the concentration of NOx is more due to 13
Atmospheric lightning. The NOx concentrations will be balanced in the range of 10-50 parts per
Issues trillion by volume in the entire troposphere. The concentrations of tropospheric
ozone increase with altitude due to the absence of upper troposphere chemical
loss. In the northern hemisphere, the concentrations of ozone are higher than
southern hemisphere because of abundant NOx.
In the tropics, the concentrations of OH are highest, where the concentrations of
water vapour and UV radiation are high, and maximum in the mid-troposphere
due to the opposite vertical trends of water vapour that will decrease with altitude
and UV radiation that will increase with altitude. Concentrations of hydroxyl
radical tend to be higher in the northern than in the southern hemisphere due to
the higher O3 and NOx concentrations and will be compensated for the swift
loss of OH in the northern hemisphere due to elevated concentrations of carbon
monoxide. Increasing the concentrations of NOx and O3 will increase OH,
whereas the increase in CO and hydrocarbons deplete the concentration of OH
since CO and CH4 have longer lifetimes than NOx and O3, their anthropogenic
accumulations are evenly spread in the troposphere.

1.5.3 Health Impacts

Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent and can irritate the muscle in the passage of
air and trap the air in the alveoli in humans leading to the breathing problems such
as wheezing, breath shortness, cough, sore throat, inflammation of the airways.
In higher concentrations, it worsens the lung ailments like asthma, bronchitis
and emphysema. It weakens lung functioning there by humans experience
recurrent asthma attacks, susceptible to infection and finally cause Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Long term exposure aggravates
asthma, permanent lung damage and finally leads to death and irregular lung
development in children.
Impact on Ecosystem
The adverse effects of ozone extend to plant ecosystems in sensitive species
of vegetation in forests, and parks and destroy them, particularly during the
growing season. If the ozone concentrations are high in the atmosphere, it
reduces the process of photosynthesis thereby reducing the plant’s growth. In
sensitive plants like tulip poplar, white pine etc., it increases the risk of disease,
copes up with harsh weather, and insects and shows certainly visible evidence
on the plants. In some species, it has adverse effects individually and negative
effects on the whole species diversity, behaviour towards other plant species in
the forest and alters the water and nutrient cycle.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Describe the formation of tropospheric ozone.
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14
2. Which factors influence the concentrations of tropospheric ozone? Air Pollution
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….…………………………………………………………………………
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1.6 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

•• Volatile organic compounds are one of the significant categories of air
pollutants present at the ground level in urban regions and industrial areas.
There are many organic compounds listed under VOC with different
definitions. If we see by term volatile organic compounds suggests that these
compounds exist as liquids and solids at normal temperature and pressure
but in the atmosphere, they exist as gases. As per definition any organic
compound whose vapour pressure is less than 760torr and more than 1, at
200C, and the boiling points range from 500-1000C to 2400-2600C.
•• According to 40 CFR Part 51.100. “Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
are any compounds of carbon, excluding carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
carbonic acid, metallic carbides or carbonates, and ammonium carbonate,
which participates in atmospheric photochemical reactions”. VOCs have
various levels of reactivity and have varying levels of formation of ozone.
Some VOCs undergo reactions slowly and some produce less ozone. Hence,
local regions experience different levels of adverse effects on exposure to
ozone.
•• 1.6.1 Sources: VOCs are released into the atmosphere as a consequence of
anthropogenic activities, such as evaporation of petrol from vehicles, storage
& distribution of petrol, numerous industrial processes (oil refining, chemical
manufacture, oil and gas production etc.), photocopying, cosmetics, tobacco
smoke, solvents, landfills, food processing units and agricultural activities.
Natural biogenic processes like discharges from plants, animals, forest fires
and anaerobic processes in wetlands are also responsible for VOC emissions.
•• Biogenic Sources: Volatile Organic Compounds are ozone precursors and
most of them are released from the terrestrial ecosystem. Biogenic Volatile
Organic Compounds (BVOCs) are released from a functional group of plants
and are strictly regulated by meteorological actions. Isoprene (C5H8) and
monoterpene (C10H16) are the some of the most abundant biogenic species in
terrestrial vegetation. These emissions are temperature-dependent because
of the rate of photosynthesis. BVOCs are one of the important constituents
of the atmosphere and influence tropospheric chemical reactions.
•• According to EPA standard method TO 15/17, the list of 62 VOCs is
presented in Table 1.1
Table1.1 List of 62 VOCs as per EPA Standard TO 15/17
Ethyl dibromide
Acetone Ethanol
(1,1-Dibromoethane)
Benzene 4-Ethyltoluene Ethyl acetate 15
Atmospheric
Trichlorofluoromethane (Freon
Issues Benzyl chloride Ethyl benzene
11)
Dichlorodifluoromethane
Bromoform 1,4-Dioxane
(Freon 12)
Bromomethane 1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-
Propylene
trifluoroethane (Freon 113)
Bromodichloromethane 1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane
Styrene
(Freon 114)
1,3-Butadiene Hexachloro-1,3-butadiene Carbon disulfide
Carbon
2-Butanone (MEK) 2-Hexanone (MBK)
tetrachloride
Dibromochloromethane 4-Methyl-2-pentanone (MIBK) Chlorobenzene

1,2-Dichlorobenzene Methylene chloride Chlorethane

1,3-Dichlorobenzene Methyl-tert-butylether (MTBE) Chloroform

1,4-Dichlorobenzene 2-Propanol Cyclohexane

1,1-Dichloroethane 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane Chloromethane

1,2-Dichloroethane Tetrachloroethene Heptane

1,1-Dichloroethene Tetrahydrofuran Toluene

cis-1,2-Dichloroethene 1,1,1-Trichloroethane o-Xylene
trans-1,2-
1,1,2-Trichloroethane m-Xylene
Dichloroethene
1,2-Dichloropropane Trichloroethene p-Xylene
cis-1,3-
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene Vinyl acetate
Dichloropropene
trans-1,3-
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Vinyl chloride
Dichloropropene
Hexane 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene
1.6.2 Impacts
•• Ozone depletion in the stratosphere
•• Ozone formation at ground level
•• Chronic health effects
Most of these impacts are already discussed in the previous sections. The known
chemicals in general use under VOCs are Benzene, Toluene and Xylene (BTX).
The BTX compounds are toxic in nature and harmful pollutants.
Health Effects
Acute Effects: On exposure to these chemicals’ humans experience dizziness,
Headache, Nausea/Vomiting, Eye irritation/watering, Nose irritation, Throat
16
irritation, Asthma exacerbation. Air Pollution
Chronic Effects – Cancer, damage of Central Nervous System, Liver & Kidney
damage.
Ground-level ozone formation
Ozone is an important photochemical oxidant. Ozone in the troposphere
is formed by the reaction of VOC and oxides of nitrogen in the presence of
UV radiation. Ozone is formed in the stratosphere in the same way as in the
troposphere but the source of oxygen atoms is different. In the stratosphere,
the oxygen atom is available from the photodissociation reaction of the oxygen
molecule in the presence of UV radiation at < 240nm whereas in the troposphere
oxygen atom is from the photodissociation reaction of nitrogen oxides under
UV radiation at > 290nm.
The overall reaction is as follows

NO + VOC NO2

NO2 >hν NO(g)+ O(g)

>290nm
O(g)+ O2 (g) O3(g)

1.6.3 Management and Policy

a. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 in India is
an Act of the Parliament of India to control and prevent air pollution and
was amended in 1987. This is the first act of India established to prevent,
control and abate air pollution.
b. The Ozone-Depleting Substance (Regulation and Control) Rules,
2000, states that under Article 5, 1st paragraph of the Montreal Protocol
Regulation production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances.
This act also deals with monitoring and reporting requirements. In India,
MoEFCC has established an Ozone Cell that carries out the tasks of the
phaseout of the ozone-depleting substance.
c. National level strategy for pan India implementation to handle the
problem of increasing air pollution across the country in a comprehensive
manner in the form of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) was
launched under the Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
“The main objective of the NCAP is comprehensive mitigation actions for
prevention, control and abatement of air pollution besides augmenting the
air quality monitoring network across the country and strengthening the
awareness and capacity building activities.” The NCAP function with an
aim of collaborative, multi-scale and cross-sectoral coordination between
the relevant central ministries, state governments and local bodies.
There is no specific legislation of VOC specifically in India besides National
Ambient Air Quality Standard for Benzene by the Central Pollution Control
Board of India. Worldwide, the United States Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) and World Health Organization (WHO)
have suggested a few regulations and guidance for VOCs and made them
not compulsory for individual governments to follow. 17
Atmospheric International Conventions
Issues The 1991 Geneva Protocol
The ‘Geneva Protocol on the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic
Compounds or their Transboundary Fluxes’ was signed in Geneva (Switzerland)
on 18 November 1991. The main objective of this protocol is the reduction
of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), which is a key air pollutant that is
responsible for the formation of ground-level ozone. The options are given by
this Protocol for the reduction in emission targets that have to be chosen upon
signature or upon ratification. The first option is by the year 1999 a thirty per
cent reduction in emissions of volatile organic compounds. The second option
is a 30% reduction within a Tropospheric Ozone Management Area (TOMA)
mentioned in annexe I to the Protocol and by ensuring the total 1999 national
emissions should not exceed the levels of 1988. Thirdly, if the 1988 emissions
did not exceed specified levels then Parties may choose for stabilization at that
emission level of 1999.
The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol
Gothenburg protocol is to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level
Ozone and signed on 30th November 1999 in Gothenburg, Sweden. The main
objectives of this protocol are to control and reduce emissions, establish national
emission ceilings for 2010-2020 for four pollutants (SO2, NOx, NH3) including
VOC and provide negotiation facilities based on “Scientific Assessments of
Pollution Effects and Abatement Options”. The protocol also emphasizes
stringent limit values for emission sources such as combustion, electricity
production, dry cleaning, paints and aerosols have to be controlled. The protocol
was amended in 2012, to include national emission reduction commitments to
be achieved by 2020 and beyond.

1.7 ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION OF AIR

POLLUTANTS
The adverse effects of these pollutants may be additive, synergistic or antagonistic
but more often synergistic. One of the important effects of air pollution is the
smog that reduces visibility and is comprised of tropospheric ozone (O3). In this
unit, we will discuss different types of smog.

1.7.1 Photochemical Smog

The primary pollutants trapped in the lower atmosphere on exposure to UV
radiation from the sun form a thick blanket of smog known as photochemical
smog. The pollutants like ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), organic
peroxides (ROOR’), organic hydroperoxides (ROOH), and peroxyacetyl
nitrates (RCO3NO2) PAN are the main pollutants of photochemical smog. The
latter is formed by the irradiation of mixtures of alkanals, ozone and nitrogen
dioxide. The oxides of nitrogen emitted from the combustion process are
released into the atmosphere and initiate the process of ozone formation and
photochemical smog. The reactions involved in the formation of photochemical
smog are explained here. Small amounts of atmospheric oxides of nitrogen are
sufficient to initiate atmospheric chemical reactions for ozone formation and
photochemical smog formation.
18
 Air Pollution
hν
NO2 NO+O (R8)
M
O+O O3 (R9)
O3+NO NO2 (R10)
O3 O + O2 (R11)
hν
O+ H2O 2OH (R12)
HCHO H.+ HCO. (R13)
HCHO+OH. HCO.+H2O (R14)
M
H.+O2 HO2. (R15)
HCO.+O2 HO2.+ CO (R16)
HO2.+NO NO2.+ OH. (R17)
OH.+NO2 HNO3 (R18)
Note: The M in R9 is any 3rd molecule that is inert that is required to stabilize
the intermediate by absorbing vibrational energy in its excited state.
The reaction initiates with the photolysis of nitrogen dioxide (R8), to produce
nitric oxide and an oxygen atom. This dissociated oxygen atom quickly reacts
with an oxygen molecule in (R9) to produce ozone. Once ozone is formed it
reacts with nitric oxide (R10) to reproduce nitrogen dioxide. The steady-state
ozone concentration is predicted and measured based on initial concentrations
of nitrogen dioxide. At λ, 315 nm, ozone dissociates into an oxygen atom in
the excited state and oxygen molecule (R11). Sometimes excited oxygen atom
strikes water molecules and generates hydroxyl radicals (R12). The hydroxyl
radical unlike other radicals formed from organic molecules does not react with
abundant oxygen, but it reacts with other compounds such as CO, R-CHO,
hydrocarbons etc. The next reaction in the series starts from formaldehyde,
which undergoes photolysis and reacts with hydroxyl radicals resulting in
hydrogen radical and formyl radical (R13 & R14). The hydrogen radical reacts
with oxygen molecule swiftly to form hydroperoxyl radical ( R15) and the
formyl radical reacts with oxygen molecule resulting in both hydroperoxyl
radicals and carbon monoxide (R16). These hydroperoxyl radicals react further
with nitric oxide to reproduce nitrogen dioxide and hydroxyl radicals (R17). In
the end, hydroxyl radical reacts with nitrogen dioxide to form nitric acid (R18).
Next in the reaction series that contributes to the photochemical smog, we will
see the next higher aldehyde that is acetaldehyde, which undergoes a series
of reactions in two pathways like formaldehyde, photolysis and reaction
with hydroxyl radical to produce peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), which is a key
component in the photochemical smog. The reactions involved in the formation
of PAN are as follows.
CH3CHO CH3+HCO (R19)
CH3CHO+OH CH3CO+H20 (R20)
CH3+O2 CH3O2(R21)
CH3CO+O2 CH3COO2 (R22)
CH3O2+NO NO2+CH3O (R23)
CH3O+O2 HCHO+HO2 (R 24) 19
Atmospheric CH3COO2+NO NO2+CH3COO (R25)
Issues CH3COO+O2 CH3O2+C02 (R26)
CH3COO2+NO2 CH3COO2NO2 (PAN) (R27)
The photolysis reaction (R19) of acetaldehyde results in methyl radical and
formyl radical. In the reaction with hydroxyl radical, it produces acetyl radical
with the liberation of H2O (R20). The methyl radical generates methyl peroxy
radical in reaction with O2(R21), while acetyl radical reacts with oxygen and
produces acetyl peroxy radical (R22). The methyl peroxy radical rapidly reacts
with nitric oxide to yield nitrogen dioxide and methoxy radical (R23). Likewise,
in reactions (R24 - R27) resulting in peroxyacetyl nitrate. The general reactions
representing the photochemical smog are as follows.
The general reactions of Photochemical Smog are given below:
1) NO + VOC → NO (nitrogen dioxide)
2) NO2 + UV → NO +2 O (nitric oxide and molecular O)
3) O + O2→ O3 (ozone)
4) NO2+ VOC → PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate)
Overall reaction:
NO + VOC + O2+ UV → O3 + PAN + other particulates
1.7.2 Industrial Smog
Industrial smog is well known as grey or black smog that is formed in cold
and humid temperatures, particularly in urban areas where industrial pollution
is more with the emission of sulfur. The sulphur reacts with water vapour in
the atmosphere to produce sulphur dioxide. SO2 is oxidized to form sulphuric
acid and sulphate particles as soon as it was produced. On catalytic oxidation
of industrial dust particles in the presence of water vapour in the atmosphere
makes the droplets more acidic. All these particulates form a thick layer of haze
known as acid smog or industrial smog. The general reactions to industrial
smog are given below.
1) C + O2→ CO (Carbon dioxide)
2
2) S + O2 → SO (Sulfur dioxide)
2
3) SO + O2→ SO + O (Sulfur trioxide)
4) SO2 + H2 O → H 3
2
SO (Sulfuric acid)
5) H2 SO4 + NH → (NH 4) SO4 (Solid ammonium sulfate)
3

3 4 2
1.7.3 Acid Precipitation
Acid precipitation is the type of deposition such as rain, fog, mist or snow
that is relatively acidic than normal. The pH of rainwater without pollutants
is approximately 5.6. Acid deposition is the deposition of rain and dry acidic
particle with a pH of less than 5.5. It consists of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and
nitric acid (HNO3) mixture. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are released into the
troposphere either by the burning of fossil fuels or by natural sources. They are
oxidized by hydroxyl radicals to sulfuric acid and nitric acids which dissolve in
rainwater and reach the ground as acid deposition. Wet acid deposition is known
as acid rain. Dry deposition is called acid fog.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3

20 Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

 ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit. Air Pollution
1. What impact does VOCs pollution have on human health?
……………………………………………………………………………
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1.8 LET US SUM UP

Several forms of air pollutants exist in the form of gases, fumes, clouds,
smoke, mist, fog, smog, haze, dust, aerosols, etc. They are classified as natural/
anthropogenic, primary/secondary, particulates/gases, ambient air/indoor air/
global, stationary/mobile etc. Air pollutant concentrations are measured in the
form of their threshold values which are different for different pollutants. In
this unit, the emphasis has been made on the chemistry of tropospheric ozone
formation and volatile organic compounds. Atmospheric depositions of air
pollution such as industrial, photochemical and acid rain have been discussed.
Above these values, the pollutants show adverse effects on human beings. The
common problem is respiratory tract infection, bronchitis and other diseases
that can occur due to inhalation of toxic pollutants. Pollutants such as arsenic,
lead, fluoride, insecticides and pesticides affect human beings adversely. The
unit is concluded with some international protocols on VOC.

1.9 KEY WORDS

Acid Deposition: Any form of acid precipitation and also the fallout of dry acid
particles.
Acid Precipitation: Includes acid rain, acid fog, acid snow, and any other form
of precipitation that is more acidic than normal (i.e., less than pH 5.6). Excess
acidity is derived from certain air pollutants; namely, sulphur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen.
Aerosols: Microscopic liquid and solid particles originating from land and
water surfaces carried up into the atmosphere.
Convection: The vertical movement of air due to atmospheric heating and
cooling.
Ecosystem: A group of plants, animals and other organisms interacting with each
other and with their environment in such a way as to perpetuate the grouping
more or less indefinitely.
Greenhouse Effect: An increase in the atmospheric temperature caused by
increasing amounts of carbon dioxide and certain other gases that absorb and
trap heat, which normally radiates away from Earth.
Photochemical Smog: The brownish haze that frequently forms on otherwise
clear, sunny days over large cities with significant amounts of automobile traffic.
Photochemical smog results largely from sunlight-driven chemical reactions
among nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, both of which come primarily from
auto exhausts. 21
Atmospheric Primary Pollutants: Pollutants are released directly into the atmosphere mainly
Issues as a result of burning fuels and wastes, as opposed to secondary pollutants.
Secondary Air Pollutants: Air pollutants resulting from reactions of primary
air pollutants resident in the atmosphere. Secondary air pollutants include
ozone, other reactive organic compounds, and sulphuric and nitric acids.
Volatile Organic Compounds: A category of major air pollutants presents in
the air in the vapour state. The category includes fragments of hydrocarbon fuels
from incomplete combustion and evaporated organic compounds such as paints,
gasoline, and cleaning solutions. VOCs are major factors in the formation of
photochemical smog.

1.10 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/

REFERENCES
1. http://cpcbenvis.nic.in/air_pollution_main.html#
2. Manahan, Stanley E. “Frontmatter” Fundamentals of Environmental
Chemistry Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2001
3. Sources and Control of Volatile Organic Air Pollutants-United States
Air Pollution Training Institute (APTI) November 2002 Environmental
Protection Environmental Research Center, MD 17 (Revision 2) Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
4. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry by A.K. De
5. Environmental Chemistry by Stanley Manahan
6. Textbook of Environmental Science by Pearson.
7. https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net › acp-15-8889-2015

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Please refer to section 1.3
Check Your Progress 2
1. Please refer to section 1.5.1
2. Please refer to section 1.5.2
Check Your Progress 3
1. Please refer to section 1.6.2

22
UNIT 2 CLIMATE CHANGE
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Definition of Climate Change
2.4 Causes of Climate Change
2.5 Drivers of Climate Change
2.6 Extent of Climate Change
2.7 Impact of Climate Change
2.7.1 Impacts of climate change on Atmosphere
2.7.2 Heat Waves and Extreme Temperatures
2.7.3 Socioeconomic Impacts
2.7.4 Climate Change Impacts on Health
2.8 Which Country has Contributed the Most?
2.9 Policy Implications of Climate Change
2.10 Implications for Post-2015 Development Agenda
2.11 Let Us Sum Up
2.12 Key Words
2.13 Suggested Further Reading/References
2.14 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Climate change is not new for the planet earth. It has been happening across
history. We have reasons to believe that during the past 650,000 years there have
been seven cycles of glacial advances and retreat. The last ice age ended abruptly
about 11,700 years ago and marked the beginning of the modern climate era
and human civilization (NASA, 2020). Most of such climatic changes can be
attributed to small variations in the earth’s orbit that change the incoming solar
energy to our planet.
As per the report from the scientific working group in the IPCC TAR (IPCC,
2001) the Earth’s climate system has demonstrably changed on both global and
regional scales since the pre-industrial era. This phase of climate change carries
a special significance because it is extremely likely (with 95-100 % probability)
due to human activities (IPCC, 2014, p4). There is compelling evidence based
on observations, theories and modelling that much of the climate change which
we are seeing at the moment is due to human activities. Such anthropogenic
activities have been progressing at an unprecedented rate since the onset of
industrial societies. This period which is quite often referred to as a period of
great acceleration coincides with the accelerated rate of emission of Green
House Gases (Steffen et al., 2015). There is enough scientific evidence to
prove a positive correlation between GHGs and temperature (Petit et al, 1999,
p429). According to the analysis of 11,944 scientific papers, written by 29,083
authors and published in 1980 journals, there is over a 97% consensus on
anthropogenic global warming (Cook et al. 2013; Lehtonen, Salonen and
Atmospheric Cantell, 2019). However, there is still major uncertainty about the magnitude
Issues of the rise in Global Mean Surface Temperature (GMST) in response to a given
amount of greenhouse forcing.
In the past century alone, the temperature has increased by 0.7 degrees Celsius,
which is roughly ten times faster than the average rate of ice age recovery
warming (NASA, 2020). The technological advances, particularly in the field
of palaeoclimatology have now significantly enhanced human capacities to
monitor changing climatic conditions on earth, analyze the data and reveal the
signals of changing climate.
Current global temperatures are 0.8°C higher than pre-industrial levels and
research shows that 1.5°C of warming is already locked into the Earth (World
Bank Group, 2014a). The business-as-usual approach will lead the world to
warming of 2°C by the middle of the century and 4°C or more by the time
today’s teenagers reach their 80s (World Bank Group, 2014a). Climate change
is not merely confined to GHGs and a rise in temperatures but has widespread
implications for human existence. This unit aims to give detailed information
about definition, causes, mechanism, impacts, extent, intensity and policy.

2.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
•• define climate change;
•• explain the mechanism and causes of climate change;
•• explain the extent and intensity of climate change through some case studies;
•• explain the impacts of climate change and
•• explain the implications of climate change on the policies.

2.3 DEFINITION OF CLIMATE CHANGE

As per the UNFCCC, climate change is referred to as “any change in climate which
is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition
of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability
observed over comparable time periods” (UNFCCC 1992). However, according
to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), an international
entity of United Nations (UN), climate change refers to “a change in the state of
the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in
the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended
period, typically decades or longer” (IPCC 2015, p. 120). So, climate change
is “any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a
result of human activity” (IPCC 2014). There is a difference between the usage
of the term climate change in the UNFCCC and IPCC. Though the definition
given by UNFCCC talks about only human-induced climate change, we find
that the IPCC has adopted a broader definition that includes both natural and
human-induced climate change.

24
 Climate Change
2.4 CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Now, there is categorical research evidence to prove that climate change is real
and that human interventions are the major contributing factors to such changes
(IPCC, 2014, p4). Though there have been natural climate variability due to
natural internal processes within the climate system, there is an overriding
impact of alterations in the atmosphere due to human or anthropocentric
activities. In a report published in 2015, IPCC had emphasized the impact of
human influence saying that “Human influence on the climate system is clear,
and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are the highest in
history. Recent climate changes have had widespread impacts on human and
natural systems” (IPCC 2015, p. 2). Another recently published IPCC report
highlights that “human influence has become a principal agent of change on
the planet, shifting the world out of the relatively stable Holocene period into a
new geological era, often termed the Anthropocene” (Allen et al. 2018, p. 53)
Response to climate change has changed both in definition and scope. Though
initially, the focus was on reducing and stabilizing human-induced GHG
emissions in the atmosphere, it has subsequently become broad-based (UNFCCC
1992). In addition, the scope of climate actors has also started involving non-state
actors like the private sector, cities, civil society, and multilateral development
institutions among others (UNFCCC 2018).

2.5 DRIVERS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Fig. 2.1 Energy Budget of Earth and its atmosphere: A Schematic

representation Source: UKOU website
The schematic diagram as shown in Fig. 2.1 displays the energy budget of the
earth and atmosphere. The figures are global annual averages expressed as a
percentage of the rate per unit area at which solar radiation is intercepted by the
Earth; i.e., 100 units are equivalent to 342 W m−2. Fig. 2.1 demonstrates that the
entire Earth-atmosphere system is in a dynamic equilibrium. However, as we
can see from this figure that energy circulates within the system at a higher rate
compared to the rate of input or output at the top of the atmosphere. Therefore,
we find the earth’s surface to be warmer than it otherwise would be. We also 25
Atmospheric observe from this figure that there is no net accumulation of thermal energy
Issues in any specific part of the earth-atmosphere system. Therefore, Global Mean
Surface Temperature (GMST) cannot change in this scenario. It is however
interesting to find out what might cause Earth’s GMCT to change? If we look
at the energy budget as depicted in Fig. 2.1, we can easily understand that any
disturbance in the radiation balance at the top of the atmosphere has the potential
to force the global climate to change. Such a disturbance can either warm-up
or cool down till a balance is reached. This kind of energy perturbation in the
energy balance of the entire earth-atmosphere system (expressed in W m−2) is
called radiative forcing. Starting from its first major report published in 1990,
IPCC has used the concept of “radiative forcing” as the potential mechanism for
climate change. There could be several ways in which the energy balance can
get disturbed.
1. Change in Solar Constant
For instance, we can work out the effect of change in the solar constant.
Let us assume that planetary albedo remains unchanged (at 31%). Under
these circumstances, an increase in the solar constant will lead to a positive
radiative forcing. It means that the earth-atmosphere system will absorb
solar radiation at a higher rate than the rate at which it emits. It will have
a warming effect. Similarly, a reduction in solar constant will create a
negative radiative forcing thereby leading to a cooling effect.
2. Volcanic Eruptions
The energy balance can also be disturbed by volcano eruptions which
generally discharge a huge quantity of gases and volcano ash into the
atmosphere. Sometimes these eruptions are so powerful that they inject
materials up to the stratosphere. At such high altitudes, these materials
gradually spread around the world and bring about a widespread cooling
effect for a long time. The sulphur dioxide emitted during the eruption has
a far-reaching impact as chemical reactions convert this gas into droplets of
sulphuric acid. These sulphate aerosols persist in the stratosphere for several
years and enhance the backscattering of solar radiation. However gradually
these aerosols comedown to the troposphere and get washed away by rain.

BOX-2.1: Case Study: Impact of Volcano Eruption on Climate
Change
The eruption of Mount Tambora, a large volcano event in Indonesia
in April 1815 and its impact on climate change is well documented. It
resulted in a period of abnormally cold weather during the spring and
summer of 1816 and its impact was severely felt in many parts of the
Northern Hemisphere, especially in the northeastern United States.
Average temperatures in New England were observed up to 3.5 °C
below normal in June besides unseasonal frosts and snowfalls. Similarly,
Europe also suffered from crop failures and famine in England, France
and Germany. The below-average temperatures lasted for about two
years. Even in the summer of 1816, there were also widespread reports
of a dim Sun or persistent haze that was not dispersed by surface wind or
rain (since it was actually up in the stratosphere).
26
3. Accumulation of Greenhouse Gases in the atmosphere Climate Change
The increasing burden of greenhouse gases can also create imbalances in
the radiation budget of the earth-atmosphere system and thus give rise to
radiative forcing. This fact can be well understood through an illustrative
example. Let us assume that the atmospheric concentration of carbon
dioxide is doubled instantaneously but other parameters, for instance, the
solar input, planetary albedo, concentrations of other greenhouse gases, etc.
remains the same. The obvious impact will be higher absorption of outgoing
long waves and consequent reduction in net emission to space (from 236
W m−2 to 232 W m−2) for a CO2-doubling. It gives a very reliable reason to
believe that increasing anthropogenic concentrations of greenhouse gases
have created warming of the earth’s atmosphere (which may also be referred
to as greenhouse forcing).
Observed warming in the earth’s atmosphere cannot be explained keeping
in view the natural factors alone and thus can largely be attributed to
anthropogenic influence. IPCC (2007) states that during the last 50 years
“the sum of solar and volcanic forcings would likely have produced cooling,
not warming”.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. List out three possible factors which could disturb the radiation balance at
the top of the atmosphere?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
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2.6 EXTENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

We have sound reasons to believe that the concentration of carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases is increasing in the atmosphere. Furthermore, monitoring
programs established during the 1980s reveal an upward trend in the levels of
two other natural greenhouse gases namely methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide
(N2O). There are very convincing reasons to believe that buildup of all three
greenhouse gases is non-linear and can be attributed to human intervention
including a very unlikely source - the vast ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica.
It is now well-realized and understood that fossil-fuel-based material
consumption and changing lifestyles are the major culprits for climatic change.
These factors have increased the emission of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) for
example carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides (Allen et al. 2018, p. 53).
The impact of such emissions results in rising temperature across the globe
which has manifestations like increased floods and droughts, sea-level rise,
biodiversity loss, loss of agricultural productivity, and risks to human health.
Such impacts thwart initiatives for sustainable development, particularly in
those countries which are most vulnerable to its impacts. The extent of climate 27
Atmospheric change as manifested in different indicators is summarized in Table 2.1.
Issues
Table 2.1: The Extent of Climate Change as manifested in different
indicators
Indicator The extent of climate change
The data collected from Mauna Loa shows a consistent rise
in CO2 concentration. These measurements began in 1958
when the level was 315 ppm. However, levels had reached
more than 378 ppm in 2004. It appears to be accelerating.
Levels of CO2 For instance, it took around 200 years (1750 to 1975) for
observed at carbon dioxide levels to build up from 280 to 330 ppm but
Mauna Loa it took just 30 years for it to increase by a further 50 ppm.
It has also been seen that the three natural greenhouse gases
are fairly uniformly mixed up in the troposphere. Hence
their concentration in the atmosphere does not vary much
from place to place.
Rising Global mean warming is now approximately 0.8 degrees
global mean Celsius above preindustrial levels (World Bank,2012, ch2,
temperature p6)
Approximately 93 per cent of the additional heat absorbed
by the earth, resulting from increasing greenhouse gas
Increasing
concentration since 1955 is stored in the ocean. Between
ocean heat
1955 and 2010 the world's oceans to the depth of 2000 m
storage
have warmed on average by 0.09 degrees Celsius (World
Bank,2012, ch2,p7).
Sea level rise has been indicated to be 20 cm from the pre-
industrial times to 2009. The rate of sea-level rise was close
Rising Sea
to 1.7mm/year during the 20th century. This accelerated to
Levels
3.2 mm/year on average since the beginning of the 1990s
(World Bank,2012 ch2, p8).
Increasing loss Both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have been
of ice from losing mass since at least the early 1990s and losses of ice
Greenland and are shared roughly equally between them (World Bank,2012
Antarctica ch2, p8).
The linear trend of September ice extent since the beginning
Loss of Arctic
of the satellite record indicates a loss of 13 per cent per
Sea Ice
decade (World Bank,2012 ch2, p12).

From 1750 to 1994, a decrease in surface pH of 0.1 has

been calculated, corresponding to a 30 per cent increase in
Ocean
H+ ions. An increase in ocean acidity is more pronounced
Acidification
in higher latitudes than in tropics or subtropics (World
Bank,2012 ch2, p11).
Heatwaves Heatwaves with temperatures typically more than 3 Standard
and extreme Deviation warmer, which were highly unusual earlier, started
temperature getting more frequent. The five hottest summers in Europe
since 1500, all occurred after 2002(World Bank,2012 ch2,
p13).
28 Source: Compiled from World Bank (2012, ch 2)
 BOX 2.2: The CO2 Measurement Observatory at Mauna Loa Climate Change

The hypothesis proposed by John Tyndall (Tyndall 1861) that the concentration
of atmospheric CO2 influences the climate of the earth, were systematically
investigated by Charles D. Keeling. He started systematically measuring
atmospheric CO2 in 1958 at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii (Keeling et
al. 1976; Pales & Keeling 1965). Mauna Loa was especially identified as a
suitable place for this purpose primarily because it was remote from external
sources and sinks of carbon dioxide. Mauna Loa Observatory is located on
the north flank of Mauna Loa Volcano, on the Big Island of Hawaii, at an
elevation of 3397 meters above sea level. The Observatory has been collecting
and monitoring data related to atmospheric change since the 1950s. Mauna
Loa is strategically identified for measuring CO2. Firstly, it's isolated and far
from sources of pollution and secondly, its lava coated flanks are free from
plants and trees thereby making it free from their processes of photosynthesis.
Despite its location on the active volcanic island, volcanic emissions, from
the summit do not reach the observatory where atmospheric carbon dioxide is
measured. However, any rare instance of elevated level can be easily removed
from the final data set using simple mathematical filters (Earth Observatory,
2006). The measurements of Keeling show an increase from 316 ppm (parts
per million) in March 1958 to 391 ppm in September 2012. However, the
seasonal variations were superimposed on this generally increasing trend.
Such small variations can be attributed to the growth of plants in the Northern
Hemisphere leading to greater uptake of carbon from the atmosphere (Pales
and Keeling 1965).

Source: NASA

Fig. 2.2 Changing concentration of Greenhouse Gases

BOX 2.3: HOW DO WE MEASURE TEMPERATURES PREVAILING
IN PAST CLIMATES
It is a challenge to find out the temperatures prevailing in past climates. There
are several proxy ways to reconstruct past climates. These methods give us
indicative figures of the temperatures.
29
Atmospheric a. Archaeological Inscriptions and Historical Documents
Issues
For a long time in human history, people have recorded the vicissitudes of
climate and their impact on human affairs. Such archaeological inscriptions
and historical documents (diaries, ship logs, etc.) are a valuable source of
information about prevailing climatic conditions.
b. Palynology
Plants produce pollen in large quantities which are extremely resistant to
decay. Such pollens can be found in sediment layers, the density of which
gives indications about prevailing climatic conditions(palynology). The
abundance of the pollens of a given vegetation period or year depends
partly on the weather conditions of the previous months.
c. Study of ancient ice cores (Paleoclimatology)
Several proxy climate indicators like oxygen isotopes, methane
concentrations, dust content as well as many other parameters are used in
palaeoclimatology to examine ice core data. For instance, the ratio
between the 16O and 18O water molecule isotopologues in an ice core gives
indicative figures of past temperatures. The heavier isotope condenses
more readily as temperature decreases whereas the lighter isotope needs
colder conditions to precipitate. Hence analysis of isotope ratios in ancient
ice provides information about climatic conditions in the past. Similarly,
air bubbles in the ice, which contain trapped GHGs for example carbon
dioxide and methane also give indications about past climatic changes.
The European Greenland Core Drilling Project drilled in central Greenland
from 1989 to 1992. The ices were found to be 3840 years old at a depth
of 770 m, 40000 years at 2521m and 200000 years old or more at 3029 m
bedrock. Similarly, the ice cores in Antarctica can reveal climate records
for the past 650000 years.

Fig. 2.3: Temperature changes over the past 400 000 years reconstructed from
the Vostok ice core, the longest continuous ice-core record to date.
e. Determining past climate from annual tree rings (Dendroclimatology)
Dendroclimatology is the science of determining past climate from annual
tree rings. The trees in many parts of the world experience an annual
growth cycle. The tree rings are wider when conditions favour growth
and narrower during difficult times. The thickness and/or density of a ring
depends on the local temperature and moisture conditions thereby giving
a unique opportunity to find the temperatures of the respective climate
period. There are other properties like maximum latewood density (MXD)
which are better proxies than simple ring width. This data can then be
matched with overlapping records from other trees to produce longer time
30 series.
 Using tree rings scientists have estimated many local climates for Climate Change
hundreds to thousands of years. In a few cases, the preservation of
fossil trees has allowed continuous records from 11 000 years ago to
the present to be constructed.

Fig. 2.4: The growth pattern from year to year appears as a series of
rings that give valuable information about the respective climate period.
This science is called dendroclimatology
f. Ocean Coral Skeletal Rings or bands
Palaeoclimatological information can also be derived from Ocean Coral
Skeletal Rings or bands. Cyclical responses lead to annual banding in
corals, which can provide information about sea-surface temperatures,
sea level and other ocean conditions - typically back to some 400 years
ago.
Source: UKOU

2.7 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change has widespread impacts extending well beyond an increase in
temperature. It has an implication for almost everything which we depend
upon, for example, water, energy, transportation, wildlife, agriculture,
ecosystems, and human health. Anthropogenic activities have already caused
major climatic changes and have set in motion, still more changes. Moreover,
carbon dioxide, the predominant Greenhouse Gas (GHG), continues to linger
in the atmosphere for hundreds of years and it takes a while for the planet to
respond (for example oceans). As a result of this, the impact persists for at least
several more decades, even if we stop emitting. In the absence of major action
to reduce emissions, global temperature is on track to rise by an average of 6 °C
(10.8 °F), according to the latest estimates (NASA Global Climate Change).
The temperature of the earth’s surface does not react instantaneously to the
rising carbon dioxide levels. It happens because a sizeable amount of excess
energy is stored in the ocean (large heat capacity). Even if all emissions were
to stop today, some further warming will be unavoidable before temperatures
stopped rising. Therefore, we cannot afford to wait to control GHG emissions
till it becomes intolerable.
31
Atmospheric The warning signs of climate change have started impinging upon the lives of
Issues people (Please see Box 2.4). The battle against climate change will have to be
fought on two major fronts 1) “mitigation” – reducing the flow of greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere; and 2) “adaptation” – learning to live with, and adapt
to, the climate change that has already been set in motion. It will require both
a globally-coordinated response (such as international policies and agreements
between countries, a push for cleaner forms of energy) and local efforts on
the city- and regional level (for example, public transport upgrades, energy
efficiency improvements, sustainable city planning, etc. (NASA Global Climate
Change).
2.7.1 Impacts of climate change on Atmosphere
All these anthropogenic changes have the potential to modify the chemical
composition of the atmosphere. Changes in atmospheric temperature also
affect the rates at which chemical reactions take place (World Meteorological
Organization, 2009). Climate warming is expected to enhance the release of
biogenic hydrocarbons into the atmosphere which in turn contributes to the
worsening of regional air quality (World Meteorological Organization, 2009).
Emissions of nitric acid by bacteria in soils are sensitive to temperature and
soil moisture and are affected by climate change (World Meteorological
Organization, 2009). An increasing number of wildfires and droughts will lead
to larger emissions of combustion products like carbon monoxide, nitric oxide,
soot and other compounds, affecting the regional and global air quality. Changes
in ocean temperature affect the ocean-atmosphere exchanges of compounds
such as dimethyl sulphide, which are a source of sulphate aerosols. Just like
greenhouse gases, aerosols can have profound impacts on the earth’s radiative
and energy balance. By controlling the amount of energy that reaches the
earth from the sun, aerosols can create a cooling effect by reflecting the sun’s
energy into space. However, there is one aerosol soot (also known as black
carbon), that can create a warming effect and thus contribute to global warming.
Climate models have predicted that aerosols have masked about 50 per cent
of the warming that would otherwise have been caused by greenhouse gases
(NASA, 2009). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has concluded that
industrial aerosols have acted as a significant brake on the increase in global
temperatures over the last 30 years or so. Although aerosols have limited the
warming, they also have detrimental effects on human health such as lung
damage. Aerosols also affect rainfall patterns, some areas like India and China
can experience reduced rainfall. They can also alter the pattern of wind and
atmospheric circulation. Aerosol as air pollutants cause tens of thousands of
premature deaths every year in the UK alone (the University of Leeds, nd).

2.7.2 Heat Waves and Extreme Temperatures

Climate change also leads to more extreme weather events for example more
intense hurricanes, more droughts, and more floods, with all the devastation to
life, livelihood and property that accompanies them. The past two decades have
witnessed a greater occurrence of extreme heatwaves leading to heat-related
deaths, forest fires, and harvest losses. Such events include the European heatwave
of 2003, the Greek heatwave of 2007, the Australian heatwave of 2009, the
Russian heatwave of 2010, the Texas heatwave of 2011, and the U.S. heat wave
32
of 2012. Quite often referred to as 3-sigma events, these events involve monthly Climate Change
and seasonal temperatures typically more than 3 standard deviations (sigma)
warmer than the local mean temperature. Normally frequency of such events
is only once in several hundreds of years. If we count the five hottest summers
in Europe since 1500, we surprisingly find that all of them took place after
2002. The European heatwave of 2003 and the Russian heatwave of 2010 took
the exceptional death toll of 70,000 and 55000 respectively. Extreme summer
temperatures are gradually affecting an increasing proportion of the land area.
They can be attributed to growing climatic warming since the 1960s. In the
1960s, three-sigma events were practically absent and affected less than 1 per
cent of the Earth’s surface. However, the area affected by such extreme events
has grown to 4–5 per cent by 2006–08, and 6–13 per cent of the land surface by
2009–11. The studies have now predicted that such events typically cover about
10 per cent of the land area now. It certainly could not have happened in the
absence of global warming.

2.7.3 Socioeconomic Impacts

Climate change can have far-reaching socio-economic impacts. Societies that
are most at risk are close to physical and biological thresholds. Ocean warming
for example can reduce fishing catch, affecting 650 million to 800 million people
relying on fishing for their livelihoods. In Ho Chi Minh City, direct infrastructure
damage from a 100-year-old flood could increase from $200 million to $300
million today to $500 million to $1 billion by 2050. The average share of annual
outdoor working hours lost due to extreme heat and humidity could increase
from 10 per cent today to 15 to 20 per cent in 2050. Socioeconomic impacts of
climate change can have non-linear impacts as system thresholds are breached
and knock-on effects.
Poorer regions often have climates that are closer to physical thresholds therefore,
they rely more on outdoor work and natural capital and have fewer financial
means to adapt quickly. Therefore, these regions are most at risk. However, the
impact of climate change has been devastating even for developed countries
like the USA which lost some 1.5 per cent of GDP to such weather-related
events in 2017 alone. But some regions are likely to gain from climate change
for example Canada where crop yields are expected to increase. Also, the rising
temperature can boost tourism in northern Europe.

2.7.4 Climate Change Impacts on Health

Climate change affects many of the social and environmental determinants
of health such as clean air, safe drinking water, sufficient food and secure
shelter. Extreme heat can contribute directly to deaths from cardiovascular and
respiratory disease, particularly among elderly people. High temperature raises
the levels of ozone and other pollutants in the air that worsen cardiovascular and
respiratory disease. Increased levels of pollen and other aeroallergens in high
temperatures can trigger asthma affecting around 300 million people. Rising sea
levels and extreme weather conditions can destroy homes and other essential
medical facilities. Also, variable rainfall patterns can affect the availability
of freshwater thus compromising hygiene and increasing the risk of diarrheal
disease, which kills over 500 000 children aged under 5 years, every year.
33
Atmospheric BOX 2.4: Some Emerging Warning Signs of the Climate Change
Issues
1. Glaciers are contracting at an average rate of 15m per year in the central
and eastern Himalayas. If this trend continues, these glaciers are expected
to vanish by 2035. This can have serious impingements on the population
depending on the glaciers for drinking water supplies etc. Kumbu
Glacier, on the popular climbing route to the summit of Mount Everest,
has retracted by 5km. The swelling of glacial lakes in Bhutan and the
increasing risk of catastrophic flooding is another example of such a
phenomenon (ICIMOD, 2019).
2. The thawing of Permafrost in the Arctic region poses a serious threat to
the critical infrastructure of the region. This can also pose threat to the
utilization of natural resources and sustainable development of the region.
Around 70 per cent of the infrastructure located in permafrost is at high
risk of being thawed. One-third of Pan-Arctic infrastructure and 45 per
cent of hydrocarbon extraction in the Russian Arctic are located in high
hazard regions (Hjort et al., 2018).
3. Sundarbans are the natural walls for some coastal areas of India and
Bangladesh against climate change. But with rising waters and illicit
logging, these mangrove trees are nearing their extinction. Therefore,
many local people and local species are losing their habitat. Coastal areas
are losing their natural defence against extreme climate change phenomena
such as floods and cyclones. In 1998 a large flood occurs in Bangladesh,
which covered about 70 per cent of the country (Schwartzstein, 2019).
4. Advancement in flowering time for around 385 British plants species by
4.5 days has been observed. This reflects the serious effects of temperature
change on the ecosystem, as flowering is a phenomenon that is sensitive
to temperature (Fitter & Fitter, 2002).
5. In Monteverde, Costa Rica, twenty out of fifty species of Anurans
disappeared during a population crash in 1987. These crashes are expected
to be the result of demographic changes that affected communities of
birds, amphibians etc. These changes are associated with dry mist
frequency, which is negatively correlated with sea surface temperature
(Pounds, Fogden, & Campbell, 1999).
6. Antarctic peninsula Adélie penguin populations have shrunk by 33%, in
the past 25 years population has declined by 33 per cent owing to their
declining winter sea ice habitat. Adélies depend on sea ice as a resting
and feeding platform. They are being replaced by gentoo penguins (a
sub-Antarctic species that has begun to migrate towards the pole) which
thrive in open water.
Source: Compiled from different Sources

2.8 WHICH COUNTRY HAS CONTRIBUTED THE

MOST?
Any country’s total carbon emission does not give us a full picture of the country’s
contribution to global warming. For example, China is the biggest emitter of
CO2 among all the countries (since it overtook the USA in 2007), however, the
per capita contribution is just 6.98 tonnes per capita as against 16.24 tonnes per
34 capita of the USA. Sharp variations in CO2 emission per capita have triggered
a debate to fix the responsibility among developed and developing countries. Climate Change
The reasons for such variations are primarily due to the availability of energy
resources and the energy policies followed by them. For example, Australia
emits around 20.6 tonnes per person which is partly due to its reliance on CO2
intensive coal. However, consumption recorded in the UK is 9.7 tonnes/person
which is partly due to relatively CO2-light gas power stations. On the other
hand, African countries like Kenya have a footprint as low as 0.3 tonnes, which
is likely to drop even further with the country’s surge in wind power.

BOX 2.5: Global Warming: The Key Contributors

The global average temperature has increased by more than 1℃ since its
pre-industrial levels. The emission of carbon dioxide has been consistently
increasing (~36 billion tonnes of CO2 per year) and its concentration has reached
well over 400 ppm-the highest ever level in over 800,000 years. However,
there are marked differences in the contribution of different countries to this
massive emission. There are more than 100-fold differences in per capita
CO2 emissions between the countries. Interestingly the countries in the high-
income group emit more whereas those in the low-income group emit less
than their population share. As far as the contributions of different countries
are concerned, China is the world’s largest CO2 emitter (accounting for more
than one-quarter of emissions) which is followed by the USA (15%); EU-28
(10%); India (7%); and Russia (5%). So far USA has cumulatively contributed
the most of global emissions (25% of cumulative emissions) followed by the
EU-28 (22%); China (13%); Russia (6%) and Japan (4%). There are large
inequalities in the emission patterns across the countries which makes climate
change a matter of serious international diplomacy. The worlds poorest have
contributed less than 1% of emissions but are worst affected by the overall
impact of emissions. However, a large amount of CO2 is embedded in traded
goods. Therefore, if we look at emissions based on consumption rather than
production, figures might change. However, the IPCC guidelines on national
emission accounting and reporting are written based on production-based
emissions. These are the standards adopted internationally for emission
reporting and taken into account for climate reporting. Moreover, such figures
are available to the entire world since the mid-eighteenth century. The world
is not on track to limit global warming to 2℃ above the pre-industrial level,
as targeted in Paris Agreement. It is expected that the continuance of existing
policies will enhance global warming up to the range 3.1-3.7℃

Source: Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser (2020): Our World in Data

2.9 POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF CLIMATE

CHANGE
Complex and policy sensitive issues like climate change can evoke conflicting
responses from interest groups and policymakers who tend to adopt a “pick
n mix” approach to the available scientific evidence, promoting research that
reinforces their existing arguments and beliefs, and neglecting or criticizing
more uncomfortable findings. Even today, quite often we come across people
who deny the climate crisis. It has seriously affected the global fight against 35
Atmospheric climate change. Quite often the facts of climate change come in conflict with
Issues people’s values, ideologies and political allegiances.
Cooling or warming is not necessarily bad for some areas. For example, Siberia
might get warmer in a few decades and this could be profitable for the local
population. On the other hand, the impact of climate change may force others to
leave their homes because of changing environmental conditions. For instance,
in the Sahel region of Africa, for example, declining agricultural productivity
has driven people out of their homes for the past 30 years; this is expected to
continue as a result of climate change, putting the lives of 60 million people
who live in the Sahel region at risk (Goosse, 2005). Further, the opinions of
individual scientists are often influenced by decision-makers or the media than
the reliability of their knowledge. It has created a scenario where the disputes
within the scientific community are often extensively reported by the media and
become a matter of public debate.
The politicization of climate change-related issues which have seriously
undermined the scientific pieces of evidence has often been observed. For
instance, 2001shortly after he assumes office, President George W. Bush
withdrew the US from the Kyoto Protocol specifying that it would harm the US
economy. It was seen across the world as the influence of business-backed lobby
groups in government. The allegations were reported in the media that officials
of the white house had tried to interfere with a report from US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) to downplay the seriousness of climate change.
Similarly, in 2019 President, Donald Trump who had mocked climate science
as a hoax, decided to withdraw from Paris Climate Change Declaration. Though
a clearer picture of American participation in the agreement will emerge after
the 2020 election, it has created a worldwide concern for the future of global
efforts to prevent climate change.

2.10 IMPLICATIONS FOR POST-2015 DEVELOP-

MENT AGENDA
The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) unequivocally highlights the rise in global mean temperature
and warming of the climate system. Global warming has a widespread cross-
cutting impact on almost all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). The
task of achieving SDGs will be very challenging in a 2°C world, but in a
4°C world there is serious doubt whether this can be achieved at all (World
Bank,2014b). It makes climate change the biggest developmental challenge of
our times. The repercussions have already started being felt across the world,
particularly in the most vulnerable communities. The situation is serious, as the
countries worst affected by climate change are the ones that contribute least to
it. As the global temperatures are progressing, problems are likely to further
exacerbate, adversely affecting people in every aspect of their lives for instance
food availability, water availability, diseases, frequent occurrence of floods,
droughts, rising sea levels, oceanic acidification, rising inequalities, etc. It is
well realized that strong and early actions based on clean, low carbon pathways
are the only answer to slow down the unsustainable growth strategies which will

36
 Climate Change
far outweigh the costs. Many of the worst projected climate impacts could still
be avoided by holding warming to below 2°C (World Bank, 2014b).

2.11 LET US SUM UP

Climate change presents a complex, borderless and intergenerational
phenomenon. It has diverse and far-reaching setbacks to the process of
development. As Mike Toman, Research Manager, Research Department,
World Bank says “Climate change is an issue that presents great scientific and
economic complexities, some very deep uncertainties, profound ethical issues,
and even lack of agreement on what the problem is”. It is now believed to be a
classic example of a super wicked problem The super wicked problem has been
described in the research literature as comprising of four key features: “time is
running out; those who cause the problem also seek to provide a solution; the
central authority needed to address it is weak or nonexistent; and, partly as a
result, policy responses discount the future irrationally (Levin et al,2012).
Human civilization is witnessing an unprecedented phase of human history
where the availability of natural capital and social capital are the limiting factors
for future economic growth (Hawken 1997). Furthermore, the prosperity of one
nation cannot be seen in isolation from the prosperity of all other nations. It
is well realized that solutions for global problems have to be collective and
should be explored simultaneously on social, economic and environmental
fronts. Thus, first time in history, human beings can determine the habitability
of the planet. The capacities of the people at various levels need to be built to
sustain the environment. It is due to this reason that systems of capacity building
have come to the forefront of the development agenda. A collective global effort
through ‘out of box’ initiatives is the only answer to address this problem.

2.12 KEY WORDS

Climate System: The climate system is a highly complex system consisting
of five major components: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere,
the lithosphere and the biosphere, and the interactions between them. The
climate system evolves in time under the influence of its internal dynamics and
because of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations and
anthropogenic forcings such as the changing composition of the atmosphere and
land-use change.

2.13 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/

REFERENCES
•• World Bank Group. (2014a). World Is Locked into About 1.5°C Warming
& Risks Are Rising, New Climate Report Finds. Available: http://
www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2014/11/23/climate-report-finds-
temperature-riselocked-in-risks-rising
•• World Bank Group(2014b). Turn Down the Heat: Confronting the New
Climate Normal. Washington, DC: World Bank. © World Bank. https://
openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/20595 License: CC BY-NC-
ND 3.0 IGO. 37
Atmospheric •• UNFCCC (2018) Yearbook of global climate action 2018. United Nations
Issues Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); Marrakech
Partnership, Bonn
•• Levin, K., Cashore, B., Bernstein, S. et al. Overcoming the tragedy of super
wicked problems: constraining our future selves to ameliorate global climate
change. Policy Sci 45, 123–152 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-012-
9151-0
•• UCS, https://www.ucsusa.org/search?search_api_
fulltext=Global+warming%3A+early+warning+signs&field_issues=4300
•• ICIMOD (2019). The Hindukush Himalaya Assessment, Mountains,
Climate Change, Sustainability and People, https://rd.springer.com/content/
pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-92288-1.pdf(accessed on 6th April 2020)
•• Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser (2020) - “CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas
Emissions”. Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from:
‘https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions’
[Online Resource]
•• Foster P, Ramaswamy V, Artaxo P, Berntsen T, Betts R, Fahey DW, Jaywood
J, Lean J, Lowe DC, Myhre G, Nganga J, Prinn R, Raga G, Schuz M,
Van Dorland R. 2007. Changes in atmospheric constituents and radiative
forcing, in Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Solomon S, Qin
D, Manning M, Marquis M, Averyt K, Tignor MMB, Miller HL Jr, Chen
Z (eds). WGI Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC,
Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. pp 129–234
•• University of Leeds (nd)“Aerosols and Climate”. Environment.leeds.ac.uk.
Retrieved 16 July 2020, from https://environment.leeds.ac.uk/atmospheric-
chemistry-aerosols/doc/aerosols-climate/page/5.
•• World Meteorological Organization (2009). “Implications of Climate
Change for Air Quality”. Retrieved 16 July 2020, from https://public.wmo.
int/en/bulletin/implications-climate-change-air-quality.
•• NASA (2009), “Just 5 questions: Aerosols”, Retrieved 16 July 2020, from
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loa-observatory
•• IPCC (2001) Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
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www.ipcc.ch/report/ar3/wg1/ (accessed on 18th July 2020)
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evidence/ (Accessed on 18th July 20202)
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38 past 420,000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica. Nature 399, 429–
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trajectory of the Anthropocene: The Great Acceleration. The Anthropocene
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lives—of two countries”, Retrieved 19th July 2020, from https://www.
nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2019/07/sundarbans-mangrove-forest-
in-bangladesh-india-threatened-by-rising-waters-illegal-logging/
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change on a tropical mountain. Nature 398, 611–615 (1999). https://doi.
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Nelson, F. E., Etzelmüller, B., & Luoto, M. (2018). Degrading permafrost
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pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-78580-6.pdf

2.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Please refer to section 2.5

39
UNIT 3 STRATOSPHERIC OZONE
DEPLETION
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Formation and Dissociation of Ozone
3.4 UV Radiation and its Significance
3.5 Causes of Ozone Depletion
3.6 The Ozone Hole
3.7 Impacts of Ozone Layer Depletion
3.7.1 Health Impacts
3.7.2 Environmental Impacts
3.8 Management and Policy
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Key Words
3.11 Suggested Further Reading/References
3.12 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere of the earth comprises several distinct layers. The first layer
extending up to a 15 km altitude region where the weather exists is known as
the troposphere. Next to the troposphere, the region extended upwards to an
altitude of 50km is known as the stratosphere. The stratosphere’s density is very
less where the terrestrial life will not sustain, but it is a home for the ozone layer.
In general, at the equator ozone concentrations are high and gradually reduce as
latitude increases, but the equilibrium of stratospheric ozone can be disturbed in
the presence of hazardous chemicals and progress towards undesirable reactions.
This unit emphasizes the formation and dissociation of ozone, causes of ozone
depletion, impacts of ozone layer depletion and international conventions to
control stratospheric ozone depletion.

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to
•• describe the process of ozone formation;
•• describe the process of ozone layer depletion and its impacts and
•• explain the important ozone management policies.

3.3 FORMATION AND DISSOCIATION OF OZONE

Ozone was discovered by C. F. Schonbein in 1839, its nomenclature comes
from the Greek word meaning “smell”, and ozone is a distinctively pungent
odour when in large concentrations. In 1880, experiments showed that ozone
strongly absorbed radiation in the ultraviolet part of the sunlight spectrum. This Stratospheric Ozone
led by 1913, to conclusive proof that most of the atmosphere’s ozone was located Depletion
in the stratosphere. It was later shown that its maximum concentration occurs
between 19 and 23 km. The thickness of the ozone is measured by the dobson
unit. One Dobson Unit (DU) is to be 0.01 mm physical thickness at STP. The
Dobson unit is named after Gordon Dobson, a researcher at the University
of Oxford who in the 1920s built the first instrument to measure total ozone
from the ground, making use of a double prism monochromator to measure the
differential absorption of different bands of solar ultraviolet radiation by the
ozone layer. This instrument, called the Dobson ozone spectrophotometer, has
formed the backbone of the global network for monitoring atmospheric ozone
and was the source of the discovery in 1984 of the Antarctic ozone hole.
Before learning about the causes of ozone depletion, dear learner first we will
understand how ozone will be formed. Ozone is essential to life and acts as
a protective shield from harmful UV radiation. If the ozone concentration
decreases, we will experience immediate adverse health effects including skin
cancer and cataracts. Long term adverse effects include a diminishing rate of
photosynthesis in plants, a decrease in immune response in humans and an
effect on plankton growth which is the mainstay of the food chain in the ocean.
Ozone is present both in the troposphere and stratosphere.
In the uppermost atmosphere, ozone will be formed by the reaction of molecular
oxygen with atomic oxygen. Ozone is also decomposed in the presence of
sunlight back to the same two species of reactants. These reactions will convert
high energy UV radiation into heat energy. The formation and decomposition of
ozone in the upper atmosphere are as follows.
hʋ
O2 2O (i)
O2 + O O3+ heat (ii)
hʋ
O3 O2 + O (iii)
In the first and second reactions, molecular oxygen atoms dissociate into oxygen
atoms in the presence of high energy solar radiation. Ozone is bluish gas with a
characteristic pungent odour. In urban areas, nitrogen dioxide is formed by the
oxidation of nitric oxide. In the presence of sunlight nitrogen dioxide dissociate
into oxygen atoms. These oxygen atoms, in the lower atmosphere, interact with
oxygen molecules and produce O3.
In the upper atmosphere, ozone absorbs 200-300nm wavelength range of UV
radiation and dissociates into molecular and atomic oxygen as shown in the third
reaction. Ozone in the stratosphere region acts as a natural shield or blanket or
natural atmospheric filter to avert the UV light from reaching the earth’s surface,
thereby protecting life on earth from destruction.

3.4 UV RADIATION AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

Sunlight emits electromagnetic waves with different energies with different
wavelengths. Visible light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum, that could
be detected by the photoreceptor eyes. There are three parts to the UV spectrum
known as UVA, UVB and UVC. Based on their wavelength these three types 41
Atmospheric of radiation differ in their biological activity and skin penetration. The UVB
Issues and UVC regions got absorbed by ozone, oxygen, water vapour and CO2 when
sunlight passes through the atmosphere. The UVA radiation will not be filtered
significantly by the atmosphere.
Radiation Range of wavelength(nm)
UVA 320-400
UVB 280-320
UVC 200-280
The shorter wavelength UVC is the most destructive type of radiation. However,
UVC radiation is completely filtered by the atmosphere and cannot reach the
earth. UVA radiation has the relatively longest wavelength and approximately
95% reaches the earth’s surface. It is capable to penetrate the skin causing
immediate tanning. The medium wavelength UVB radiation cannot penetrate
beyond the upper layer of the skin but is responsible for delayed tanning,
burning and skin cancer. On passing through the atmosphere and being absorbed
by living tissues on earth, UV light causes damage to the DNA molecule and
protein present on the surface. However, about 99% of UV radiation is absorbed
by stratospheric ozone and hence stratospheric ozone is known as good ozone
or ozone shield.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the Ozone layer?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
2. Why is the ozone layer important?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….………........................................

3.5 CAUSES OF OZONE DEPLETION

The chemical emissions from the industries and some natural processes destroy
stratospheric ozone. Other than volcanic emissions and waste from aircraft, these
chemical emissions are travelled up and reach the stratosphere by high upward
air currents in the tropical regions. Some chemical compounds like Methane
(CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide (N2O) and water vapour
are introduced into the stratosphere and are dissociated by the stratospheric
ultraviolet radiation resulting in byproducts known as “radicals” like nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) and chlorine monoxide (ClO) which contribute an active role in
the depletion of ozone. Aerosols and clouds can also contribute to ozone loss by
42 providing a surface for the dissociation reactions.
Present research studies suggested that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are Stratospheric Ozone
responsible for upper atmospheric ozone destruction. CFCs are a group of Depletion
halogenated organic compounds, which are manufactured and marketed as the
freon trade name. They are unreactive, non-flammable, odourless and nontoxic
and all chlorine and fluorine atoms are substituted by hydrogen atoms.
CFCs are used in the following applications.
i. Used as heat transfer fluid in refrigerators, air conditioners and heat pumps.
ii. Plastic foam production.
iii. Purification of computer parts in the electronic industries
iv. Used in aerosol cans as the pressurizing agent.
It is important to note that CFCs are highly stable in the troposphere but they
are subjected to high-intensity UV radiation in the stratospheric region, which
would split them apart by releasing free chlorine atoms as free radicals.
A halogen radical chain mechanism leading to ozone depletion
Step 1 Chain initiation
Bond cleavage in a CFC molecule forms two radicals
hʋ
CFCl3 CFCl2 + Cl (iv)
The reaction begins with homolysis of C-Cl bond in CFCl3. The resulting Cl
radical formed in th
is step initiates the radical process. Finally, all the chlorine atoms of CFCl3
molecule would be liberated by further photochemical reactions.
Step 2 Chain Propagation
One radical reacts with O3 giving rise to chlorine monoxide which then reacts
with oxygen atoms to form O2 and Cl.
Cl + O3 ClO + O2 (v)

ClO + ClO 2Cl + O2 (vi)

The (v) and (vi) reactions are known as the chlorine catalysis cycle because
by these reactions’ chlorine is repeatedly regenerated as it proceeds with O3.
Hence, chlorine acts as a catalyst, a chemical that assists a chemical reaction
without being used up itself in the reaction. It is interesting to note that each
chlorine atom can last from 40 to 100 years in the stratosphere and has the
potential to destroy 1,00,000 ozone molecules. Hence, CFCs are determined
as damaging compounds of ozone because they behave as transport agents
which can transport chlorine atoms continuously in the stratosphere. The ozone
depletion can persist because of the slow removal process of chlorine atoms
from the stratosphere.
Research results show that the stratosphere contains gaseous halogens and
reactive gaseous halogens which are potent enough to cause depletion of ozone.
In the stratosphere, the highly reactive chlorine monoxide (ClO) gas undergoes
different catalytic ozone dissociation reaction cycles. This mechanism is
depicted in Fig. 3.1, where the influence of polar stratospheric clouds on the
depletion of ozone is shown. 43
Atmospheric
Issues

Fig.3.1 Role of PSC on Ozone Depletion

In the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) the gases like hydrochloric
acid (HCl) and chlorine nitrate (ClONO2) from gaseous reservoirs undergo redox
reactions with each other on the surface of the PSC and give rise to chlorine
(Cl2). This elementary chlorine in the presence of solar radiation undergoes
photolysis giving rise to chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms further react with
ozone to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) which is an active form of chlorine
and oxygen. The ClO dimerizes to dichlorine dioxide which is also known as
chlorine peroxide (Cl2O2) and further dissociates again into atomic chlorine by
photolysis. This catalytic cycle repeatedly generates chlorine atoms and one
chlorine atom is potential enough to damage about one lakh ozone molecules till
its reaction is quenched by the reaction with other species like oxides of nitrogen
and methane. In another mechanism, PSC grows large enough to precipitate by
removing nitric acid (HNO3) from the stratosphere which is known as acid rain.
Depletion of ozone can also be occurred by reactions with bromine, nitrogen,
hydrogen, and oxygen gases involving catalytic processes. In general, a catalytic
reaction cycle is a group of chemical reactions that result in the depletion of
many ozone molecules in the repeated process. A pictorial representation of
sources of gaseous halogens and their conversion into reactive halogens and
depletion of ozone molecules is depicted in Fig. 3.2.

44 Fig 3.2 Conversion of halogen gases to reactive halogen gases

When ultraviolet light radiation (UV) hit CFCs in the upper atmospheric region, Stratospheric Ozone
a carbon-chlorine bond breaks, producing atomic chlorine. The chlorine atoms Depletion
then react with an ozone (O3) molecule dissociate apart and destroy the ozone
by liberating oxygen molecule (O2) and chlorine monoxide (ClO). The pictorial
depiction of the ozone depletion process is presented in Fig. 3.3 and Fig. 3.4
shows how ozone is damaged by CFCs.

Fig. 3.3 Ozone Depletion Process

Fig. 3.4 Destruction of Ozone by CFCs

3.6 THE OZONE HOLE

In 1974, chemists Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina found thinning of the
stratospheric ozone layer which is known as the ozone hole over the south pole.
Later on, it was linked to CFCs which could damage the ozone layer. Ozone in
the Antarctic region develops in the winter season a vortex of winds spreads
throughout the pole and separates the polar stratosphere. When temperatures
fall below -78°C, thin clouds appear comprises of ice crystals, nitric acid, and 45
Atmospheric sulphuric acid mixtures. Once the chemical reactions start on the cloud surface
Issues
and release active forms of CFCs again ozone depletion starts, and the ozone
“hole” occurs.
In the Antarctic, during the winter season in June in the stratosphere a vortex
which is like a whirlpool created within a ring of air circulating the Antarctic
consists of stratospheric gases. South polar stratospheric clouds will form from
the low moisture and chemicals present in the extreme cold temperatures of the
Antarctic winter. These clouds provide a wider surface for atmospheric chemical
reactions during winter seasons thereby releasing molecular chlorine from the
reservoirs of chlorine. During spring sunlight split apart chlorine molecules by
releasing free chlorine which initiates the chlorine cycle that destroys ozone.
Depletion of ozone in the spring season of Antarctica is as follows

HCl + ClONO2 HNO3 + Cl2 (vii)

hʋ
Cl2 Cl + Cl (viii)

2Cl + O3 2ClO + 2O2 (ix)

2ClO +2O 2Cl + 2O2 (x)

Net 2O3 3O2

Fig. 3.5 Ozone Destruction Cycles

The ozone depletion process can be explained by the following three cycles
(Fig. 3.5). Cycle 1 of ozone destruction is more significant at tropical and middle
latitudes because of intense UV radiation in the stratosphere that involved two
types of reactions. The net reaction is that atomic oxygen reacts with ozone,
giving rise to two oxygen molecules. The cycle is initiated with either Cl or
ClO. ClO reacts with atomic oxygen to form Cl. The resultant Cl then started
46 depleting ozone by reacting with ozone and converting back again to ClO. The
ozone destruction reaction is catalyzed by chlorine. In this cycle, atomic oxygen Stratospheric Ozone
(O) is also formed when ozone reacts with oxygen molecules in the presence of Depletion
UV radiation.

Ozone destruction is maximum in polar regions owing to the high concentrations

of ClO. At this point, cycle 2 is initiated by the reaction of ClO with another
ClO or BrO in cycle 3 which potentially destroys ozone. The overall reaction in
both the 2nd and 3rd cycles is three oxygen molecules are formed from two ozone
molecules and are catalytic reactions because the reaction between ClO & BrO
releases gaseous chlorine and bromine. Solar radiation is required to complete
these reaction cycles. It is also interesting to note that ozone is highly unstable
because of this reason even though it is considered a potential filter for UV
radiation but it makes it comfortably depleted. The flow chart in Fig. 3.6 shows
key steps involved in the depletion of ozone.

Fig. 3.6 Key steps in the ozone depletion process

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is ozone depletion and how does it occur?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….…………………………………………………………… 47
Atmospheric …………………………….………………………………………………
Issues ………………………………………….………........................................
2. Define the ozone hole and explain the polar vortex.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….………........................................

3.7 IMPACTS OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Dear learners, so far you have learnt about the ozone shield that protects us from
harmful UV rays of solar radiation. Now we have to learn about the adverse
effects of harmful UV radiation due to the occurrence of the ozone hole. The
ozone layer depletion is connected with anthropogenic activities. Halocarbons
are emitted from industries that produce refrigerators, air conditioners, chillers,
propellants, blowing agents, firefighting agents and solvents used in dry cleaning
and degreasing.

3.7.1 HEALTH IMPACTS

Impact on genetic material: On exposure to harmful UV radiation DNA in our
body absorbs energy from the radiation and dissociates. A large part of damaged
DNA is restored by proteins present in the nucleus of cells and the unrepaired
part of DNA causes skin cancer. In this unit, we would have few health impacts
due to ozone depletion.
1. Skin Cancer
Research studies reveal that every year, several new skin cancer cases are
reported in the U.S. than other types of cancers. Unprotected UV radiation
exposure is the root cause of developing skin cancer. One in five Americans
in their lifetime will develop skin cancer. Melanoma is the most common type
of skin cancer observed in people aged between 15-and 29 and causes 75%
of skin cancer deaths. Other than melanoma cancer there are two other types
of skin cancers-basal cell carcinoma and Squamous cell carcinoma which are
less fatal than melanoma skin cancers but can spread causing disfigurement and
becoming fatal.
Basal cell cancer: It is a regular type of skin cancer associated with tumours.
They developed as small, fleshy lumps or tumours on the skin and the head and
neck are more significant. Basal cell cancer developed slowly and rarely spreads
to other areas of the body. However, it penetrates the bone and causes damage
followed by deformation to the structure of the bone.
Squamous cell cancer: Unlike basal cell cancer it spreads to other body
parts. It is developed as tumours, red scaly patches and huge masses.

48
2. Premature Aging Stratospheric Ozone
Depletion
Other impacts of ozone layer depletion include skin diseases like actinic
keratoses and premature ageing. The symptoms like skin growths and lesions
observed on sun-exposed body parts like the face, hands and neck. Severe and
long duration sun exposure also causes premature ageing and changes the skin
texture to become crimpy, thick and leathery. This can be avoided with proper
skin protection from UV radiation.

3. Eye Damage
The eye damage due to the UV radiation exposure is dependent on the radiation
criteria like ground reflection, level of brightness to activate the squint reflex, the
quantity of atmospheric reflection and the wavelength of the incident radiation.
The harmful UV radiation will damage the eye, especially the cornea because
the human cornea is a good absorber of UV light. Exposure to longer duration
with high-intensity UV radiation can cause snow blindness which is a condition
of having temporary clouding of the cornea. Exposure to a chronic dose of
radiation resulted in the formation of cataracts. The acute effects of harmful UV
radiation include photokeratitis and photo conjunctivitis whereas chronic effects
contain pterygium and squamous cell cancer of the conjunctiva and cataracts.

3.7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

1. Effects on Plants
The plant ecosystem is very vulnerable to UVB radiation that on exposure alters
and disturbs natural physiological and developmental processes despite inherited
immune mechanisms to reduce or repair the effects. Secondary adverse effects
include plant deformation, abnormal nutrient distribution within the plant,
developmental phases and overall secondary metabolism. These alterations can
have adverse impacts on plant competitive balance, phytophagous, diseases of
plants, and biogeochemical cycles.
A wide range of positive and negative responses are observed due to UV-B
radiation. Plants unlike animals cannot change their place on their own to protect
themselves from UV radiation but they develop some protective shielding
mechanism in the presence of UV-B radiation.
UV-B radiation also affects vital biomolecules such as DNA, proteins, and
lipids, which are vulnerable to UV-B radiation but a small part of the UV-B
radiation falling on a leaf surface penetrates the inner tissues. The research
studies on plant species tested show that leaves synthesize compounds in the
presence of UV-B radiation which acts as sunscreens and averts UV-B radiation
from penetrating leaves’ sensitive biological inner tissue. Some plants adapt
biological mechanisms to increase in thickness of leaves and changes in the
protective waxy layer, due to this UV-B radiation cannot penetrate deeper layers
of leaf to damage the inner tissue. Some protective molecules generated due to
the exposure to UV-B radiation will enhance the amount of colour, antioxidant
49
activity and fibre content that are included in our daily food.
Atmospheric In some cases, UV-B radiation-induced chemical reaction changes in plant
Issues biochemistry affect the interactions between crop plants and herbivory insects
by changing in biochemical composition of the plant to make the leaves less
attractive as food for herbivores thereby delaying the process of leaf litter
degradation in the soil.

2. Effects on Marine Life

The UV-B radiation can penetrate ocean waters about two meters from the
surface and can cause great concern for the health of densely populated marine
plankton in that region. Marine plankton possesses an inherent protective
response in their chlorophyll cells by producing radiation-absorbing pigments
but this protective response is inhibited by UV-B radiation. It also reduces the
process of photosynthesis thereby reducing food and oxygen produced by them.
An increase in UV-B radiation will enhance the ozone concentration and plants
are very sensitive to photochemical smog. UVB radiation also causes damage in
the development stages of the growth of marine animals like amphibians, fish,
shrimp and crabs.

3. Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles

Increases in UVB radiation influence the biogeochemical cycles as well by
changing both sources and sinks of gaseous compounds such as carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, ozone, and carbonyl sulfide. These gases in the atmosphere
interact with the physical climate system and develop some alterations to
climate and feedback in the biogeochemical system globally. The carbon
dioxide present in the atmosphere performs a crucial role in the atmospheric
heat distribution, physical climate system like wind, precipitation and the heat
and energy exchange is taking place between the air and the oceans. Similarly,
some complex interactions observed between terrestrial biogeochemical and the
integrated climate system have a significant association with life on Earth.

4. Effect on Carbon Cycle

Variations in primary production influence the movement of CO2 across the
biosphere, but not on carbon storage. On the other hand, any alterations in the
distribution of plant species are determined by the increase in UV-B radiation
that seriously affects the quantity of carbon stored in phytomass. For instance,
any change from evergreens to deciduous dwarf shrubs that are UV-B sensitive
will reduce carbon storage during the winter season and reduction the growth
of the plant in general and would increase the atmospheric CO2 movement. In
some regions, the outer layer of soil is sensitive to UV-B radiation, and plant
species like mosses, potentially change their carbon storage and can increase the
soil temperature, that they insulate, consequently stimulating microbial activity
and releasing CO2 into the atmosphere. Plant ecosystem may also face stresses
due to the rise in UV-B radiation and climatic change combinedly affect the
composition of plant species and herbivores and increase their susceptibility to
50 fire, insects and disease.
5. Effects on Materials Stratospheric Ozone
The increase in UV-B radiation concentration has a detrimental effect on Depletion
materials used outdoors. Useful lifetimes of plastic and wood products are
determined to a large extent by degradation due to the action of solar UV
radiation. The consequence of depletion of the ozone layer in the stratospheric
region is enhanced terrestrial UV-B flux, damaging most of the organic
compounds used in construction materials. The materials made up of plastic
in the presence of UV-B radiation in the atmosphere undergo oxidation and
breakdown showing visual evidence like discolouration, cracking on the surface
and finally brittleness by the loss of strength in the product, which limits its
lifetime. This can be minimized partially by adding light stabilizers as additives
in plastic material used outdoors. In the case of wood products, similar types
of degradation and breakdown were observed in addition to the biodegradation
significantly. In this case, UV-B radiation exposure on the wooden surface
make it hydrophilic, thereby water from various sources is easily absorbed by
the wooden surface, generating the chance to grow the wood rot fungi which
biodegrade the wood. Compounds made of wood flour and plastic are known
as wood-plastic or plastic lumber will produce fungal biodegradation by the
process of photodamage when exposed to UV-B radiation.

3.8 MANAGEMENT AND POLICY

The substantial growth of ozone layer depletion has stimulated a response across
the globe. Despite skepticism in most countries and United Nations, particularly
scientists around the world designed treaties to prevent this UV disaster. Dear
learner, we have discussed some important aspects, policies and practices about
ozone depletion and strategic plans to avert this disaster in this unit.
Vienna Convention
The ozone layer present in the stratosphere protects the earth living organisms
from the detrimental effects of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. In 1985, the world
witnessed developments in the scientific perception of ozone depletion and its
health impacts on the environment. In response to this understanding, the Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was established. The Vienna
Convention is an agreed framework that set up principles agreed upon by many
parties. The Vienna Convention was the first convention of this kind signed by
the countries involved, came into effect in 1988 and gained global ratification
in 2009 by 197 states as well as the European Union. The convention appraises
the enormity of ozone destruction at the time and the preparedness of countries
around the world to work together to solve the problem. The Convention aims to
promote cooperation among participating countries by interchange information
on the effects of anthropogenic activities on the ozone layer. To date, the countries
of the convention meet once every three years to discuss and make decisions
on issues such as Research and Systematic observations and financial and
administrative matters as well. CFCs are the main chemical agents responsible
for ozone depletion. This convention does not involve legally binding reduction 51
Atmospheric principles in respect of the use of CFCs and was considered later in the form of
Issues the Montreal Protocol.
Montreal Protocol
The Montreal Protocol (an extension protocol to the Vienna Convention to
protect the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty for the protection of the
ozone layer. The main objective of this protocol is phasing out the generation
of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The agreement was signed on 16
September 1987 and entered into force on 1 January 1989, holding its first
meeting on May 1989 in Helsinki. This protocol aims to curtail the production
of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and the emission of the CFCs. The parties of the
protocol have to reduce their usage and production of CFC to the 20th-century
level, keeping the year1986 to be the base year. Considering developed and
developing nations, an amendment to the protocol was made in June 1990.
Initially, the amendment is needed from the participating nations to phase out
the ODS by 2000 in developed countries and completely phased out by 2010
in developing countries. The complete elimination time that is fixed for the
developing countries for Hydro Chlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) is 2040.

Amendments to the Montreal Protocol

The London Amendment (1990): Change in the schedule of ODS emission
by the complete phaseout of CFCs, halons, and carbon tetrachloride by 2000 in
developed countries, and by 2010 in developing countries. Methyl chloroform
was newly added to the list of controlled ODSs, with phaseout in developed
countries and developing countries targeted in 2005, and 2015 respectively.
The CopenhagenAmendment (1992): This amendment states about significantly
accelerated phaseout of ODSs and incorporated a hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFC) phaseout for developed countries, started in 2004. The ODS such as
CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform were targeted for
complete phaseout by 1996 in developed countries by capping methyl bromide
consumption at 1991 levels.
The Montreal Amendment (1997): This amendment states the phaseout
of HCFCs in developing countries, and the phaseout of methyl bromide in
developed and developing countries in 2005 and 2015, respectively.
The Beijing Amendment (1999): This amendment incorporated stringent
controls on the production and trade of HCFCs along with the addition of
Bromochloromethane to the list of controlled ODS with phaseout targeted for
2004.
The Kigali Amendment (2016): This amendment has extended controls on the
production and consumption of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to phase down due to
the industrial adoption in moving away from ozone-depleting substances which
are potent greenhouse gases damaging climate. Under this amendment, countries
are devoted to phasing out the production and consumption of HFCs by 80%
over the next 30 years. This phaseout schedule will prevent > 80 billion metric
tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions by 2050, which avoids up to
0.5° Celsius global warming by the end of the century by protecting the ozone
layer. Under the amendment, at the beginning of 2019, all developed countries
will reduce HFC consumption and most of the developing countries will hold
52 consumption in 2024, and the rest of the developing countries under unique
conditions hold consumption in 2028 and finance some countries for transition Stratospheric Ozone
to climate-friendly alternatives. The important points in this amendment are Depletion
•• Innovative and flexible structure;
•• Ambitious phasedown schedule;
•• An incentive for early action;
•• Broad participation;
•• Enforcement and accountability; and
•• Multiple opportunities to increase ambition.
Assessment Panels
The Parties of the Montreal Protocol have advisory bodies known as Assessment
Panels. The Assessment Panels are in charge of publishing regular reports on the
progress of implementing the phaseout of ozone-depleting substances, including
assessments of alternatives and emissions reduction.
TEAP: The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) provides
technical information in respect of the alternative technologies that have been
investigated and employed to make it viable to virtually remove the use of ODS.
SAP - The Scientific Assessment Panel (SAP) assesses the status of the
destruction of the ozone layer and related atmospheric matters.
EEAP - The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP) assesses the
several effects of ozone layer depletion
OzonAction
UNEP’s Division of Technology, Industry, and Economics Ozon Action
Programme provides to the developing countries in various sectors like industry,
government, and other stakeholders with information exchange services,
training, and networking. In addition to these core clearinghouse services, the
Programme also assists with Country regional Programmes and Institutional
Strengthening projects.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the impacts of ozone depletion on the environment?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
2. Explain Montreal protocol.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………

53
Atmospheric
Issues
3.9 LET US SUM UP
This unit dealt with stratospheric ozone formation and different reactions
involved in the atmosphere. Every substance or chemical or material produced
by humans or nature can pollute the environment in one way and CFCs are the
main cause of the depletion of ozone. While the stratospheric ozone is useful for
life on earth by protecting them from UV radiation, the tropospheric ozone is
harmful to humans and other living beings. This unit also described elaborately
the significance of UV radiation, various steps involved in ozone depletion,
and the impacts of ozone depletion on health and the environment. The unit
concluded by describing various management policies, international treaties
and their amendments to protect the stratospheric ozone.

3.10 KEY WORDS

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): Synthetic organic molecules that contain one or
more of both chlorine and fluorine atoms).
Convection: The vertical movement of air due to atmospheric heating and
cooling.
Polar Vortex: A polar vortex is an upper-level low-pressure area lying near
one of the Earth’s poles. There are two polar vortices in the Earth’s atmosphere,
overlying the North and South Poles. Each polar vortex is a persistent, large-
scale, low-pressure zone less than 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) in diameter, that
rotates counter-clockwise at the North Pole and clockwise at the South Pole, i.e.,
both polar vortices rotate eastward around the poles.

3.11 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/

REFERENCES
•• Manahan, Stanley E. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry Boca
Raton: CRC Press LLC,2001
•• https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/ozone/UNEP/chap5.html
•• https://www.epa.gov/ozone-layer-protection/health-and-environmental-
effects-ozone-layer-depletion

3.12 ANSWERS TO THE CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Please refer to section 3.3
2. Please refer to section 3.4
Check Your Progress 2
1. Please refer to section 3.5
2. Please refer to section 3.6
Check Your Progress 3
1. Please refer to section 3.7.2
54 2. Please refer to section 3.8
UNIT 4 PERSISTENT ORGANIC AND
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTANTS
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Definition
4.4 Sources of POPs and Radioactive Waste
4.5 Classification of POPs and Radioactive Waste
4.5.1 Classification of POPs
4.5.2 Classification of Radioactive Waste
4.6 Mechanism
4.7 Biomagnification
4.7.1 Biomagnification of POPs
4.7.2 Biomagnification of Radioactive Waste
4.8 Impacts on Human Health
4.8.1 Impacts of POPs
4.8.2 Impacts of Radioactive Waste
4.9 Management
4.9.1 Management of POPs
4.9.2 Management of Radioactive Waste
4.10 Policy
4.10.1 Policy for POPs
4.10.2 Policy for Radioactive Waste
4.11 Let Us Sum Up
4.12 Key Words
4.13 Suggested Further Reading/References
4.14 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that have a resistance
toward chemical, photolytic and biological degradation to a varying degree.
Therefore, POPs tend to bio-accumulate and biomagnify through the food
chain. Some of these pollutants such as PCBs may persist in the environment
for periods of years and may bioconcentrate by factors of up to 70,000-fold.
POPs are generally halogenated compounds with low water solubility and high
lipid solubility, leading to their bioaccumulation in fatty tissues. They are semi-
volatile and thus, move long distances in the atmosphere before deposition.
These properties are responsible for the presence of compounds such as PCBs
all over the world, even in regions where they have never been used. POPs may
exist, both as natural and anthropogenic. Many of the POPs are first-generation
organochlorine insecticides such as DDT, toxaphene, dieldrin, and chlordane.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dibenzo-p-dioxins (dioxins) and dibenzo-p-
furans (furans) are also example of POPs. These are chemical byproducts of
Atmospheric various industries and have been reported in air, in all areas of the world, at
Issues
concentrations up to 15ng/m3 while the concentrations may be several times
greater in industrialized areas. These pollutants have also been reported in rain
and snow. There are two main subgroups of POPs:
•• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
•• Halogenated hydrocarbons (most persistent compounds and more
halogenated compounds tend to accumulate to a greater extent as compared
to the less chlorinated compounds)
Humans are mainly exposed to POPs through contaminated foods, occupational
accidents and the environment. Exposure to POPs can cause adverse health
effects such as illness, endocrine disruption, reproductive and immune
dysfunction, neuro disorders, cancer, and developmental abnormalities and also
reduces immunity in infants.
Radioactive waste is a waste that contains radioactive material (inorganic
elements with high molar mass) and is usually a by-product of nuclear power
generation and other applications of nuclear fission or nuclear technology
(research and medicine). Radioactive wastes naturally decay over time and
hence, this waste has to be isolated and an appropriate disposal procedure has to
be applied. The storage and disposal of radioactive waste depend on the type of
waste and radioactive isotopes. Radioactive waste is hazardous to most life forms
and the environment. Therefore, the disposal of radioactive waste is regulated
by government agencies to protect human health and the environment. This unit
emphasizes the sources, mechanism of transport, impact and management of
POPs and radioactive waste.

4.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
•• define persistent organic pollutants;
•• define radioactive waste;
•• identify the sources of POPs and radioactive waste;
•• explain the mechanism of transport of wastes in the environment;
•• describe the impact of POPs and radioactive waste and
•• describe management and policy for POPs and radioactive waste.

4.3 DEFINITION
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are defined as the poisonous organic
substances that break down slowly and thus, bioaccumulate and biomagnify
through the food chains.
Radioactive waste is the waste that contains radioactive materials which emit
nuclear radiation (ionizing radiation). These radiations can cause some changes
in our cells by breaking the electron bonds that hold molecules together.
Radiations can damage our genetic material (DNA).
56
 Persistent Organic
4.4 SOURCES OF POPs AND RADIOACTIVE and Radioactive
WASTE pollutants
Most of the POPs were widely used after World War II when thousands of
synthetic chemicals were launched for commercial use. These chemicals
proved beneficial in pest and disease control, crop production, and industry.
However, later on, these chemicals were shown to have unexpected detrimental
effects on human health and the environment. The 12 main POPs are altogether
known as the “Dirty Dozen” including aldrin, chlordane, dichlorodiphenyl
trichloroethane (DDT), dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex,
and toxaphene (widely used as insecticides) along with polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, and polychlorinated dibenzofurans
(commonly-released as industrial byproducts).
Nature is a large producer of radioactive material as the surface of the Earth is
the reservoir of primordial radioactivity. Small amounts of radioactive materials
are contained in mineral springs, sand mounds and volcanic eruptions. The
other major sources of radioactive waste are nuclear power reactors and nuclear
power plants. Some radionuclides polluted sites are Chernobyl, Fukushima
and Chelyabinsk Oblast. About fifty-seven accidents have occurred since the
Chernobyl disaster out of which around 60% of all nuclear- accidents have
occurred in the USA. Some of the nuclear power plant accidents include
the Kyshtym disaster, Mayak, Russia (29 September 1957), Windscale fire, Great
Britain (10 October 1957), SL-1 accident, USA (3 January 1961), radiation
accident in Mexico City (March-August 1962), Three Mile Island accident,
Pennsylvania, United States (28 March 1979), radiation accident in Morocco
(27 July 1984), Chernobyl disaster, Ukraine (26 April 1986), Goiania accident
(13 September 1987), radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza, Spain (December 10–
20, 1990), radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica (13 October 1996), radiotherapy
unit accident in Thailand (January-February 2000), Mayapuri radiological
accident in India (26 February 2010) and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster,
Japan (11 March 2011).
This waste is very dangerous and toxic and can remain as such for a few months,
years or thousands of years and the level of radioactivity can vary. Many industries
like mining, scientific research, medicine, defence and nuclear power generation
stations produce various by-products that include radioactive waste. Various
radioactive wastes include alpha-emitting wastes such as uranium dioxide (U-
235 and U-238), U-234, neptunium-237 (Np-237), and plutonium-238 (Pu-238),
americium-241 (Am-241), neutron emitters such as californium-251 (Cf-251),
beta and gamma emitting wastes. Tritium-3 (3H), cesium-137 (137Cs), strontium-90
(90Sr) and plutonium-239 (239Pu) are present in ocean water due to anthropogenic
activities while technetium-99 (99Tc), carbon-14 (14C), strontium-90
(90Sr), cobalt-60 (60Co), iodine-129 (129I), iodine-131 (131I), americium-241
(241Am), neptunium-237 (237Np) and various isotopic forms of plutonium and
uranium are the most common radionuclides present in the soil. In short, 57
Atmospheric radioactive waste is a kind of waste in gas, liquid or solid form that contains
Issues radioactive nuclear substance.

4.5 CLASSIFICATION OF POPs AND

RADIOACTIVE WASTE
4.5.1 Classification of POPs
POPs can be classified into two groups (Fig. 4.1):

Persistent Organic
Pollutants

Intentionally Unintentionally
Produced POPs Produced POPs
(8POPs) (8POPs)

Intentionally PCDDs
Aldrin PCDFs
Chlordane PCBs
DDT Hexachlorobenzene
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Hexachlorobenzene
Mirex
PCBs
Toxaphene

Fig. 4.1 Classification of POPs

Purposely produced chemicals for control of diseases, agricultural,
manufacturing and industrial processes. For example, DDT is still used to
control mosquitoes in some parts of the world. Other purposely produced POPs
are aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex and
toxaphene (Fig. 4.2).

58 Aldrin Cis-chlordane Trans-chlordane

 Persistent Organic
and Radioactive
pollutants

Dieldrin Endrin Heptachlor

Hexachlorobenzene Mirex Toxaphene

Fig. 4.2 Structural formula of purposely produced POPs

Unintentionally produced chemicals that are generated as a byproduct from
some industrial processes and combustion such as dioxins which are produced as
a byproduct of municipal and medical waste incineration and backyard burning
of trash. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins,
and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) are the common POPs released as an
industrial byproduct (Fig. 4.3).

Polychlorinated Polychlorinated Polychlorinated

biphenyls dibenzo-p-dioxins dibenzofurans
Fig. 4.3 Unintentionally produced POPs
4.5.2 Classification of Radioactive Waste
The radioactive wastes can be classified into five categories: high level, low
level, intermediate level, mining and milling and transuranic waste but it can
vary with a country (Fig. 4.4). Separate storage and clean-up procedures are
there for different types of nuclear wastes. The classification of radioactive
waste is based upon the amount of radioactivity contained in the radioactive
waste. If it is significantly less and comprised of isotopes having many short
half-lives, then it is low-level radioactive waste or intermediate-level waste or
transuranic waste. If the radioactivity of the radioactive waste is significantly
high and is comprised of isotopes having much longer half-lives, then it is high-
level radioactive waste.
High-level Radioactive Waste
High-level radioactive waste, produced by nuclear reactors is spent fuel that 59
Atmospheric is still present inside the nuclear reactors after its use. This radioactive waste
Issues is highly active and hot. Therefore, it has to cool off for several years and is
considered to be very dangerous. The cooling of this waste is done inside the
deep pools of water that are several hundred feet deep. Ninety-five per cent of
the radioactivity produced in the nuclear reactor is due to high-level waste. The
waste must consistently go through a process of cooling and the radioactive
material under control.
Intermediate-level Radioactive Waste
Intermediate-level radioactive waste contains a low amount of activity than
high-level radioactive waste and high amount of radioactivity than low-level
radioactive waste. Refurbishment waste, ion-exchange resins, metal fuel
cladding and chemical sludges are the main intermediate-level radioactive
wastes that typically require shielding during handling and storage. Four per
cent of total radioactivity is due to this kind of waste.
Low-level Radioactive Waste
Most of the radioactive wastes used in nuclear reactors, hospitals and dental
offices daily and are needed to provide the services positively are called low-
level radioactive wastes. About 90% of all nuclear waste is low level. This type
of waste is not dangerous and can be disposed of in a landfill. This does not
require any type of shielding during handling and transport.
Mining and Milling Wastes
Mining and milling of ores (uranium ore) generate tailings and waste rocks.
This kind of waste is produced during the grinding and chemical concentration
of the ore.
Transuranic Waste
Transuranic waste is produced during nuclear waste reprocessing procedures. It
contains more than 3700 Becquerel per gram of elements and is much heavier
than uranium. This waste is the least dangerous.

60 Fig. 4.4 Classification of Radioactive Waste

 Persistent Organic
4.6 MECHANISM and Radioactive
The substances present in soil can leach from the surface through the unsaturated pollutants
zone into groundwater and this infiltration capacity of a soil depends on texture,
porosity, and humidity. Leaching of pesticides is higher in sandy texture soils
while clay soils have greater pesticide adsorption potential. Leaching can occur
irregularly and facilitates an easy path for water and pollutants at specific points
such as soil cracks, worm trails, rotten roots, termites, and other biological
activities. Surface water contamination with persistent organic pollutants can
also occur with runoff. Pollutant molecules present in surface and groundwater
thus, affect different living forms of the water as well as the fauna that use it
for drinking. Persistent organic pollutants present in water can also spread into
agricultural products through irrigation. Persistent organic pollutants can reach
the air from pesticide applications, oil combustion, industries, indoors at home
and on soil or plant surfaces. When pesticides are sprayed, the droplets aerially
dispersed and reach non-target areas. The dispersion of pesticides depends upon
the application pressure, size of the droplets, the distance of the nozzle of the
pulverizer to the target and wind velocity during application. These pesticide
molecules present in the air are transported and redistributed globally by air
currents, thus, polluting all kinds of ecosystems (Fig. 4.5). The two most
important factors which affect the immobility of these molecules are adsorption
capacity and molecular vapour pressure which is influenced by temperature (an
increase of 10°C temperature makes these molecules about four times more
volatile).

Fig. 4.5 Mechanism of transportation of POPs in the environment 61

Atmospheric Radionuclides contaminated media is consumed by living systems either
Issues
intentionally through potable water, meats, fruits and vegetables or unintentionally
through persons using infected soil or water. The different methods by which
radionuclides can transport to the environment and enter the food chain are as
follows (Fig. 4.6).
Radiation from the environment: Radiation from contaminated environmental
media (soil or sediments).
Inhalation: When radionuclides contaminated air is inhaled in the form of
gases, vapours or small particles and enters into the body through the lungs.
Submersion: Radiations can also be transmitted by swimming or bathing in
water contaminated with radionuclides.
During the decay process, the radionuclides spontaneously release excess energy
in the form of radiations such as alpha, beta and gamma. Alpha emission is
associated with heavy atoms, such as uranium-238 and thorium-234. During the
decay process of these radionuclides, excess energy is given off with the ejection
of two neutrons and two protons from the nucleus. Beta emission involves the
ejection of a beta particle from the nucleus of an excited atom (Strontium-90
is a beta emitter). After the emission of alpha or beta radiations, the nucleus of
radionuclides remains excited and still has excess energy. This energy is usually
lost as gamma radiation.

Everything on the Earth is exposed to radiation at all times; however, exposure

at levels greater than natural background radiation levels can be hazardous.
Exposure to certain high levels of radiation can cause cancer, birth defects,
other abnormalities, and death depending on the time of exposure, amount of
radiation, and the decay mechanism.

Fig. 4.6 Transportation of radiation in the environment

4.7 BIOMAGNIFICATION
62 Biomagnification is defined as the gradual accumulation of certain chemical
pollutants in the bodies of organisms present at higher trophic levels of food Persistent Organic
webs through smaller organisms that are food for larger organisms in the food and Radioactive
web. Organisms at lower trophic levels accumulate small amounts. Organisms pollutants
present at the next higher trophic level of the food web eat many of the lower-
level organisms which consumed the contaminated food and hence, accumulate
in larger amounts. The rate of bioaccumulation depends on the route of uptake,
the rate of uptake, nature of the substance, transformation processes that the
substance undergoes by metabolic processes, the lipid content of the organism,
environmental factors, and some other physical and biological factors.
Hydrophobic chemical substances bioaccumulate more in living organisms
and their bioaccumulation increase with the increase in hydrophobicity of the
substance. There are two main classes of toxic materials that are concerned with
biomagnification – toxic metals and persistent organic pollutants because both
are lipophilic and not easily degraded.
4.7.1 Biomagnification of POPs
Due to the resistance of POPs towards degradation and breakdown, these
compounds cannot easily excrete and tend to accumulate in organisms and
bioaccumulate through the food chain. Desorbed POPs become bio-available
and can move into the food chain and can also reach the ground/surface water or
the atmosphere through volatilization and are thus, be randomly distributed in
the biosphere. These POPs and their persistent metabolites have long half-lives
and tend to bioaccumulate and biomagnify in organisms once dispersed into the
environment. In this section, the movement of POPs in the biosphere toward
soil microorganisms, flora and fauna is discussed.
The lowermost level of the food chain is contaminated with POPs, which is soil.
The next level of the food chain is the plants, which might uptake POPs mainly in
leaves during application and also through roots to shoots, leaves and fruits from
contaminated soil. Thus, bioaccumulation occurs in the aerial parts of the plants
(leaves and fruits). These contaminated plants are then consumed by animals
which are in turn consumed by the predatory species. The concentration of
persistent organic pollutants increases with the uptake of higher concentrations
through the food chain and can be hazardous for humans and animals. A
strong increase in the concentration of POPs in successive trophic levels via
the food chain is called biomagnification. This happens when a toxic substance
accumulated in an organism cannot be metabolized or excreted and transferred
to the next higher trophic level. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) show
toxicological effects at very low concentrations as PBDEs are structurally
similar to thyroid hormones; act as endocrine disruptors via alterations in thyroid
hormone homeostasis and show neurodevelopmental effects. Pregnant women,
developing fetuses, and infants are the most sensitive populations to be infected
by PBDEs. These PDBEs are indoor pollutants and are additives mixed into
plastics and foams which can leach out of goods and products by volatilization.
These can bioaccumulate in the living organisms which can again be followed
by biomagnification in the food chain. Biomagnification is commonly known 63
Atmospheric for mercury and DDT. The worst situation of biomagnifications is seen in the
Issues aquatic food chain (Fig. 4.7).

Fig. 4.7 Biomagnification of pesticide (DDT) in the aquatic food chain

4.7.2 Biomagnification of Radioactive Waste
Heavy metals are chemically stable because they can neither be destroyed nor
converted into a non-toxic form except for some radioactive metals, which can
change into a different chemical element after radioactive decay. Organisms,
particularly those subject to naturally high levels of exposure to metals, have
mechanisms to sequester and excrete metals. Problems arise when organisms
are exposed to higher concentrations than usual, which they cannot excrete
rapidly enough to prevent damage. These metals are transferred in an organic
form.
64
Mercury which is present in small amounts in seawater is efficiently absorbed Persistent Organic
by algae, like methylmercury, but excreted very slowly by organisms. and Radioactive
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification result in the accumulation of the metal pollutants
in the adipose tissue of successive trophic levels: zooplankton, small fish, larger
fish and fish predators. Now, let’s discuss nuclear waste. Radioactive nuclides
such as hydrogen-3 (1H3), carbon-14 (6C14), iodine-131 (53I131) or strontium-90
(38Sr90) present in nuclear waste, can be taken up by exposed living organisms.
Tritium (1H3) which is almost always present in the environment in the form of
water can be absorbed by the organism, incorporated into tissues and exchanged
into, incorporated into some hydrogen-containing biomolecules and could
remain there for some time. The concentration of tritium within the body decay
exponentially as more stable hydrogen (1H1) is constantly being exchanged
through the body in large quantities. Hence, the overall quantity of hydrogen per
unit mass of a living organism remains constant. Similarly, the overall amount
of carbon-14 within the tissues of a living system also remains constant.
Most of the naturally occurring radionuclides are not concerned with
biomagnification but anthropogenic radionuclides present in high amounts in
any ecosystem can bioaccumulate through the food chain, especially in the
water ecosystem.
The Radioisotopes were released into the environment from the nuclear power
disasters and fell into the ocean. Marine plants such as phytoplanktons have
taken up the radioisotopes from seawater. These radionuclides then move up in
the food chain from tiny marine animals (zooplankton) to fish larvae, fish and
larger predators. As radioactive materials are long-lived, mobile and biologically
active, once taken up by marine creatures, biomagnification of radioactive
substances may occur. The radioisotope, Iodine-131 can be easily taken up by
fish in their thyroid tissue, and also easily absorbed by seaweed and kelp. The
bioaccumulation of iodine-131 is high, but biomagnifications up to the food
chain cannot occur as its half-life of 8 days. However, highly soluble and long-
lived (half-life: 30y) Caesium-137 can accumulate in organisms up the marine
food chain, and ultimately in humans who consume these marine creatures for
food. Therefore, the chances of biomagnification of Caesium-137 are higher.
This can also be easily taken up by cells throughout the body and hence, increases
cancer risk. Muscle tissue tends to accumulate the lowest concentration of
radionuclides, while the liver, kidney, and other organs involved in storage or
excretion processes have the highest concentrations of radionuclides.
After Fukushima nuclear disaster, a huge amount of iodine-131 and caesium-137
was delivered into the sea, and soon, radioactive isotopes bioaccumulate
through the marine food chain. After two weeks of the accident, Iodine-131
was detected 1850 times the statutory limit and Caesium-137 80 times the limit
in the seawater. After 2 months after the accident, 10 out of the 22 seaweed
samples collected near the nuclear plant showed iodine-131 content at 5 times
the Japanese standard for food.

65
Atmospheric
Issues 4.8 IMPACTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
4.8.1 Impacts of POPs
Persistent organic pollutants (often chlorinated compounds known as
organochlorine compounds) are highly resistant to degradation by any
means including biological, photolytic or chemical. The bond between
carbon and chlorine is very stable towards hydrolysis. As the number of
chlorine substitutions and/or functional groups increases, the resistance
towards biological and photolytic degradation also increases. Due to a
high degree of halogenation, POPs have very high lipid solubility and low
water solubility which leads them to pass through the phospholipid layer of
biological membranes and accumulate in fat deposits. The bioavailability of
POPs is controlled by a combination of chemical properties of the particular
compound, environment and the morphological, biochemical and physiological
characteristics of the organism itself. The various health impacts of POPs are
reproductive anomalies, immune dysfunction, neurological deficits, behavioural
abnormalities and carcinogenesis. Some organic pollutants such as DDT may
be converted to more persistent metabolites (DDE) than the parent compound;
aldrin to its extremely environmentally persistent metabolite dieldrin. Many
POPs are suspected to be endocrine active. These may interfere at several
control points of the hormone signalling pathways inside the body which either
inhibit or excessively enhance the activity of the particular hormone at the
wrong time, in the wrong tissue. The direct binding of POPs such as DDT and
its structural cognates, endosulfan and lindane with hormone receptors may
be due to similarity in their conformation with the receptor-binding portions
of nature. Other compounds can alter the hormonal pathway by inhibiting
enzyme activities responsible for the biosynthesis of the precursors of steroid
hormones. Short-term exposure to certain POPs at high concentrations causes
illness and death. In 1990, in the Philippines, endosulfan was the main cause
of acute poisoning among rice farmers and mango sprayers. Food poisoning
due to consumption of hexachlorobenzene contaminated food in southeast
Turkey resulted in the death of 90% of the affected people. Dioxin causes
immunotoxicity, reproductive disorders and neurotoxicity. Dietary intake of
PCBs, furans and dioxins was reported to affect the immune system. POPs
exposure is mainly unsafe for developing fetuses. A report from the northern
Quebec region of Canada has shown that children who had significant exposure
to PCBs, dioxins and furans through breast milk had a higher frequency of
middle ear infections as compared to the children who had been given bottle
feed. Organochlorine compounds such as dioxins and furans can act as strong
tumour promoters and have carcinogenic effects.
Two mass POPs poisoning incidents have occurred: one in Japan (Yusho
disease, 1960s) and one in China, Province of Taiwan (Yu-Cheng disorder
which means oil disease, 1970s). The main symptoms included eye irritation
and lacrimation, swelling of the eyelids, nausea and vomiting, liver enlargement
and liver disorders, hyperpigmentation of the nails and mucous membranes,
respiratory problems, and oedema of the arms and legs, central nervous system
disturbances, and changes in the immune status. The symptoms were caused
due to the exposure of people to polychlorinated biphenyls and various dioxins.
66
Children affected by Yusho and Yu-Cheng disease suffered from reduced Persistent Organic
growth, dark pigmentation of the skin and mucous membranes, dentition at and Radioactive
pollutants
birth, abnormal calcification of the skull, oedematous eyes and rocker bottom
heel. The major health effects due to different POPs are given in Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 Major health effects due to POPs

4.8.2 Impacts of Radioactive Waste
Radionuclides are carcinogenic and, can also cause rapid sickness and death
at high doses. The health hazards due to the exposure to the radiation depend
on many factors, such as the type of radiation, the amount of energy it emits,
the length of exposure, the organs or tissues with which the radiation interacts,
radiation dose and characteristics of the exposed person. The health effects
are due to the internal exposure to radiation rather than external. Hence,
radionuclides are known as internal emitters in the body and they can continue
to harm the cells for long periods. The radiations have to interact with the tissues
and cells of humans for any potential harm. A radiation dose can be described
by various units. The unit of absorbed radiation dose is rad (energy absorbed per
unit mass) and the SI unit of absorbed radiation dose is gray (Gy) (1 Gy = 100
rads). Besides, the radiation effects can also be measured based on the type and
energy of the radiation causing the dose. This can be determined by weighting
the absorbed dose with a factor related to the radiation quality. This factor is
known as the radiation weighting factor. This factor should be multiplied by the
absorbed dose (rad or gray) to obtain a quantity that can express the biological
damage (rem or sievert), on a common scale for all ionizing radiations. It is used 67
Atmospheric because some types of radiation are more biologically damaging to the living
Issues tissue than other types of radiation. The measurement of absorbed dose adjusted
with weighing factor is called the equivalent dose which is measured in rem.
The SI unit of equivalent dose is the sievert (Sv) (1 Sv = 100 rem).
Ionizing radiations can directly affect macromolecules such as DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) in the cell and can also influence indirectly by ionizing
water molecules which generate reactive molecules such as free radicals that
can in turn attack cellular macromolecules as oxidizing agents. Both direct
and indirect mechanisms are responsible for damage to the cell organelles,
particularly DNA. The damage due to ionizing radiations cannot be fully repaired
or can be modified. Damage that kills several tissues and cells due to high
doses of radiation is called the deterministic effect. When humans are exposed
to relatively high doses of radiation (greater than 50 rad), deterministic effects
of radiation occur within hours, days, or weeks and are called acute radiation
syndrome which includes nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and a lowered white blood
cell count. The severity of the effect depends on the dose of radiation received.
Infection, dehydration, or low white blood cell count can cause death. Around
300 rad has been suggested as the median lethal dose to humans within 60 days.
Damage to cells that can be repairable due to low doses of radiation is called the
stochastic effect. Modifications in the DNA cell can cause uncontrolled growth
of the cell which can ultimately develop into cancer.
Iodine-131 tends to be absorbed by the thyroid gland and can cause thyroid
cancer. However, iodine-131 is short-lived (two months after an accident).
Therefore, if the exposure to iodine-131 in the air comes after that time, it could
not pose a health risk. The chances of absorption of radioactive iodine are more
in children and they are most at risk for thyroid cancer because the size of their
thyroid glands is 10 times smaller than those of adults. In contrast, radioactive
caesium can stay in the environment for more than a century and does not tends
to concentrate on the body parts.
The persons generally exposed to high levels of radiation (about 200 rem)
could develop radiation sickness (radiation sickness shows symptoms like
bleeding and shedding of the lining of the gastrointestinal tract). About 140
people suffered from radiation sickness as a result of the Chernobyl accident.
According to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), an equivalent
dose of a chest X-ray is about 0.02 rem (0.2 millisieverts). According to an
estimate by IAEA, people are exposed to about 0.24 rem (2.4 mSv) per year
from natural background radiation in the environment. A total dose of 400 to
600 rem can be lethal and can cause death.

4.9 MANAGEMENT
4.9.1 Management of POPs
To minimize the toxicity and adverse impact of POPs, we have to restrict the
improper use of pesticides and abolish them from the food chain and water.
Lipophilic pesticides retain in the soil organic matter when the soils are rich in
organic matter, and the uptake by the plants decreases while in low organic matter
sandy soils, uptake of lipophilic pesticides increases. Thus, pesticides pollute
water resources and bioaccumulate in living tissues. In India, the production of
68 DDT (5000 tons per year) and Lindane (γ-HCH; Hexachlorocyclohexane) (up
to 24th March 2013) for malaria and termite control respectively was exempted Persistent Organic
while lindane was banned for agricultural use in 2014. Polychlorinated and Radioactive
biphenyls were usually imported to be used in electrical components and have pollutants
never been produced in India. Import PCBs contaminated wastes or articles
were banned as per the Hazardous Waste Rules 1989 (Table 4.1). India has
adopted various international conventions such as Stockholm, Rotterdam, and
Basel conventions on chemical management, health safety, and environmental
protection since 1981. On 13th April 2006, the Stockholm Convention (SC)
officially came into force in India and the Ministry of Environment and Forest
(MoEF) has been fixed as the nodal agency for planning, promoting, and
implementing SC in our country. Assessment of status regarding production,
distribution, use, import and export, disposal, storage, and emission of POPs was
the initial task. Since 2005, India has adopted the Rotterdam Convention (RC)
which regulated only the trade of hazardous waste to minimize the generation
and movement of hazardous wastes not the reduction in their emission and use.
India sanctioned and approved the Basel Convention on 24th June 1992 and
formulated a Hazardous Substances Management Division (HSMD) within the
control of MoEF. Hazardous Waste Management and Handling Rules (HWMH
Rules, 1989) have been amended in 2000, 2003, 2008 and 2010 to regulate
stockpiling, dumping, and disposal of solid wastes within and outside the Indian
administration.
Table 4.1: Status of 12 POPs in India
S .
Pesticide Status of POPs Banned (year)
No.
Aldrin Banned for manufacture, use and import 1996
Chlordane Banned for manufacture, use and import 1996
Banned (restricted use for controlling
DDT 1989
vector-borne disease)
Dieldrin Banned for manufacture, use and import 2001
Endrin Banned for manufacture, use and import 1990
HCB Banned for manufacture, use and import 1997
HCH Not registered as a pesticide 1997
Heptachlor Banned for manufacture, use and import 1996
Mirex Not registered
PCBs Not manufactured 1990
PCDDs
Toxaphene Banned for manufacture, use and import 1989
4.9.2 Management of Radioactive Waste
India ranks fourth from the bottom in about 30 countries for electricity
generation through nuclear power. Out of total electricity generation, about
2.65% belongs to nuclear electricity generation in India in 2000 (IAEA report
2000). The reactors in India produce net 1.9 Gigawatts {one billion (109) watts}
energy and this, in turn, produces radioactive wastes (IAEA report 2000).
Management of radioactive waste is an integral part of the entire nuclear fuel
cycle in India. Low-level and intermediate-level radioactive wastes which arise
from nuclear reactors and fuel reprocessing facilities are retained as sludge after 69
Atmospheric
chemical treatment. Solid radioactive waste can be compacted or incinerated
Issues
which depends upon the nature of the waste. Solid wastes disposal is also done
in underground engineered trenches which are under continuous monitoring and
high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are used to absorb and minimize
air-borne radioactivity. The other waste management methods are reverse
osmosis, immobilization and solar evaporation using a cement matrix which
further depends on the physical state of the waste (Fig. 4.9 and Fig. 4.10). At
Trombay, Tarapore, Rawatbhata, Kalpakkam, Narora, Kakrapara, Hyderabad
and Jaduguda, radioactive waste management facilities have been set up over
the past four decades. The measures for the management of radioactive waste in
India are as follows:
a. Department of Energy (DOE), Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and
Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards are involved in the management
practices to protect our environment from nuclear waste. The DOE studies
and searches for storage sites for long-term storage of radioactive waste while
NRC protects the people and the environment from any problem related
to nuclear energy. Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards (NMSS) office
develops and implements the policies, regulations, and safe management/
disposal of radioactive waste proposed by NRC.
b. The government also has a Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 which supports
the deep storage of radioactive waste. It developed the procedures for the
evaluation and selection of sites for the storage of radioactive waste and also
assigned the responsibility of sitting, building, and operating the facility to
DOE.
c. Local government can make laws against scavenging of radioactive waste
that will prevent people from looking for the waste.
d. We can also help in the management of radioactive wastes by simply using
less electricity; can start separating our radioactive wastes such as batteries,
electronics, etc. from our regular trash.
Low and
internediate level
redioactive waste

Liquid waste Solid waste Gaseous waste

Concentration of the Incineration and

waste, conditioning compaction
and immobilization Absorption and high
by cementation and effciency filtration
polymerization

70 Fig. 4.9 Management of low and intermediate level radioactive waste

 Persistent Organic
and Radioactive
High Level Redioactive wWaste pollutants

Enginccrcd Interim
Strage of Vitrified
Waste With slow
Final slorage/disposal
Immobilization of cooling and
in deep geological
Liquid Waste snrvcillancc over
epository
a period of time,
qualifying it for final
disposal

Fig. 4.10 Management of high-level radioactive waste

4.10 POLICY
4.10.1 Policy for POPs
The government of India has been active in regulating the use, manufacturing,
and import of POPs by making some policies. There are different policies for
different stages of chemical management including registration, production
and import (Fig. 4.11). The Government of India has approved about 35
Regulations for protecting public health and environmental quality under
the accountability of various ministries and government agencies at the state
and national levels. Under the Environment Protection Act (EPA, 1986), the
Ministry of Environment and Forest deals with POPs at different stages i.e.,
registration, identification, classification, production, packaging, reservation,
permits, inspections, trade, import, export, transportation and uses to ensure
their safe circulation, use and disposal. Under the Insecticide Act (1968), the
Central Insecticide Board (CIB), Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,
has banned 32 chemicals/pesticides for manufacture, import and use. According
to this act, the chemicals/pesticides can only be used after appropriate scrutiny
for their bio-efficiency and safety to human beings and the ecosystem. The
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has fixed the maximum residual limits
for hazardous chemicals under the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFAA,
1954) to prevent exposure to hazardous chemicals through the food chain. The
Biomedical Waste (Management and Control) Rules (1998), the Municipal
Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules (2000) and the Hazardous
Wastes (Management, Handling, and Transboundary Movement) Rules (2008),
control the collection, transportation, disposal, sales, recycling and export of
any type of hazardous/municipal/bio-medical waste. The Manufacture, Storage
and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules (1989), the Public Liability Insurance
Act (PLIA) (1991), the Chemical Accident (Emergency Planning, Preparedness
and Response) Rules (1996) and the National Disaster Management Act (2005)
regulate the emergency situation and policies for providing immediate relief
to chemical accident affected Zone. Central Insecticides Board & Registration
Committee (CIBRC), Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Govt. of India 71
Atmospheric and Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers decide whether a hazardous waste
Issues to be regulated or not. The Indian Ports Act (1908), the Manufacture, Storage
and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules (1989), The Merchant Shipping Act
(1958) and the Customs Act (1962) have controlled the illegal supply of banned
chemical substances.

Fig. 4.11 Key legal policies for POPs in India

4.10.2 Policy for Radioactive Waste
The main aim of the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) is to make sure
that the use of ionizing radiation and nuclear energy will not cause any health
risk to the people and the environment in India. These include:
(a) The permissions are given only to the practices which are justified in
terms of their societal and/or individual benefits
(b) Protection measures against radiation should be optimized in all nuclear/
radiation facilities
(c) Radiation doses in the people near their vicinity should not exceed the
permissible limits.
(d) Accidental exposures from the facilities should be low.
Therefore, there are some regulations towards the activities related to nuclear
and radiation facilities which are as follows:
a) Decisions should be made based on review and assessment of facilities
by the Regulatory Body, shall have a validity period and judged after
comparison with the current safety standards and practices.
b) The monitoring of facilities should follow a graded approach.
c) All activities related to nuclear and radiation facilities should establish
the goals, strategies, plans and objectives as well as identify their
responsibilities towards safety.
d) All nuclear and radiation facilities should execute proper radiation
protection programmes to ensure the safety of occupational persons, the
72 public and the environment.
e) All the radioactive waste generated by nuclear and radiation facilities Persistent Organic
during operation, maintenance and decommissioning should be managed and Radioactive
safely to protect human health and the environment from the harmful pollutants
effects of ionizing radiation in the present and future.
f) All nuclear and radiation facilities/activities should be prepared for
emergencies to protect the occupational persons, the public and the
environment.
g) When a radiation generating equipment or radiation / nuclear facility ceases
to be in use, it should undergo safe decommissioning and the remediation
of a contaminated site should be done if the content of radionuclides
exceeds the reference levels specified by the Regulatory Body.
h) The Regulatory Body may recourse to enforcement actions of penal
provisions as provided under section 17 of the Atomic Energy Act
(1962) on the consentee for securing timely compliance to the regulatory
requirements.
i) Radiation exposures from naturally occurring radionuclides in the human
body, the content of radionuclides present in raw materials, cosmic
radiation at the earth’s surface, except the radioactive waste generated
from uranium and thorium mining and milling facilities, are excluded
from regulatory control. The regulatory body may exempt certain practices
or sources related to artificial radionuclides from regulatory control and
the decisions regarding exemption and clearance will be based on the
prescribed criteria.
j) The objectives given by National Policy on safety, health and environment
at the workplace which have been provided by the Ministry of Labour and
Employment, Government of India and the solutions given by the Atomic
Energy (Factories) Rules (1996) for safety, health and environment at
workplace concerning the factories owned by the Central Government
should prevail.
k) The Regulatory Body should take necessary actions to inform the public
about the safety issues related to ionizing radiations. It should also notify
the public about the extraordinary nuclear events, occurring in the nuclear
facilities in India (mandatory of the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage
Act, 2010). The Regulatory Body should be governed by the provisions
applicable to the public authority in the ‘Right to Information Act (2005).
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1
Fill in the blanks
1. POPs are ………………………………….
2. ……………………………….is usually a by-product of nuclear power
generation and other applications of nuclear fission or nuclear technology.
3. ……………………………………… are defined as the poisonous
organic substances that break down slowly and thus, bioaccumulate and
biomagnify through the food chains.
4. The 12 main POPs are altogether known as the ……………………………….
5. DDT is ………………………………………………. 73
Atmospheric 6. The full form of PCBs is ……………………………………………………
Issues
7. Chernobyl disaster occurred in ………………………………………….
8. The radioactive nuclide can produce ………………rays or ……………….
rays or …………………… rays.
9. ……………………………………………….. that are generated as
a byproduct from some industrial processes and combustion such as
dioxins which are produced as a byproduct of municipal and medical
waste incineration and backyard burning of trash.
10. …………………………………………. produced by nuclear reactors is
spent fuel that is still present inside of nuclear reactors after its use.
11. A strong increase in the concentration of POPs in successive trophic levels
via the food chain is called…………………………………………
12. After Fukushima nuclear disaster, a huge amount of ……………… and
caesium-137 was delivered into the sea.
13. Unit of absorbed radiation dose is ………
14. The measurement of absorbed dose adjusted with weighing factor is
called the …………………………………
15. DDT was banned in ………………
16. Nuclear waste policy act was formed in ……………

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2

State True (T) or False (F)
1. POPs do not tend to bio-accumulate and biomagnify through the food
chain.
2. Radiations from radioactive waste can damage our genetic material
(DNA).
3. There are 13 main POPs.
4. Chlordane is an example of intentionally produced POP.
5. Biomagnification is defined as the gradual accumulation of certain
chemical pollutants in the bodies of organisms present at lower trophic
levels to the higher-level organisms of food webs.
6. PBDEs are polybrominated diphenyl ethers.
7. The main radionuclides in the Fukushima nuclear disaster were iodine-131
and caesium-137.
8. Organochlorine compounds such as dioxins and furans can act as strong
tumour promoters and have carcinogenic effects.
9. Caesium-137 tends to be absorbed by the thyroid gland and can cause
thyroid cancer.
10. The full form of IAEA is Indian Atomic Energy Agency.
74 11. Stockholm Convention (SC) came into force in India on 13th April 2006.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Persistent Organic
and Radioactive
Write full forms of the following.
pollutants
1. DOE
2. NRC
3. NMSS
4. MoEFCC
5. CIB
6. PLIA
7. CIBRC
8. AERB
9. POPs
10. IAEA
11. PCBs
12. PCDFs
13. HCH
14. PFAA

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Write a note on the classification of POPs.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….…………………………………
2. Classify radioactive waste with suitable examples.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….…………………………………
3. What is the mechanism of transport of POPs in the environment?
……………………………………………………………………………
….……………………...........……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….…………
…………...........…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………….……………………....
.......………………………………........................………………………..
75
Atmospheric 4. What do you understand by biomagnification? How biomagnification of
Issues POPs takes place?
……………………………………………………………………………
….……………………...........……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….………
……………...........………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….…………………
…...........………………………………......................…………………...
5. What are the impacts of POPs on human health?
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………….………………………………………
………………………………………………….………………………...
6. Discuss in detail the management and policies for POPs.
…………………………………………………………………….……
……………………………………………………………………………
……….…………………………………………………………………
……………………….…………………………………………………
……………………………………….…………………………………...
7. How radioactive waste can be managed?
……………………………………………………………………………
….……………………...........……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….………
……………...........………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….…………………
…...........………………………………………………………….............
8. What are the different policies for the management of radioactive waste
in India?
……………………………………………………………………………
….……………………...........……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….………
……………...........………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….…………………
…...........………………………………………………………….............

4.11 LET US SUM UP

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and radioactive wastes are toxic compounds
that adversely affect human health and the environment. Persistent organic
pollutants affect humans and wildlife far away from where they are used because
they can be transported by wind and water. These pollutants can persist for a
long time in the environment and can accumulate and transfer from one trophic
level to the next level through the food chain. In Stockholm (Sweden), a United
Nations Treaty related to POPs related problems was signed by 90 countries
76 in May 2001 and this treaty is known as the Stockholm Convention. All the
countries agreed to eliminate or reduce the production, use, and/or release of 12 Persistent Organic
main POPs namely aldrin, chlordane, dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane, (DDT, and Radioactive
dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), mirex, toxaphene, pollutants
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (dioxins)
and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (furans) under this treaty. These can be
classified as intentionally produced and unintentionally produced POPs. POPs
bioaccumulate in the body fat of living organisms due to their lipophobic
nature and become more concentrated when they move from one trophic level
to another through the food chain. This process is called biomagnification
which can produce a significant hazard to predators that feed at the top of
the food chain. In human beings, adverse health effects such as behavioural,
reproductive, developmental, endocrine, neurologic, and immunologic have
been shown by exposure to POPs contaminated food. In mammals, POPs can
be transferred to developing offspring through the placenta and breast milk. Any
industrial activity results in the generation of some waste material. Similarly,
radioactive materials also harm living beings and can continue to the subsequent
generation. Radioactive wastes are generated from the use of radionuclides in
industry, electricity generation, medicine and research. Radioactive wastes
may be solid, liquid or gas. Radioactive waste can be classified as low level,
intermediate level and high-level waste based on the level of radioactivity.
Effective management of radioactive waste can be done through segregation,
characterization, handling, treatment, conditioning and monitoring before final
storage/disposal. Integrated and scientifically proven regulations and policies
are introduced and recommended to manage and reduce the risk due to POPs
and radioactive wastes.

4.12 KEY WORDS

Biomagnification: Biomagnification is defined as the gradual accumulation of
certain chemical pollutants in the bodies of organisms present at higher trophic
levels of food webs through smaller organisms that are food for larger organisms
in the food web.
Persistent Organic Pollutants: Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are
defined as the poisonous organic substances that break down slowly and thus,
bioaccumulate and biomagnifies through the food chains.
Radioactive Waste: Radioactive Waste is the waste that contains radioactive
materials which emit nuclear radiation (ionizing radiation). These radiations
can cause some changes in our cells by breaking the electron bonds that hold
molecules together. Radiations can damage our genetic material (DNA).

4.13 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/REFER-

ENCES
•• Brij Mohan Sharma, Girija K. Bharat, Shresth Tayal, Luca Nizzetto and
Thorjørn Larssen. The legal framework to manage chemical pollution in
India and the lesson from the Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). 2014. 77
Atmospheric Science of the Total Environment. 490, 733–747.
Issues
•• Francis O. Adeola. Boon or Bane? 2004. The Environmental and health
impacts of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Human Ecology Review.
11(1), 27-35.
•• Web Links
•• https://enochthered.wordpress.com/2008/03/17/bioconcentration-and-
biomagnification-of-radionuclides-of-biochemically-significant-elements/.
•• https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1995/9504/950405.PDF.
•• https://www.livescience.com/13250-radiation-health-effects-japan-nuclear-
reactor-cancer.html.
•• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_
incidents.
•• http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/chernobyl.html.
•• http://www.popstoolkit.com/about/healthimplications.aspx.
•• https://franklinmslibrary.pbworks.com/w/page/107077152/Tyler%20
and%20Watson%20nuclear%20waste.
•• http://www.who.int/ceh/capacity/POPs.pdf.
•• http://www.aerb.gov.in/AERBPortal/pages/English/prsrel/policies.pdf.

4.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Persistent Organic Pollutants
2. Radioactive waste
3. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
4. Dirty Dozen
5. dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane
6. polychlorinated biphenyls
7. Ukraine
8. Alpha, beta or gamma
9. Unintentionally produced chemicals
10. High-level radioactive waste,
11. Biomagnification
12. iodine-131 and caesium-137
13. rad
14. equivalent dose
15. 1989

78 16. 1982
Check Your Progress 2 Persistent Organic
and Radioactive
1. False 2. True 3. False pollutants

4. True 5. False 6. True

7. True 8. True 9. False
10. False 1. True

Check Your Progress 3

1. Department of Energy
2. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
3. Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards
4. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
5. Central Insecticide Board
6. Public Liability Insurance Act
7. Central Insecticides Board & Registration Committee
8. Atomic Energy Regulatory Board
9. Persistent Organic Pollutants
10. International Atomic Energy Agency
11. Polychlorinated biphenyls
12. Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
13. Hexachlorocyclohexane
14.Prevention of Food Adulteration Act
Check Your Progress 4
1. Please refer to section 4.5
2. Please refer to section 4.5.2
3. Please refer to section 4.6
4. Please refer to section 4.7
5. Please refer to section 4.8.1
6. Please refer to section 4.9.1
7. Please refer to section 4.9.2
8. Please refer to section 4.10.2

79