Chapter 2 Graphic Products

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What is Graphic design?

Graphic design is about virtual communication and in a world where access to quick information is
required, it plays a vital role. Graphic designs take on many forms like logo design, packaging,
product design, posters, leaflets, magazines. Different apps, special effects conducted for movies, title
sequences for movie’s are all created by graphic designers.

When thinking of a product, think about:

●​ What types of drawings are best to communicate different ideas?
●​ How can you draw basic shapes and enlarge and reduce them accurately?
●​ What are developments and what is their importance in graphic products?
●​ What tools are available to help communicate ideas effectively?
●​ How can you lay out and present ideas in an attractive way that enhances
communication ideas effectively?
●​ How is ICT used to increase accuracy and productivity?

This section’s contents contents include:

●​ Formal Drawing Techniques
●​ Sectional views, exploded drawings and assembly drawings
●​ Freehand drawing
●​ Drawing basic shapes
●​ Developments
●​ Enlarging and reducing
●​ Instruments and drafting aids
●​ Layout and planning
●​ Presentation
●​ Data graphics
●​ Reprographics
●​ Materials and modelling
●​ ICT
●​ Manufacture of graphic products
2.1 Formal Drawing Technique.............................................................................................................5
Orthographic drawings...................................................................................................................... 5
Scale and dimensions.................................................................................................................. 5
Standard in orthographic projections.......................................................................................... 5
Techniques for Orthographic Projection.............................................................................. 6
Dimensioning rules...............................................................................................................6
Isometric and planometric drawing................................................................................................... 8
Drawing circles and arcs in isometric................................................................................................8
Two-point perspective drawings........................................................................................................9
2.2 Sectional views, exploded drawings and assembly drawings....................................................... 9
Sectional views.................................................................................................................................. 9
Part, revolved and removed sections................................................................................................. 9
Exploded and assembly drawings......................................................................................................9
Parts list.....................................................................................................................................10
2.3 Freehand drawing.......................................................................................................................... 10
Isometric.......................................................................................................................................... 10
Perspective.......................................................................................................................................10
Exploded view................................................................................................................................. 11
Orthographic.................................................................................................................................... 11
Sectional view..................................................................................................................................11
2.4 Drawing basic shapes..................................................................................................................... 11
Drawing basic shapes...................................................................................................................... 11
Regular polygons............................................................................................................................. 11
Drawing a hexagon using a compass and a protractor..............................................................12
Irregular polygons............................................................................................................................12
Circles and ellipses.......................................................................................................................... 12
Drawing an ellipse using a trammel..........................................................................................12
Tangents and tangential arcs............................................................................................................13
2.5 Developments..................................................................................................................................13
Truncation........................................................................................................................................14
Packaging developments and construction details.......................................................................... 14
2.6 Enlarging and reducing................................................................................................................. 14
Enlarging circles and regular polygons using a compass................................................................ 14
Enlarging irregular polygons and test using a grid..........................................................................14
Enlarging and reducing using one-point perspective...................................................................... 15
2.7 Instruments and drafting aids...................................................................................................... 15
Rulers, protractors, and set squares...........................................................................................15
Stencil........................................................................................................................................15
Technical pens...........................................................................................................................15
Compasses.................................................................................................................................16
Flexicurves................................................................................................................................ 16
Drawing board...........................................................................................................................16
2.8 Layout and planning...................................................................................................................... 16
 Layout on a A3 sheet....................................................................................................................... 16
Layout for an orthographic drawing......................................................................................... 16
Layout for isometric drawing....................................................................................................17
Layout for estimated two-point perspective drawing............................................................... 17
2.9 Presentation.................................................................................................................................... 18
Presentation in design......................................................................................................................18
Thick-and thin-line technique..........................................................................................................18
Light source and rendering.............................................................................................................. 18
Rendering materials and textures.................................................................................................... 18
Plastic........................................................................................................................................ 18
Metal......................................................................................................................................... 19
Wood......................................................................................................................................... 19
Lettering and fonts...........................................................................................................................19
Lettering styles..........................................................................................................................19
Tracking and kerning................................................................................................................ 19
Applying text.............................................................................................................................19
2.10 Data graphics................................................................................................................................20
Graphs and charts............................................................................................................................ 20
Bar Charts................................................................................................................................. 20
Line graphs................................................................................................................................20
Pie charts................................................................................................................................... 20
Sequence drawings and flowcharts..................................................................................................20
Sequence drawings....................................................................................................................20
Flowcharts.................................................................................................................................20
2.11 Reprographics...............................................................................................................................21
Offset lithography............................................................................................................................21
Gravure............................................................................................................................................ 21
Flexography..................................................................................................................................... 21
Screen printing.................................................................................................................................21
2.12 Materials and modelling.............................................................................................................. 22
The importance of modelling in design...........................................................................................22
Modelling to scale........................................................................................................................... 22
Using scale drawings for modelling..........................................................................................22
Modelling materials.........................................................................................................................22
Paper and card...........................................................................................................................22
Corrugated card and plastic.......................................................................................................23
Styrofoam and foam board........................................................................................................23
Self-adhesive vinyl....................................................................................................................23
Thin plastic sheet (acetate)........................................................................................................23
Smart materials......................................................................................................................... 23
Permanent and temporary joining methods..................................................................................... 24
Permanent joining methods.......................................................................................................24
Temporary joining methods...................................................................................................... 24
2.13 ICT.................................................................................................................................................24
 ICT in design................................................................................................................................... 24
Manipulating images using CAD.................................................................................................... 25
Bitmap graphics........................................................................................................................ 25
Vector graphics..........................................................................................................................25
Outputting designs using CAM....................................................................................................... 25
2.14 Manufacture of graphic products...............................................................................................25
Cutting and shaping......................................................................................................................... 25
Hand tools for cutting............................................................................................................... 26
● Craft knife....................................................................................................................... 26
● Safety rule....................................................................................................................... 26
● Paper trimmer..................................................................................................................26
● Rotary cutter....................................................................................................................26
Creasing and folding................................................................................................................. 26
Commercial processes for cutting and shaping.........................................................................26
Thermoforming................................................................................................................................27
Vacuum forming.............................................................................................................................. 27
Vacuum forming process...........................................................................................................27
Blow moulding................................................................................................................................ 27
hi swara
Important tips are highlighted red
Visual Representations:
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2.1 Formal Drawing Technique

Orthographic drawings

●​ Orthographic projection is a form of

drawing which shows three sides of the product
and is drawn to scale.
●​ An orthographic drawing is laid out in
either third-angle projection or first-angle
projection
●​ Third angle projections show plan view of the sign
in the top left above the front elevation
●​ First-angle projection shows the plan view in the
bottom right below the front elevation
●​ The dotted lines on plan views and front elevation
are used to show hidden detail. These are parts of
the drawing that can’t be seen when looking at the
object but still need to be shown in the drawing

Scale and dimensions

●​ Scale is used if the drawing is too big or too small. Scale should be shown on the bottom of
each page
●​ Dimensions are measurements of parts of the drawing. Dimensions are usually written in
millimetres (mm)

Standard in orthographic projections

There are many different standards of drawing and adding dimensions like British Standards (BS),
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and American National Standards Institute
(ANSI). For the IGCSE Course, use British Standards in your drawing.

Below is a shortened documented form highlighting British Standards

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British-Standards.pdf
Techniques for Orthographic Projection

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1.​ Choose a front view. This is the view that shows the most about the object.
2.​ Decide how many views are needed to completely describe the object. If you are unable to
determine which views will be needed, draw the standard views (front, top and right side).
3.​ Draw the visible features of the front view.
4.​ Draw projectors off of the front view horizontally and vertically in order to create the
boundaries for the top and right side views.
5.​ Draw the top view. Use the vertical projectors to fill in the visible and hidden features.
6.​ Project from the top view back to the front view. Use the vertical projectors to fill in any
missing visible or hidden features in the front view.
7.​ Draw a 45° projector off of the upper right corner of the box that encloses the front view.
8.​ From the top view, draw projectors over to the 45° line and down in order to create the
boundaries of the right side view.
9.​ Draw the right side view.
10.​ Project back to the top and front view from the right side view as needed.
11.​ Draw centerlines where necessary.

Dimensioning rules

1.​ Measurement Units: All dimensions should be in millimetres unless otherwise stated in the
title block.
2.​ Avoiding Line Crossings: Projection and leader lines should not cross each other to maintain
clarity in drawings.
3.​ No Repetitive Dimensions: Repeated dimensions should be avoided to prevent cluttering the
drawing and ensure clarity.
4.​ Dimensioning Methods:
●​ Parallel Dimensioning: Dimensions should originate from a specific datum edge.
●​ Chain Dimensioning: Used when space is limited, but it can lead to accumulated
tolerances affecting part function.
●​ Combined Dimensioning: A mix of parallel and chain dimensioning for complex
drawings.
●​ Dimensioning by Coordinates: Utilises a common origin point, reducing clutter by
using running dimensioning in two directions at right angles.
5.​ Leader Lines: Narrow lines leading from points on the view to arrowhead dimension lines,
with a gap between the view and the leader line.
6.​ Dimension Placement: Dimensions should be placed outside the view where possible to avoid
crossing lines and annotations.
7.​ Dimension Lines: These should not cross other dimension lines or any lines of the drawing.
They should be broken where they intersect with other dimension lines.
8.​ Clearance and Limits: For features like holes, the dimension includes tolerances that specify
the upper and lower bound of the acceptable sizes.Tolerance is the total amount a dimension
may vary and is the difference between the upper (maximum) and lower (minimum) limits.
Because it is impossible to make everything to an exact size, tolerances are used on
production drawings to control the parts.
9.​ Radial and Diameter Dimensions: Radial dimensions should have the "R" prefix, and
diameters should have the "Ø" symbol.

10.​ Angular Dimensions: Should be indicated with the degree symbol and the dimension line
should arc around the angle.
11.​ Datum Reference: Use datum references for dimensions critical to the function of the part,
ensuring consistent manufacturing and inspection.
12.​ Text Alignment: All dimension text should be oriented to be readable from the bottom or right
side of the drawing.
13.​ Dimension Spacing: Maintain consistent spacing between dimension lines and the object, as
well as between multiple dimension lines.
14.​ Arrowheads: Use consistent arrowhead styles and sizes, ensuring they are sharply pointed and
aligned with dimension lines.
15.​ Text Placement: Avoid placing dimension text on the lines themselves. Text should be placed
above the dimension line or adjacent to it for clarity.
16.​ Alignment: Align all dimension figures horizontally, even if the dimension line is at an angle,
to ensure readability.
17.​ Cumulative Tolerance: Be aware of the tolerance stacking effect in chain dimensioning, which
can affect the final fit and function of a part.The tolerance stack is the cumulative situation of
geometric tolerances of features that are connected. In essence, this can be simply understood
 as the individual tolerances of a part's features are added up, and their aggregate effect on the
part's entire tolerance.

Isometric and planometric drawing

Isometric drawings are 3D drawings at 60° and 30°.

They are used to visualise products in three dimensions.

When drawing in isometric, you can make a

constructional cube or cuboid which is the total length,
width and height of the object you are drawing. This is
known as crating.

Planometric drawings are used for interior rooms of

buildings as they can be drawn from the pan view of a
room.

Use isometric paper underlay or set square to help draw isometric or planometric.

Drawing circles and arcs in isometric

1.​ Draw an isometric cube with all even sides

2.​ Split one of the cube faces vertically and horizontally down the middle. Then draw a
line from the top left. Then draw a line from the top left corner to the bottom right.
3.​ Draw two lines from the top middle to the bottom corner and from the top right to
the bottom middle
4.​ Place the point of your compass on point x and draw from 1 to 2. You now have two
arcs isometrically.
5.​ Place the point of your compass on x and draw from 2 to 3. Finally, place the
compass on y and draw from 1 to 4.
6.​ Remove any previous construction lines. If you want to draw a circle on the top
plane or the right plane, repeat the steps above.

Two-point perspective drawings

Two-point perspective drawings is a type of drawing that gives a realistic representation of a

building, interior or product. To construct a perspective drawing, use a horizon line and 2 vanishing
points (VP). The width and the depth of the object converge towards these two points. By drawing the
object from above or below, it looks as if you are looking at the object from above or below.
2.2 Sectional views, exploded drawings and assembly drawings

Sectional views

In order to show the interior of an object, a

sectional view gives appropriate information.
A sectional view or cross-sectional view is a
view of an object if a part of it has been cut
away with a saw. The area that ‘cuts’ is called
the cutting plane. A sectional view needs to be
produced to see important objects that might be
inside the product not visible in the main
product.

Part, revolved and removed sections

In an unsectioned area, hidden detail is NOT shown. Sometimes, the sectioned part is shown
separately from the main drawing. This can help give a clear view of the sectional area and it allows
for dimension to be added easily. A revolve section is drawn on the view as opposed to a separate
drawing and shows the section rotated 90°. This is used to show sections of long, elongated shapes

Exploded and assembly drawings

An exploded drawing shows different components separated from each other by a certain distance.
The parts appear to be floating in space. An assembly drawing is the opposite, as it shows all the
parts assembled. Exploded drawings are useful for showing how all the pieces fit together and in
which order. They are often found as instructions for assembling flat-packed furniture.

Exploded drawings should be drawn as line drawings in isometric. The components must line up with
each other correctly so you must draw construction lines before completing an exploded drawing.

To construct an accurate exploded drawing you need to use crating as constructional lines. You need
to make sure they are at the correct angles and inline with holes or slots.
Parts list

A part list is used with an exploded drawing It shows all parts and components needed to assemble the
product. Compiling a part list can help keep track of which components are needed which components
are needed for your product and are often used for calculating cost.

2.3 Freehand drawing

Freehand drawing is sketching without the use of drawing aids or grids. They are used to
communicate ideas from written data, visual data and data from tables. It is important to select a
relevant method of drawing to represent the information given.

Isometric

Isometric drawing can help visualise ideas. Designers often use this sketch to quickly get ideas on
paper, and they can also help convey ideas to clients since they give a relatively accurate reflection of
what the final design will look like.

Perspective

Freehand perspective gives more realism to a sketch. First draw a horizon line and vanishing points.
Estimated 2-point perspective is often used by architects to show the exterior of buildings. It is better
suited to show larger scenes like environments and buildings rather than smaller objects while
estimated 1-point perspective is used to draw rooms and interior of buildings.

A one-point perspective drawing uses a horizon line with one vanishing point (VP). Lines projected
from the vanishing point form the width of the object.

A two-point perspective drawing uses a horizon line with 2 VPs. Lines projected from these vanishing
points form the width and length of an object.

Exploded view

A freehand exploded drawing will allow you to show how pieces fit together. This is a useful type of
drawing if your design has many components as it helps to explain how and where and where parts go
together. Remember to get the angles right in isometric freehand drawing. Use a grid underlay to help
practise and finetune freehand skills, but remember not to present drawings with a grid in your
finished work.
Orthographic

An orthographic drawing allows all faces of a design to be seen. Show hidden interior detail using
dashed lines. An orthographic drawing is usually made using drawing aids, it is however useful to
sketch a freehand orthographic if parts of the design cannot be seen if drawn in isometric.

Sectional view

Show interior details by sketching a sectional view. This drawing helps the designer visualise how
parts go together as well as showing features like holes through an object.

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2.4 Drawing basic shapes

Drawing basic shapes

Constructing a variety of basic shapes, such as circles, ellipses and polygons is important for accurate
drawings of designs. Computer-aided design or CAD is used to create shapes to a high degree of
accuracy as computers can work out angles and dimensions, allowing for the quick and efficient
production of shapes.

Regular polygons

A polygon is a shape with three or more sides. A regular

polygon has sides of equal length and internal angles of equal
size. To find the central angle you can divide 360° by the
number of sides.

Drawing a hexagon using a compass and a protractor

1.​ Draw a circle with the same radius of your intended hexagon
2.​ Place the protractor on the circle lining up the centre. Mark out 60° on the circle and draw a
line from the centre.
3.​ Rotate the protractor so it is lined up with the line you have drawn and repeat the previous
step
4.​ Repeat all the way round the circle
5.​ Join up the areas where the lines intersect the circle
Another way to draw a polygon would be to measure the difference between first who lines using a
compass and marking out the remainder of the points in the polygon before joining them up.

Irregular polygons

An irregular polygon has sides of different lengths and internal angles of different sizes.An irregular
polygon does not have all its sides equal and not all the angles are equal in measure.

Circles and ellipses

First draw a circle by drawing lines of equal distances and angles and connecting the endpoints. The
minimum amount of lines is 6, for greater accuracy, increase the amount of lines. To draw an ellipse,
start with the same angled lines as you would for a circle and draw two circles the diameter of the
intended minor and major axis of the ellipse. Where the angled lines intersect the smaller circle, draw
horizontal lines. Draw vertical lines where they intersect the larger circle. Make a point where these
two lines intersect, then join up all of the points.

Another way to make an ellipse is to use a template or stencil, this however is limited to the sizes you
can use.

Drawing an ellipse using a trammel

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Here is how to draw an ellipse using a trammel

1.​ Draw two intersecting lines the lengths of the intended diameter of the minor and major axes.
2.​ Lay a folded piece of paper or a strip of card against the minor axis with the order of the car
touching the topic of the minor axis.
3.​ Mark points on the card when the axes intersect.
4.​ Rotate the card and mark point b where the axis intersect
5.​ Keeping point a somewhere on the major axes and point b on the minor axes make a mark at
the top corner of the card
6.​ Repeat this several times around the axes. When done, join up the marks for an ellipse
Tangents and tangential arcs

A tangent is a line that touches a circle or curve of a certain point.

Steps to draw a tangent:
1.​ Draw a circle with a point where you want the tangent.
2.​ Draw a line from the centre through the point
3.​ Place the centre line of your protractor on this line and the bottom of the protractor just
touching the circle
4.​ Draw the tangent
How to draw a tangential arc:
5.​ Then draw a perpendicular line from the centre of the circle through the part of the circle you
want the tangential arc to be. Set the compass to the right radius and draw the tangential arc,
making sure the point of the compass is on the perpendicular line drawn.

2.5 Developments

A development, or net is a 3D shape that has been folded out and flattened. You should draw an
accurate development to scale from an orthographic or pictorial view and visualise a development
from a shape. To help produce developments, computer-aided design (CAD) can be used to produce
secure nets for packaging. Machines such as die cutters can be used to produce developments in
quantity before they are assembled and used as packaging. In order to produce a development from a
pictorial view, visualise unfolding the shape. Begin with the side that is flat on the surface and unfold
each side until it is flat. Make sure you make a quick sketch of the development before it is drawn
accurately or to scale. Remember to consider the number of sides the shape has and position the first
face carefully.

Truncation

A truncation is a shape that has been cut at an angle other than 90° and it can be drawn from an
orthographic projection.

Packaging developments and construction details

Details such as flaps and tabs are added to the product during assembly. Dust flaps are added either
side of the lid to prevent dust from entering the packaging. A tuck flab appears on the front of the lid
to keep the lid secure. Glue flaps or tabs are added to any sides that need to be secured to another side
to hold the packaging together. Edges which need to be folded are shown as dashed lines.

2.6 Enlarging and reducing

Learn how to accurately enlarge and reduce shapes to a given scale. To reduce a shape you can simply
reverse the steps.

Enlarging circles and regular polygons using a compass

In order to scale it up, multiply the radius by the scale factor. Then make a regular polygon inside
using a protractor or set square as explained in 2.4 drawing basic shapes.

Enlarging irregular polygons and test using a grid

Enlarging Irregular polygons

1.​ Draw a box around the original drawing and split it into quarters
2.​ Draw a grid accurately around the shape
3.​ Enlarge the grid by the scale which you require
4.​ Mark on the points of the irregular polygon and then join them up.

Enlarging text using grid

1.​ Draw a box around the original text
2.​ Split the box into quarters then split again evenly to create a grid. Don’t worry if the edges of
the text don't line up with the grid.
3.​ Measure the grid, then redraw it to the scale you want. Draw the test inside the grid.
*Make sure the spacing on your grid is easy to calculate, like 5mm or 10mm
Enlarging and reducing using one-point perspective

One-point perspective is a type of 3D drawing that uses a horizon line and a single vanishing point to
create a sense of perspective in the drawing.

One point perspective can also be used to enlarge and reduce a shape proportionately.
1.​ Draw a line from the corner of the square through the middle of the opposite side
2.​ Where this line intersects with the bottom vanishing point line is the bottom square. Draw this
square using the vanishing points as a guide
3.​ Continue drawing lines form the corner of the new square to create boxes at equal distances.
4.​ You can also split the squares into a grid to help reduce more complex shapes.

2.7 Instruments and drafting aids

As accuracy and good presentation are essential for communicating ideas, having the correct drawing
aid is necessary.

Rulers, protractors, and set squares

A ruler is used to measure lines. Protractors are for drawing angles accurately. Set squares can be used
to draw specific angles like 30°/60° or 45°/45° accurately.

Stencil

Stencils can be used to draw ellipses and they are used for lettering.

Technical pens

Technical pens have a small nib and they come in many different nib sizes in mm, the correct pens
should be selected to correspond with the thickness of the line drawn.

Compasses

A compass is essential for drawing circles. Compass cutters are also useful for cutting circles from
paper or vinyl.

Flexicurves

Flexicurves can be moulded to any given curve. They can be used as a curved ruler, to measure and
draw curved lines.
Drawing board

A drawing board has a parallel motion rule which moves up and down on the board. This keeps lines
horizontal. Place set squares on this rule to draw lines in 30°/60° and 45°.

2.8 Layout and planning

Layout on a A3 sheet

First lay out your A3 sheet. Then draw three lines at the bottom of the page to insert information about
the drawing like title, scale and date.

1.​ Attach you A3 sheet of paper to the drawing board using clips
2.​ Draw 3 lines across the bottom using the parallel motion tool. These lines should be 4mm
apart.
3.​ Draw two lines from the left and two from the right, 60mm apart.
4.​ Write in the details above.

Layout for an orthographic drawing

1.​ Draw the third-angle or first angle projection symbol in the top right of the page.
2.​ Draw a baseline 40mm up from the bottom of the page.
3.​ Draw a box in the middle which is the total height and length of the object drawn.
4.​ Project a 45° line from the corner of this box
5.​ Change the views around if you are drawing a first-angle projection.
*Construction lines should be light as they must not be confused by the main part of the
drawing. In design, it is good practice to leave construction lines to show how drawing was
 created.

Layout for isometric drawing

1.​ Draw a center line

2.​ Mark on the centre line near the bottom and draw a crate which is the total length, height and
width of the object drawn
3.​ Draw your object inside the crate
4.​ Add dimensions if necessary.

Layout for estimated two-point perspective drawing

1.​ Draw a horizontal line near the top of the page.

2.​ Mark two vanishing points towards the ends of line
When drawing construction lines from vanishing points don't draw at an angle far from the horizon
line. If angles are too large they wont fit in the drawing. In the design industry, designers are
sometimes given lines to work from such as centre lines or corners. This acts as a guide.

2.9 Presentation

Presentation in design

Certain techniques such as thick- and thin-line and rendering can enhance the quality of drawings.
CAD is often used to show light sources and materials used. The computer program then renders
drawing to give a life-like appearance to the object.
Thick-and thin-line technique

By using different line widths, give a 3D drawing emphasis. Use a variety of technical fine line pens
with different widths or different pencils to achieve this effect. All adjacent edges should be thin and
all outside lines thick.

Light source and rendering

To render a drawing, consider where the light source is coming from. The direction of the light source
will affect what tone you need to apply to the object's faces. Use a softer 2B pencil and turn the paper
as you render so that the pencil strokes can be applied in different directions.

Rendering materials and textures

Using coloured pencils and erasers you can achieve different textures to represent materials.

Plastic

Shade the faces taking into account the light source. Use an eraser to make streaks in the same
direction to make it look reflective. Remember to lightly add in the back edges to give a transparent
look.

Metal

Use a grey coloured pencil to shade the faces, taking in account the light source. Add some light blue
tints and then use an eraser to reme some highlights to give a shiny look.
Wood

Use a brown, ochre and yellow pencil to roughly and unevenly shade faces. Aim to produce a rough
look. Then add grain with brown pencil, loosely following the correct angels on the face.

Lettering and fonts

Selecting and producing lettering is known as typography. Fonts can be used in headings and titles
for visual impact or chosen for readability in the main body of a text.

Lettering styles

There are two main types of lettering,

serif and sans serif. Serif fonts have
tails at the end of the letter while sans
serif don’t. Sans serif fonts tend to be
clearer and look modern while serif
fonts look more sophisticated and they
aid readability in large texts.

Tracking and kerning

Tracking is adjusting space between letters of words by equal

amounts. It is a stylistic choice and it has increased as it gives logos an
illusion of wealth and sophistication. Sometimes when typed, words
don't look right. In this case kerning can be used to adjust space
between pairs of letters to improve the look and balance of the overall
word.

Applying text

Computer generated text can be printed and applied with spray glue. You can use a CAM plotter to cut
text from vinyl and transfer vinyl to life and apply it to your product. Another way is letraset. Letraset
is sheets that allow transfer of lettering. Each character is selected, cut from a sheet and placed face
down on a small silk screen frame and wetted with a paint brush to soften and release the gum arabic
adhesive which holds it. Another method is the use of stencils as mentioned in 2.7.
2.10 Data graphics

Graphs and charts

Graphs and charts are a good way of visually representing data. Selecting the most appropriate graph
or chart to represent given data is important.

Bar Charts

Bar charts are used to represent data that is discrete or in categories. The x-axis shows values or
category labels and the y-axis shows the amount. They can be drawn 2D or 3D (for visual impact).
When drawing bar or line graphs, use a ruler or grid paper to measure equal distances between the
data range on the x-axis and y-axis.

Line graphs

Show data that is continuous and often changes over time. Usually the x-axis shows time while the
y-axis is the continuous variable. They can also be used to show a trend in discrete data over time.
Remember to use a key to label information.

Pie charts

Pie charts can be used to compare percentages or parts of a whole. A key must be utilised.

Sequence drawings and flowcharts

Can be used to show stages in a process or explain how to do something step by step.

Sequence drawings

Must be clearly numbered and drawings must be clear with labels and arrows that help to inform the
viewer.

Flowcharts

A flow chart shows a process in a sequence. It is used in design to give

information on how to make something. A flowchart alway runs from the top to
bottom and consist of a series of shapes with connector arrows. Different shapes
are used to show different functions during the process.
 ●​ A rounded shape is called the terminator, and it is used at the start and the end of the process
●​ A rectangle is used to show a stage in process
●​ A diamond shape is used for a design or quality check. There should be two arrows leading
from this box to other parts of the process. It is known as the feedback loop
●​ A parallelogram is for input/output. Indicates whether something was added or removed from
the process.

2.11 Reprographics

Modern commercial printing methods allow hundreds of copies of an image or text to be printed in
high resolution in a short space of time using the process colours CMYK(Cyan, Magenta, Yellow
and Key (black)). Different methods of printing are used depending on the effect and the substrate
(material) to be printed on. Many reprographic systems allow cutting, creasing and stapling.

Offset lithography

Offset lithography is a form of printing where substrate is fed through four different rollers, each
printing one of the four process colours. Often times, a fifth roller is used to print a special printing
effect like varnish. It is used for long print runs to print items such as leaflets and brochures.

Gravure

Gravure is a high quality form of printing where an etched printing plate fills up the ink and deposits
the colour as small dots. A separate roller presses the material to be printed onto the printing plate. It
is used for company brochures

Flexography

Flexography is relief printing, which uses a flexible relief plate with the image to be printed raised up
off the non-printing surface, such as plastic and metallic films. Products that are made from
flexography include plastic bags, disposable cups and chocolate rappers;

Screen printing

This form of printing uses a porous mesh with fine holes in which through ink can pass. In screen
printing a ‘squeegee’ is used to scrape the ink through the exposed holes in the mesh and onto the
substrate. It is used to print onto fabrics like t-shirt printing.Remember to check for printer marks for
any errors. When constructing a design using CAD, it is important to consider the final medium. If
your design will be only seen on a computer screen such as a web page then the resolution of the
document should be 72 dpi. If you are intending to print the graphic, set resolution to 300 dpi.

2.12 Materials and modeling

The importance of modeling in design

Modeling is essential in the design of graphic products. Some designers will visualize ideas early on
using sketch model prototypes. More accurate scale models are often made later in the design
process for testing or presenting ideas to a client. Use modeling at all stages of the design process to
help visualize and test ideas. Keep a record of modeling and take lots of photos to keep a track of your
work and thought process.

Modeling to scale

It is important to model to scale so that it is in proportion to the final design. Sometimes the product
design is large in scale (like an exhibition layout), this would take too much time and resources to
model, so a smaller scale model will be produced. The scale models would take less time and use less
materials, yet still enable designers to visualize ideas effectively.

Using scale drawings for modeling

Designers often send designs to manufacturers who will create a high quality prototype using
commercial production techniques. This saves the designer time as they do not have to produce
models themselves. However, accurate scale drawings must be given to achieve the accurate results.
The drawings should be orthographic projection which will include information about scale, materials
and finishes. When making a prototype yourself, remember to make an orthographic drawing.

Modeling materials

There are a variety of materials that can be used for modeling graphic products.Taking in
consideration the purpose of the design, choose the most suitable materials.

Paper and card

Paper and card are available in various weights and finishes. Weight of paper/card is measured in gsm
(grams per square meter) and it affects thickness of material. Paper and card are easy to cut, crease
and shape and they are easy to print onto. Paper can be used for sketch modeling but it isn't durable
enough to be used in the final model. Card is better for producing the final model as it is stronger and
both are available for coated (glossy) or matt finish.

Corrugated card and plastic

It is impact resistant due to the corrugated layer in the middle and is found in packaging for delicate
items like electronics or glassware. They can be bent and curved in only one way and are good for
creating designs with curved edges.

Styrofoam and foam board

Styrofoam and foam board are made from expanded polystyrene. It is found inside packaging to help
protect contents as it is impact resistant. It is soft and can easily be cut using a scalpel and is shaped
using sandpaper. Foam board comes in sheets and consists of a layer of foam between two layers of
cards.
* Styrofoam reacts badly with some types of spray paints. When spray painting a styrofoam model,
make sure to add a protective coating of filler first.

Self-adhesive vinyl

This material comes in rolls or shoots and can be found in a wide range of colors, glossy and matt. It
is made from a plastic called vinyl and has an adhesive backing so it can be applied onto products. It
can be cut easily using scissors or a craft knife but it is often cut using a machine such as a CAM
plotter. Vinyl can be used to model the placement of 2D graphics onto a graphic product.

Thin plastic sheet (acetate)

This thin plastic sheeting has nearly the same properties as paper or card. It can be easily bent, creased
and bent. It is often used as a modeling material due to its transparent properties and is used for
packaging where the contents need to be seen.

Smart materials

Smart materials change shape or appearance due to changes in the environment such as heat, light or
electricity. Polymorph is made of small plastic granules that soften at low temperatures and are
usually added to hot water, then shaped to plastiscines. The polymorph then cools as it hardens and it
is excellent for modeling for ergonomics as it can be molded to the shape of body parts. Shape
memory alloys (SMA) can be shaped and then when heat is applied they return to their original shape.
Thermochromic materials change color when heat is applied and are used in products that change
color to warn the user when something is hot.
Permanent and temporary joining methods

Designers must decide how the product will be assembled. Permanent joining methods require
application of adhesives onto tabs to hold together assembled edges into the required shape. If tabs are
taken away from the material, it is going to rip or be damaged. Temporary joining methods use slots,
flaps and tabs and can be assembled without use of adhesives, so it can be flat-packed for the user to
assemble before use.

Permanent joining methods

Glue can be used to hold together packaging and displays using glue tabs. Types of glue include glue
sticks, hot glue and double-sided adhesive tape. Glue sticks are easy to use but are not strong. Hot
glue is good for joining thicker materials. Double-sided ape gives good strength but care must be
taken to ensure a quality finish. Spray adhesive is weak to allow repositioning of 2D artwork on a flat
surface. Because of weakness it shouldnt be used to assemble packaging. Use double-sided adhesive
tape for permanent joining of glue tabs on packaging. To ensure good quality finish, cover the whole
of the tab with the tape making sure it overlaps the tab. Turn the tab over and trim excess tape. Peel
off the backing and stick the tab to the packaging.

Temporary joining methods

These joining methods mean that the packaging can be easily assembled without the use of adhesives.
A tuck flab tucks into the packaging to keep the lid down. Slot tab in front of the box helps the lid to
hold it in place. The dust flaps add extra reinforcement and prevent dust from entering. Glue tabs hold
the package together and they connect the sides. Lock rudder flaps act as a base locking mechanism.

2.13 ICT

ICT in design

Use of computers has become integral in design. They are used throughout the process from
capturing, creating and manipulating images and text when developing a design to the manufacture of
a finished product. ICT in design increases productivity, allows for quick changes to be made, and
enables effective communication of designs to clients. Designs can be shared via email or collaborated
on using cloud computing allowing many individuals from around the world to be a part in the
process. It is important to create your own images for use in designs. Most images found on the
internet are copyrighted and low resolution Use a digital camera or smartphone to capture your own
images. You can scan your own artwork using a scanner. There are available websites that allow you
to download free fonts for use in your designs.
Manipulating images using CAD

Bitmap graphics

Bitmap images are made up of dots called pixels and they are used for photographic type images. The
amount of dots per inch in an image is called resolution, the more dots per inch (dpi) the higher
resolution. For screen graphics such as websites the dpi is set at 72 dpi, for printed images, it should
be 300 dpi. Bitmap images lose quality if they are scaled up. The most commonly used bitmap
software in the design industry is Adobe photoshop.

Vector graphics

Vector graphic programs use mathematical information to work out size, shape, colour information
and outline (stroke) of an object. The most commonly used vector-software is CorelDRAW and
Adobe Illustrator.

The vector graphics program will understand the different points at the different coordinates and the
different internal angles of the vector. It will then fill the CMYK value and use a certain point size.

The main advantage of a vector graphics program is that images can be scaled without any loss of
quality. This makes it great for logos that need to be applied on various different products of different
sizes and shapes.

Outputting designs using CAM

As well as printing images, vector designs can be output to computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)
machines, allowing accurate prototypes and products that can be made quickly and easily. Identical
products can also be batch produced in quantity using CAM.

2.14 Manufacture of graphic products

Cutting and shaping

In the design studio, designers use many tools for cutting, shaping and manipulating materials for
modeling and presenting ideas. These tools exist to aid accuracy and allow safe production of
prototypes.
Hand tools for cutting

●​ Craft knife
A craft knife or scalpel is used to cut paper, card and foam board. Make sure you use a cutting
mat to ensure you do not damage the surface below. Make sure the sharp end of the blade is
facing down at a 45° angle to the paper. When cutting fine detail, hold a craft blade like you
are holding a pencil. Do not cut all the way through thicker materials such as foam board or
thick card in one go. Take several passes to cut through those types of materials. If the edge of
the material is not cutting cleanly, then fit a new blade. Remember to be safe. Use a ruler to
avoid injury.

●​ Safety rule
A ruler helps you cut lines safely. It contains raised edges, which prevents the blade slipping
and cutting your fingers.

●​ Paper trimmer
A paper trimmer allows you to trim cards and paper accurately, safely and quickly.

●​ Rotary cutter
A rotary cutter is a device for cutting curved shapes. It has a sharp blade on a wheel that
rotates.

Creasing and folding

Tools and machines for creasing come in many different shapes and sizes. They are blunter than craft
knives, allowing you to create a crease to fold. Folding a creased edge can be done using a straight
ruler.

Commercial processes for cutting and shaping

Graphic products being manufactured in quantity, cutting

and shaping take too much time while being assembled
by hand. Most commercial printers have a die cutting
machine. The machine used a shaped steel blade called a
die. A die cutter can cut or perforate (cut dashed lines) in
the material.
A creasing machine has a blunt edge on a handle. When the handle is pulled down it creates an indent
in the material. Then it can be folded using a folding table.

Thermoforming

Thermoforming processes use heat to soften a material which is usually plastic and that allows the
material to be shaped. This helps production of graphic products such as plastic packaging.

Vacuum forming

Some packaging contains plastic that helps contain and protect contents of the package. This plastic is
usually PVC or polypropylene. It is molded using vacuum forming. This packaging has a card back
and a see-through molded cavity and is called blister packaging.

Vacuum forming process

1.​ The mold is place on the platen

2.​ A thermoplastic sheet is placed over the airtight seal and is clamped above the platen.
3.​ The heater is pulled across
4.​ The platen is raised so the mold is sitting underneath the plastic
5.​ The vacuum is turned on and the plastic is sucked over the mold.

What is the platen?

The platen is the surface on which the molds are placed and on which the plastic forms a seal for the
vacuum. There are many different platen designs but most are designed with many small holes that the
air is pulled through to create the vacuum.

Blow molding

Blow molding is a manufacturing process used to create hollow plastic parts. It involves inflating a
heated plastic tube, called a parison, inside a closed mold until it takes the shape of the mold cavity. It
uses hot air to soften and blow plastic to the side of a mold. This practice is often used for producing
plastic bottles.
Glossary
British Standards Tabs
Crating Truncation
Dimensions Kerning
First-angle projections Light source
Hidden detail Rendering
Isometric Tracking
Orthographic drawings Typography
Orthographic projections Key
Planometric X-axis
Scale Y-axis
Third-angle projection Printing press
Two-point perspective Process colors
Assembly drawing Resolution
Cutting plane Substrate
Exploded drawing Prototype
Sectional view Scale model
Ellipse Bitmap graphic
Irregular polygon Computer-aided manufacture (CAM)
Regular polygon Vector graphic
Tangent Blister packaging
Development/net Die cutting/die stamping
Flaps Vacuum forming