GRAMMAR REVISION

1 ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
Adverbs of frequency can be divided into two groups:
(1) those with the idea of definite frequency, such as every day, annually, and twice a
week.
(2) those with the idea of indefinite frequency, such as always, rarely, and never.

PATTERNS TO REMEMBER

Definite frequency adverbs usually go at the beginning or end of the sentence or clause.

INCORRECT [The manager checks every day the production levels.]

CORRECT The manager checks the production levels every day.
Indefinite frequency adverbs come after the verb be.
INCORRECT [He usually is very friendly.]
CORRECT He is usually very friendly.

Indefinite frequency adverbs precede all other verbs, or, if the verb is preceded by an
auxiliary, they go after the first auxiliary.

INCORRECT [This flight leaves always on time.]

CORRECT This flight always leaves on time.
INCORRECT [I would have never said that to her.]
CORRECT I would never have said that to her.

Certain indefinite frequency adverbs can go at the beginning or end of a sentence or clause.
These include frequently, generally, occasionally, often, sometimes, and usually.

INCORRECT [Always I eat lunch in the office.]

CORRECT Usually I eat lunch in the office.

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PRACTICE

Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1. Ms. Buta, who just arrived in this country with only a high school education, is_______ an
accountant with a major company.
A. every C. yet
B. already D. often
2. Our sales manager_______ makes mistakes in her record keeping, so our accounts are
perfectly balanced.
A. usually C. never
B. yet D. often
3. I went through all of the old records this morning and have come to the realization that
production levels have_______been this high before.
A. still C. yet
B. never D. every month
4. If they_______have not agreed on a theme after three full days of deliberation, we'll have
no choice but to postpone the conference.
A. often C. already
B. still D. occasionally
5. Research and development funds are being reduced_________because of budget cutbacks.
A. every year C. still
B. never D. always
6. __________the right to limit quantities when you are selling seasonal items that are in
high demand.
A. Daily reserve C. Always reserve
B. Reserve often D. Reserve generally
7. While earning her degree via an online school, Ms. Duthuit worked__________summer as
a receptionist for a dental hygienist.
A. every C. often
B. always D. still

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8. I wish I could say we would hire her immediately, but she hasn't______ completed her
training course.
A. still C. never
B. seldom D. yet
9. Do not_____without consulting either me or one of the managers from the head office.
A. invest never C. ever invest
B. still invest D. already invest
10.________ he prefers to communicate by e-mail, but his server is down and nobody can
get in to look at it until tomorrow.
A. Usually C. Never
B. Yet D. Ever

2 CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is used to link words, phrases, or clauses. Two types of conjunctions are
coordinate conjunctions (and, or, nor, but, etc.) and subordinate conjunctions (although,
since, because, when, before, etc.).

PATTERNS TO REMEMBER

Coordinate conjunctions may link similar ideas (and, not only ... but also), opposite or
contradictory ideas (but), or choices (either ... or, neither ... nor). Pay attention to the
meaning of the conjunction.
INCORRECT [It is efficient or maintenance-free.]
CORRECT It is efficient and maintenance-free.
INCORRECT [We can take either a morning flight but an early afternoon flight.]
CORRECT We can take either a morning flight or an early afternoon flight.

Subordinate conjunctions show different kinds of relationships between two clauses. They
may show cause and effect (because, so, as, since), time (when, while, after, before, until, as
soon as), condition (if, unless), or a contradiction (even though, although). Again, pay
attention to the meaning of the subordinate conjunction.

INCORRECT [The machine shut off even though the power went off.]
CORRECT The machine shut off when the power went off.

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INCORRECT [I couldn't call them until I don't know their phone number.]
CORRECT I couldn't call them because I don't know their phone number.

PRACTICE

Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1. ________she possesses such business acumen, she was able to regain control of the
company.
A. Despite C. Because
B. Even though D. For
2. For a more effective ad campaign, we need both a new product__________ a creative,
imaginative director.
A. or C. and
B. either D. so
3. Our department did not reach its monthly quota_______we worked a lot of overtime and
hired two temporary workers.
A. because of C. despite
B. even though D. but
4. Tyrone's sister Marsha, who I had little faith in at the beginning, has proved to be not only
ambitious________hard working.
A. or C. and also
B. neither D. but also
5._________Mr. Myers enters the boardroom, everyone should stand up and applaud him for
his valiant efforts in the campaign.
A. When C. So
B. While D. Since
6. With the help of a few eager student interns, today's mail will be sorted__________ it
arrives at our division.
A. before C. or
B. until D. though
7. Mr. Fagan notified security by telephone_______he heard something suspicious going on
in the elevator.

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 A. so C. although
B. when D. because of
8. As was mentioned in our earlier announcement, the plane cannot leave the gate_______all
passengers are seated and baggage is safely stowed.
A. if C. unless
B. when D. but
9._________she opened the meeting and addressed the current issues, the project director
faxed the agenda to the vice president.
A. But C. And
B. If D. Before
10._________the research uncovered some problems, the committee members decided to
table the proposal temporarily.
A. Since C. In spite of
B. Even though D. Whatever

3 PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions link their objects to the other structures within the sentence. They are used to
show placement, time, direction, cause, and location. They can be used alone or in two- or
three-word combinations. Unfortunately, prepositions are often used idiomatically and often
contradict rules. Therefore, their use must be memorized. There are, however, a few rules
that will help you.

PATTERNS TO REMEMBER

At is used for a specific time.

INCORRECT [We will convene to 10:00 A.M.]

CORRECT We will convene at 10:00 A.M.

On is used for a specific day.

INCORRECT [The deadline is at Friday.]

CORRECT The deadline is on Friday.

In is used for a specific city.

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INCORRECT [She was born at San Francisco.]
CORRECT She was born in San Francisco.

On is used for a specific date.

INCORRECT [The contract was signed in September 5.]

CORRECT The contract was signed on September 5.

PRACTICE

Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1. ________all the applicants, the woman who came in dressed sloppily in blue jeans and a
T-shirt has the most experience.
A. From C. Of
B. By D. To
2. Please note that though we didn't anticipate local authorities searching our offices, an
investigation will be held_______Monday at 9:00 A.M.
A. at C. to
B. for D. on
3. Just like bellhops, front desk receptionists, and dining room servers, all housekeepers
report directly_________ the hotel manager.
A. for C. in
B. at D. to
4. The plant will be closed_______noon tomorrow for its annual safety inspection.
A. with C. at
B. in D. from
5.________terms of product quality and customer service, our company surpasses the
competition.
A. In C. From
B. By D. With
6. Debtors are expected to remain________heavy economic pressure unless the interest rates
are lowered.
A. below C. beneath
B. from D. under

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7. The sales meetings Mr. Suzuki proposed in last month's forum will officially be
held________Tokyo in the first week of May.
A. to C. at
B. in D. on
8. Though everything depends on weather conditions at this time of year, the shipment is due
to arrive by cargo_______a week.
A. within C. until
B. for D. on
9. Despite the fact that we have nothing left to work with, the construction supplies cannot be
ordered_______next Thursday.
A. from C. at
B. to D. until
10. According to the report published in today's Sun, the local government plans to reduce
spending_______ one million dollars.
A. at C. with
B. by D. of

4 TRANSITION WORDS
Transition words are used to join two (or more) independent clauses or sentences. When
connecting two independent clauses, they may be preceded by a semicolon.

Note: Only and else are usually preceded by a comma, not a semicolon. Common transition
words include the following:

accordingly furthermore nevertheless

besides however for example
consequently moreover meanwhile
then as a result on the whole
hence to this end for this purpose
so therefore in addition

It is very important to choose the correct transition word in order not to confuse the intended
meaning.

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 PATTERNS TO REMEMBER

Therefore, thus, so, accordingly, hence, and consequently are used to show a cause-and-
effect relationship between two clauses.

INCORRECT [She produces the most; nevertheless, she will be promoted.]

CORRECT She produces the most; consequently, she will be promoted.

However and nevertheless are used to show something that contradicts a main clause.

INCORRECT [He would have been a good representative; so he does not speak their
language.]
CORRECT He would have been a good representative; however, he does not speak
their language.

Also, in addition, moreover, and furthermore are used to show that something is added to the
idea of a main clause.

INCORRECT [There will be a memo on the subject; however, there will be an

announcement.]
CORRECT There will be a memo on the subject; in addition, there will be an
announcement.

PRACTICE

Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1. Cable TV revolutionized communications;________,the very existence of that service is

now threatened by satellites.
A. consequently C. for example
B. moreover D. nevertheless
2. Hospitals are competing for a shrinking market share;______, they are attempting to
discover the most cost-effective and highest quality care.
A. therefore C. also
B. besides D. furthermore
3. These ads can bring in revenue;_______, because they are government sponsored, they can
keep our costs to a minimum.

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 A. for example C. moreover
B. on the whole D. however
4. The firm intends to move its plant;_______, it will keep sales, marketing, and distribution
here.
A. to this end C. consequently
B. nevertheless D. furthermore
5. The contract only runs for one year;______, there are options to renew for two more years
should we require their assistance further.
A. meanwhile C. however
B. besides D. moreover
6. Our shoe sales have increased recently; ______,we are optimistic about future growth in
the footwear department.
A. however C. nevertheless
B. thus D. also
7. Since its inception, the bank has lent $28 billion;________, its membership has grown to
include 16 regional countries.
A. thus C. in addition
B. on the whole D. nevertheless
8. We are on the whole a local company; ______, we can offer services beyond our area as
long as it is within the state lines.
A. nevertheless C. accordingly
B. meanwhile D. hence
9. The woman who volunteered her services in Africa and Asia had the most hands-on
experience;______, she was hired.
A. nevertheless C. however
B. furthermore D. therefore
10. Our banking clients want flexibility; ______, we provide ATMs (automated teller
machines) for 24-hour use.
A. moreover C. consequently
B. however D. furthermore

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5 VERBS: CAUSATIVE
Causative verbs show that someone or something made a certain action happen. The most
common causative verbs are get, make, and have. Verbs like order, cause, force, and want
can also be causative verbs.

PATTERNS TO REMEMBER

If the direct object of the causative verbs make, have, and let performed, performs, or will
perform the action, the simple (base) form of a verb is used.

INCORRECT [He had the secretary signed for the package.]

CORRECT He had the secretary sign for the package.

If the direct object of other causative verbs (such as get, want, order, cause, etc.) performed,
performs, or will perform the action, to plus the simple (base) form of a verb is used.

INCORRECT [He ordered everyone leave the room.]

CORRECT He ordered everyone to leave the room.

If the direct object of the causative verb received, receives, or will receive the action, the past
participle form of a verb is used.

INCORRECT [We will want the invoices will be returned at once.]

CORRECT We will want the invoices returned at once.

PRACTICE

Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1.In the future, the company will not let its part-time and temporary employees____overtime.
A. to work C. worked
B. be working D. work
2. Despite 20 years of success, the financial stress and burden of the sudden recession made
the partnership_______________.
A. fail C. failed
B. to fail D. to be failed
3. The firm wants its product______________ safely and in a timely manner; otherwise it
will seek an alternative shipper.

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 A. package C. packaged
B. be packaged D. packaging
4. All employees were able to get their paychecks _____________before the power outage
closed the banks.
A. deposits C. depositing
B. deposited D. be deposited
5. The severe weather conditions in the alpine regions forced the airlines__________all
outgoing flights and divert incoming planes.
A. canceling C. cancel
B. to cancel D. canceled
6. I received a text message from Takeshi yesterday, and it mentioned that they had the
equipment_________________ yesterday.
A. shipped C. was shipped
B. ship D. was being shipped
7. Before Annie ran out for a meeting yesterday, she had Ms. Brunelli___________ the new
clerk around the premises.
A. show C. showing
B. showed D. was showed
8. The increase in layoffs over the past two fiscal periods has caused everyone_____ less
secure.
A. feels C. was felt
B. felt D. to feel
9. What company besides ours would make its employees_________overtime on a national
holiday?
A. will be working C. be working
B. worked D. work
10. A wise consumer gets his or her phone order__________in writing before submitting payment.
A. confirming C. confirmed
B. confirms D. confirm

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6 VERBS: CONDITIONALS
Conditional sentences contain two distinct parts: the if-clause (condition) and result. In
both of these parts, the verb forms change according to the time of the action(s). This
structure is used for real and unreal (contrary-to-fact) statements in the present and past
tenses.

PATTERNS TO REMEMBER

For a real condition in the future, the verb in the if-clause is usually in the simple present
tense, while the verb in the result clause is in the future or imperative form.

INCORRECT [If taxes will go up, we will need to borrow money.]

CORRECT If taxes go up, we will need to borrow money.

For a real condition in the past, the verb in the if-clause is in the past, as is the verb in the
result clause.

INCORRECT [If they were waiting for a counteroffer, they would be wise.]
CORRECT If they were waiting for a counteroffer, they were wise.

For an unreal condition in the present, the verb in the if-clause is in the past form, while the
verb in the result clause is would or could plus the simple (base) form.

INCORRECT [If elephants have wings, they fly.]

CORRECT If elephants had wings, they could fly.

For an unreal condition in the past, the verb in the if-clause is in the past perfect tense, while
the verb in the result clause is would have or could have plus the past participle of the verb.

INCORRECT [His choice would have been excellent if he listened to our advice.]
CORRECT His choice would have been excellent if he had listened to our advice.

For an unreal condition in the present, the verb be in the if-clause is usually were, but it can
also be was. Most English speakers prefer to use were.

PREFERRED She would raise salaries if she were the manager.

OPTION She would raise salaries if she was the manager.

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PRACTICE

Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1. I thought by now we would have learned the lesson that if we ignore overheads, we
______________ our expenses.
A. underestimating C. would underestimate
B. will underestimate D. have underestimated
2. If the yield________up from 9.8 percent, it would have been the highest average yield
since 1992.
A. would go C. will go
B. has gone D. had gone
3. They will import 750,000 more automobiles a year if international quotas set by the
ministry_________lifted.
A. are C. will be
B. be D. have been
4. If the government_______an import fee, as it has threatened to do for years, prices of
consumer goods will increase by at least 10 percent.
A. will impose C. has imposed
B. imposes D. is imposing
5. Their monetary unit ________stronger if they did something about their deficit.
A. will be C. can be
B. would be D. should be
6. If there had been fringe benefits, such as a company car or stock options, I
________applying for the position.
A. could consider C. would have considered
B. considering D. will be considering
7. If the wage parity agreement ___________approved, there might have been a strike.
A. was not C. had not been
B. is not D. will not be
8. The boss will offer Gordon a substantial promotion if he ________to be more tactful
during business meetings.

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 A. will learn C. should learn
B. has learned D. were learning
9. This purchase_____________a poor decision if it had been made for investment purposes
only.
A. would have been C. may be
B. would be D. was
10. If he had taken flight 307 as was arranged for him in the original itinerary, he_______on
time for the luncheon.
A. arrives C. would have arrived
B. was arriving D. arrived

7 VERBS: TENSE
The various verb tenses have four principal verb forms:

SIMPLE SIMPLE PAST PRESENT

PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
walk walked walked walking
do did done doing
speak spoke spoken speaking
come came come coming

To choose the appropriate tense, look for clues in the sentence. These clues can be adverbs
(time markers), other verbs in the sentence, or the verbs themselves (which may be limited to
certain tenses).

PATTERNS TO REMEMBER

Certain time markers (now, tomorrow, since, etc.) indicate the tense of a verb.

INCORRECT [I deal with his firm since 1988.]

CORRECT I have dealt with his firm since 1988.

The verb in the main clause of a sentence determines the appropriate tense in the dependent
clause.

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INCORRECT [He signed the release before he will read it.]
CORRECT He signed the release before he read it.

Stative verbs (seem, become, know, understand, be, etc.) cannot be used in the continuous.

INCORRECT [If I'm understanding what you mean, I have to agree.]

CORRECT If I understand what you mean, I have to agree.

PRACTICE

Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1. The express train always________on time, unlike the local, which is always late.
A. is arriving C. has been arriving
B. arrives D. arrive
2. When the shipment_________, he will dispatch it to the proper department.
A. will come in C. comes in
B. is coming in D. is going to come in
3. Go ahead with the proposal, as long as everyone________that the goal is to improve upon
last year's event.
A. is understanding C. will understand
B. understand D. understands
4. Even before our researcher analyzed the online customer reviews and ratings, we
_________to take on the client.
A. has agreed C. agrees
B. agreed D. was agreed
5. She_______ five years ago; therefore, her request for a raise is definitely worth reviewing.
A. is being promoted C. was promoted
B. promoted D. has been promoted
6. Our newest franchise _________in two months, so we need to start hiring new employees.
A. would open C. will open
B. had opened D. has opened
7. The board reported that, even though we didn't consult them first, it________ a good
decision to find a new director.
A. was C. is

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 B. be D. were
8. The survey indicated that profits are up by 20 percent the first two quarters of this year;
business_________ .
A. is being good C. good
B. were good D. has been good
9. As I sit here wondering how we will possibly get this project done on time, I_______ that
you all have time to take a two-hour lunch break.
A. cannot believe C. am not believing
B. could not believe D. cannot be believing
10. By this time next year, the appearance of our reception area and front offices________
greatly improved.
A. has been C. is
B. will have been D. is being

8 VERBS: TWO-WORDS
Two-word verbs are made up of words which are understandable by themselves but have a
different meaning when combined. For example, turn means to rotate, and down means from
a higher to a lower position. Together they mean to reject (as to turn down a proposal) or to
lower (as to turn down the volume). Since the combinations are not always predictable, it is
necessary to become familiar with and recognize these two-word verbs. A few of the many
two-word verbs are in the practice exercises below.

PRACTICE

Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1. If during our lunch hour you cannot_______on the phone, try sending us the referrals by e-
mail or fax.
A. get to C. come by
B. get through D. get by
2. During tough negotiations, such as the ones we have witnessed over the last week or so,
neither side wants to_______
A. give in C. take hold

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 B. get by D. come on
3. It is mandatory to________ all potential hazards before marketing your product.
A. look to C. look from
B. look away D. look into
4. If you_________ an error in reviewing the proposal, please bring it to my attention.
A. come on C. come across
B. look to D. get in
5. It is understood that her closest advisor will__________as president should she resign
early.
A. take up C. get by
B. take over D. come about
6. This time around we need to send a representative we can________, rather than someone
who simply looks good.
A. stand for C. count on
B. catch on D. find out
7. While you're at the conference, take an afternoon to________and check out the
competition's booths.
A. look out C. look for
B. look around D. look through
8. If they refuse to meet us halfway on this point, we should not________them in the future.
A. stand up C. keep to
B. deal with D. run into
9. Since the members are unable to meet now, we have _______the meeting until tomorrow.
A. taken off C. put on
B. taken from D. put off
10. It is regrettable that two items were_______of the invoice and need to be added
immediately.
A. left out C. found out
B. stood out D. cut up

9 WORD FAMILIES

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Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context.
1. Like no other member we have ever employed, Maria exercised a________ influence on
the firm.
A. dominance C. dominant
B. dominate D. dominantly
2. The recommendation, which was faxed by the president herself, was______ to the success
of the merger.
A. criticism C. critic
B. critique D. critical
3. Fortunately, his response__________the board members, and the meeting was finally
adjourned.
A. satisfaction C. satisfied
B. satisfactory D. satisfactorily
4. While it may have seemed like we were being overly critical in our evaluation, the
client's__________ was rewarded in the end.
A. persistence C. persist
B. persistently D. persistent
5. An experienced ________________will explain the new system to the trainees during our
technical tutorial.
A. operatic C. operate
B. operation D. operator
6. As is the case with the parking garage entrance, the front doors are run_______, not
manually.
A. electric C. electrical
B. electronically D. electron
7. While she_________ in systems analysis, we sometimes call on her to speak at client
workshops as well.
A. specialist C. specials
B. specialization D. specializes
8. The last__________has made its bid, so let's choose the one to hire.

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 A. contractor C. contraction
B. contractive D. contract
9. The____________ person to lead staff out of the building in an emergency is the person
sitting closest to the exit.
A. designation C. designated
B. designator D. designative
10. It is risky to________ for huge profits without a cash reserve.
A. speculators C. speculate
B. speculative D. speculation

10 ADJECTIVE COMPARISONS AND SUPERLATIVES

Adjectives can be used to compare two things (comparatives) or more than two things
(superlatives). The comparisons can be made by adding endings to the base form of the
word (prettier, the prettiest) or by placing more or most before the word (more intelligent,
the most intelligent).

PATTERNS TO REMEMBER

The comparative form uses than.

INCORRECT [They seem more experienced then they are.]

CORRECT They seem more experienced than they are.

The precedes the adjective in the superlative form.

INCORRECT [Biggest demand is from the Midwest.]

CORRECT The biggest demand is from the Midwest.

When comparing three or more things, use the superlative.

INCORRECT [This is the more obvious problem we face.]

CORRECT This is the most obvious problem we face.

When comparing two things equally, use as + adjective + as.

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INCORRECT [Fred is not ambitious as Mark.]
CORRECT Fred is not as ambitious as Mark.

There are five irregular forms to be memorized.

good better the best

bad worse the worst
far farther, further the farthest, furthest
little less the least
many, much more the most
INCORRECT [This is the worse indicator we have seen yet.]
CORRECT This is the worst indicator we have seen yet.

PRACTICE

Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1. This is the ____________hotel available in this district.

A. good C. best
B. better D. more good
2. Which is the____________month of the year in your country?
A. hottest C. many more hotter
B. most hot D. much hot
3. They are very happy with a____________than normal pay increase.
A. longer C. smaller
B. larger D. more expensive
4. He was doing the____________he could.
A. good C. very better
B. very good D. very best
5. Yesterday's game was____________in this series.
A. more exciting C. the most exciting
B. the most excited D. more excited
6. The weather couldn't be ______________; it's perfect.
A. colder C. better
B. hotter D. summer

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7. The longer you practice, _________accurately you will be able to type.
A. more C. the more
B. the D. the most
8. Between them, Dr. Gates has _________insight.
A. the greater C. greatest
B. greater D. more greater
9. She tried to express her feelings _________she could.
A. more honest than C. more honestly
B. as honest as D. as honestly as
10. Of the three runners, she is by far _________.
A. a runner C. very fast
B. very slow D. the fastest

11 GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES

Gerunds (verb + -ing) and infinitives (to + verb) are verb forms that can be used as nouns.
They may be used in any position in a sentence where a noun may be used. When used as
direct objects, the decision whether to use a gerund or an infinitive depends on the main verb.
These verb patterns must be memorized; lists may be found in most grammar reference
books.

PATTERNS TO REMEMBER

Certain verbs take gerunds (admit, consider, enjoy, stop, etc.).

INCORRECT [He regretted to retire so early.]

CORRECT He regretted retiring so early.

Certain verbs take infinitives (afford, ask, decide, expect, etc.).

INCORRECT [We expect arriving late.]

CORRECT We expect to arrive late.

PRACTICE

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Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1. I enjoy___________a walk in the park after lunch whenever I have time.

A. taking C. take
B. go for D. to have
2. The health department requires the operators of restaurants_______sanitary conditions.
A. maintenance C. to maintain
B. maintaining D. maintain
3. The latest economic statistics seem___________an upturn in the economy.
A. pointing to C. to indicate
B. a prediction D. demonstrating
4. Animal rights groups are opposed___________health and beauty products on animals.
A. to test C. tests of
B. testing D. to testing
5. My father taught___________skeptical of claims made by advertisers.
A. me to be C. my being
B. to be D. for me to be
6. _____________here is not permitted.
A. Park C. Having parked
B. You can park D. Parking
7. Did you have your assistant________this report?
A. edit C. an edition
B. editing D. to edit
8. I intend to stop________after January 1.
A. to smoke C. smoke
B. smoking D. smokes
9. I watched the man________the sign.
A. paint C. painted
B. to paint D. was painted

10. Atsuko is going to Vancouver________some of her clients.

A. for to visit C. to visit

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 B. visiting D. visit

12 MODALS
Modals are auxiliaries (helping words) that signal the tense of the verb and add to its meaning.

PRESENT/FUTURE PAST PERFECT MODALS

MODALS MODALS
can could could have
may might might have
will would would have
shall should should have
has/have to had to has/have had to
must must have

PATTERNS TO REMEMBER

A main verb in the present tense means a present modal in the subordinate clause.

INCORRECT [The final decision is that he could go ahead with his project.]
CORRECT The final decision is that he can go ahead with his project.
A main verb in the past tense means a past modal in the subordinate clause.
INCORRECT [Last month he thought he will retire.]
CORRECT Last month he thought he would retire.
Perfect modals are used when the action of a verb in the subordinate clause is supposed to
have occurred already.
INCORRECT [I thought he should be promoted last month.]
CORRECT I thought he should have been promoted last month.
INCORRECT [They agree that we might make a mistake yesterday.]
CORRECT They agree that we might have made a mistake yesterday.

Must has two distinct meanings. When must means "necessity," the past is had to; when it
means a logical conclusion, the perfect form must have is used.

INCORRECT [She must have used her vacation days, or she would have lost them.]
CORRECT She had to use her vacation days, or she would have lost them.

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INCORRECT [Here's Brad's report. He had to forget to take it.]
CORRECT Here's Brad's report. He must have forgotten to take it.

PRACTICE

Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1. He _______________a better job.

A. may C. may gets
B. mays get D. may get
2. If he had had time, he _____________joined us.
A. can have C. could have
B. had D. certainly had
3. He asked her, " ____________you like some more coffee?"
A. Will C. Would
B. Shall D. Do
4. The baby __________be hungry, because he just had milk.
A. cannot C. isn't
B. must D. wasn't
5. I ___________go to the post office this morning.
A. ought C. must
B. have D. used to
6. The black leather jacket ___________be Harley's.
A. not C. not must
B. can't D. not can't
7. I ___________like to see his daughter right now.
A. will C. would
B. shall D. could
8. Here's the application form you___________fill out.
A. can C. will
B. should D. shall
9. Ken ________________ harder; he failed the test again.
A. should study C. should been studied

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 B. should have studied D. should have been studied
10. Check with the director. It_________ be possible to change the meeting to next month.
A. might C. can
B. is D. would

13 PARTICIPLES
VERB speak
PAST PARTICIPLE spoken The language spoken by most people …
A spoken language…
PRESENT PARTICIPLE speaking The woman, speaking loudly, …

PATTERNS TO REMEMBER

The participial phrase does not require a form of the verb be.

INCORRECT [The worker was causing the most problems was fired.]
CORRECT The worker causing the most problems was fired.

The participial phrase must directly precede or follow the noun it is modifying.

INCORRECT [The cat scared the child attacking the mouse.]

CORRECT The cat attacking the mouse scared the child.

The past participle represents a reduced passive form. This means the person or thing it
describes has received, not done, an action.

INCORRECT [The meeting scheduling for this morning has been canceled.]
CORRECT The meeting scheduled for this morning has been canceled.

PRACTICE

Select the one answer that is appropriate in the context

1. ____________tired, he decided to leave early.

A. Feels C. Feeling
B. To feel D. Felt
2. ____________from a distance, the painting appeared quite realistic.

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 A. Seen C. Seeing
B. Saw D. See it
3. This noise is very___________.
A. annoys C. annoyed
B. annoying D. annoy
4. It is not very easy to make her ___________once she gets upset.
A. please C. pleased
B. pleasing D. pleasure
5. Two teenagers were among the fourteen people___________.
A. arrests C. arresting
B. arrest D. arrested
6. Extremely___________from the hard work, he couldn't walk an inch.
A. busy C. happy
B. excited D. exhausted
7. Who is that man___________the red jacket?
A. wearing C. doing
B. having D. inside of
8. She said that the report was a bit___________.
A. confused C. confusing
B. confuses D. confuse
9. ___________water is not safe for drinking.
A. Polluted C. Pollute
B. Polluting D. Pollutes
10. He could easily make himself ___________if he tried.
A. understand C. understood
B. understanding D. be understood

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