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been one towards reform within the Armenian Church and largely
led by Armenians who were themselves loyal members. In
persecuting, the Church was doing violence to its own.
In the beginning of 1846 the patriarch, alarmed at the extent as
well as the power of the reform movement, inaugurated more
coercive measures. On Sunday morning, January 25, at the close of
the regular service in the Patriarchal Church, darkening the house
and drawing a great veil in front of the main altar, a bull of excision
was read against Priest Vartanes, an evangelical, and all of the
followers of the “modern sectaries.” Heaping every conceivable
epithet of condemnation upon him he was expelled from the Church
and forbidden as “a devil and the child of the devil to enter into the
company of believers.” All the faithful were forbidden to admit him
into their dwellings or to receive his salutation or to look upon his
face.
A wild spirit of fanaticism reigned. This most thorough and
fanatical persecution began to search out the evangelicals, who were
ordered to repair to the patriarchate and recant, or be forever cast
out from society, from every social privilege, and from the Church.
On the following Sabbath, with passions still more inflamed, a
second anathema was read in all the churches, accompanied by the
most violent denunciations by the patriarch, the bishop and the
vartabeds. All of the evangelicals were pronounced “accursed, and
excommunicated, and anathematized by God, and by all his saints,
and by Matteos Patriarch.” The patriarch not only cursed those who
were readers of the Bible and believers in its teachings, but grave
malediction was hurled against all who should harbor them or
communicate with them. Printed copies of the last two anathemas
were sent to every part of Turkey to be read in all the churches.
Even to this point the evangelical Armenians had made no move to
form a community separate from the old Church.
On the 21st of June, 1846, a day of solemn festival in the
Church, the patriarch issued a new bull of excommunication and
anathema against all who remained firm to their evangelical
principles, decreeing that it should be publicly read at each annual
return of this festival in all the Armenian churches throughout the
Ottoman empire. By this act the Protestant or evangelical Armenians
were completely cut off from any lot or part in the Gregorian Church.
There was no hope of their being received back again except by
their repudiating every principle of reform. This, of course, they
could not do.
These excommunicated brethren immediately requested help
from the missionaries. A meeting was held in Constantinople, made
up of delegates from the different mission stations in Turkey, at
which Dr. Pomeroy, later one of the secretaries of the American
Board, was present. At that meeting, plans were drawn up for an
organization among the evangelical Armenians of Constantinople.
Consequently, on the first day of July, 1846, they came together and
were organized into the First Evangelical Armenian Church. The
church numbered forty members, of which thirty-seven were men.
One week later an Armenian pastor, a former student in the school
of Pashtimaljian, was ordained over the church. A pamphlet in
Armenian was issued, containing their confession of faith and setting
forth the reasons why, through the compulsory measures of the
patriarch, they had been compelled to organize themselves into a
separate body.
During the same summer, similar Armenian churches were
formed in Nicomedia, Adabazar and Trebizond. The Mohammedans
showed themselves sympathetic. A Moslem judge before whom
some of the evangelicals had been hauled, said, “We cannot
interfere to protect you from excommunication, but so long as you
abide by the declaration you have made we will protect you civilly.
Your goods shall be as our goods; your houses as our houses; and
your persons as our persons. Go in peace.”
All subjects of the Turkish empire were registered as members of
some recognized religious community. Each various Christian
community like the Armenian, the Greek, and the Roman Catholic,
had its recognized head at the Porte and through this head
individual rights were protected. Every non-Moslem was compelled
to claim his rights at the hand of his religious political head. If his
claim were there denied, he had no redress. The Armenian patriarch
was the recognized political superior of the Armenians. He had
violently excluded all evangelicals from the Church and from all their
inherited rights as Armenians. He no longer recognized such as
members of his race, and not only refused to protect them and
secure for them justice but he devised methods to direct a bitter
persecution against them. These excommunicated “Protestants,” as
they were sometimes called, were the legal possessors of no rights
or privileges in the empire that any one was bound to respect.
Conditions became intolerable, when through the intervention of
the British legation the grand vizier issued in November, 1847, a
firman recognizing the separate Protestant community with all the
rights and privileges belonging to others in the empire, and declaring
that “no interference whatever shall be permitted in their temporal
and spiritual concerns on the part of the patriarch, monks, or priests
of other sects.” This firman protected the evangelical Greeks and
Jews as well as the Armenians. As this charter was only ministerial in
its scope and authority, in 1850 a new charter was granted the
Protestants by Sultan Abdul Medjid, “completing and confirming their
distinct organization as a civil community, etc.”
This phase of mission work in Turkey has been dwelt upon at
length in order to correct the impression which prevails in many
quarters that the missionaries in Turkey aimed to divide the old
Churches there and to separate out therefrom a body of Protestants.
History makes it clear that every effort was made to prevent
separation, and only after this had taken place, by the repeated and
official action of the highest ecclesiastical authority, were any steps
taken to organize a separate community, and even then this was
done primarily to secure protection for the excommunicated
Christians.
 XVI. RESULTS
I have had occasion to revert to the work of the
accomplished and devoted band of American
missionaries and teachers settled in these districts. In
a thousand ways they are raising the standard of
morality, of intelligence, of education, of material well-
being, of industrial enterprise. Directly or indirectly
every phase of their work is rapidly paving the way for
American commerce. Special stress should be laid
upon the remarkable work of the physicians, ordained
or unordained, who are attached to the various
stations. They form a steadily growing network,
dotting the map of Asia Minor at Cæsarea, Marsovan,
Sivas, Adana, Aintab, Mardin, Harpoot, Bitlis, and Van.
At most of these points well-equipped hospitals are in
active operation. From the very nature of their
occupation they come more easily and rapidly into
touch with the Turkish population and quickly gain
their confidence.
Taking all in all, I regard the results following the
foundation of this institution (Euphrates College) as
among the most important and noteworthy secured by
American effort in foreign lands. The whole work
appeals most strongly to one whose chief duty is to aid
and further the entrance of American wares in this
land. I know of no import better adapted to secure the
future commercial supremacy of the United States in
this land of such wonderful potential possibilities than
the introduction of American teachers, of American
educational appliances and books of American
methods and ideas.
 —Prof. Thomas H. Norton, Ph. D.,
United States Consul at Harpoot and Smyrna,
Turkey.

W
hile those troublous scenes were being enacted, the
missionaries were engaged in preparing and sending out
evangelical Christian literature in the form of the Bible in the
vernacular Armenian, Armeno-Turkish and Greek languages, and by
fostering educational operations. As early as 1836 a school for
Armenian girls was opened in Smyrna. A boarding-school for
Armenian boys opened in Bebek in 1840 was so promising that in
1843-44 Secretary Anderson, upon a visit to Constantinople,
recommended that this institution be strengthened. At that time it
was decided to discontinue the special work to the Greeks and to
open a high school for girls at the capital. The purpose of the
seminary at Bebek was to train able and devout young men for the
gospel ministry, that the newly organized churches might have
proper leaders. In 1848 the seminary contained forty-seven
students.
In 1847 some Christian literature found its way into Aintab in
northern Syria. During that year and the next, missionary visits were
made to the place. In 1849 Mr. Schneider took up his residence
there, and Aintab became a regular mission station. In the midst of
persecution the work spread with great rapidity. Preachers and
colporters were forbidden by the Armenian primates to visit the
neighboring towns, so evangelical tradesmen began a systematic
visitation to outside places, plying their trade and preaching the
gospel. The spirit of intelligent faith and religious liberty spread in all
directions until the entire region was affected. In 1861 the church in
Aintab had nearly three hundred members and the Sabbath
congregation often numbered more than one thousand souls. The
Sabbath-school then had nearly two thousand members. In 1855
Marash was occupied as a mission station, and these two places
have since been the two central stations of that mission.
 For nearly a generation after the separation of the Protestants
took place there was more or less hostile feeling between the two
bodies, although the number of the evangelicals rapidly increased.
The spirit of inquiry was abroad among the Armenians and nothing
could satisfy it but the truth. Travelers into the interior and visitors to
Constantinople from the interior carried this spirit into the most
remote sections of the country. The anathemas which had been
communicated to the churches of the inland towns and cities had
stirred up many questions and aroused alert minds to seek the
cause. On the whole, the evangelical movement was most materially
helped by these rude and bungling endeavors to suppress it by brute
force. Wherever missionaries went they were met by a group of
men, naturally among the most enlightened in all the community,
who sought aid in the interpretation of the Scriptures, and who were
eager to receive literature explaining evangelical truth.
Mission stations all over the country rapidly multiplied, and the
number of Protestant churches increased. In 1860 forty Protestant
churches had been organized, mostly among the Armenians, and
twenty-two stations at which missionaries resided were in full
operation. At nearly all of these stations, schools for boys and, in
cases not a few, schools for girls, had been opened and these were
well patronized. The printing-press was moved from Malta to Smyrna
in 1833. The press always has been and is still one of the most
active and effectual agents for reform in the empire. During the first
forty years of the work, from five to ten million pages of Christian
literature were issued from the press each year, in five different
languages.
In no part of the Turkish empire has the work of the missionary
been more difficult than in Syria. Owing to papal supremacy there,
which called to its service both Turkish and French political aid in its
endeavor to thwart the missionaries and the evangelicals, no
separate church of native Christians was organized until 1848 at
Beirut, two years after the formation of the Evangelical Armenian
Church at Constantinople. There was in that field no intellectually
and morally dominant race to receive and extend the gospel as there
was in Asia Minor and the greater part of the Turkish empire, while
the races occupying Syria were for the most part hostile to each
other and always mutually suspicious.
In 1858 direct work for the Bulgarians was begun by opening a
station at Adrianople, which was followed by a station at
Philippopolis and Eski-Zagra within the next two years. The
Bulgarians were longing for political freedom and welcomed the
missionaries with their new literature and education as calculated to
strengthen them as a nation. For fourteen years the work among the
Bulgarians was considered a part of the Armenian mission. In 1872
the European work was set off by itself as the European Turkey
mission, which is almost exclusively for the Bulgarians. The condition
of the old Bulgarian Church was similar to the Armenian Church, so
far as need of reform was concerned.
The churches which were organized in 1846, among those cast
out from the old Gregorian Church, were severely plain and simple in
their form and ritual, as well as in their articles of faith. In the
reaction from the rigid ritualism of the Church from which they had
been driven, these evangelical Christians went to the other extreme,
putting the emphasis of the service upon the sermon. Prevailing
conditions demanded direct positive instruction in Christian living
rather than new forms of worship. Had these people not been rudely
excommunicated from the Church there is no doubt that they would
have clung fondly to much if not all of the rich service of the old
Church. Much place was also given to the reading of the Scriptures
in the modern spoken language of the people and to congregational
singing. The people were so eager for the sermon, and especially in
the expository form, that large numbers who repudiated the name of
evangelical, and who were among the persecutors of the Protestants
began to demand that the priests of the old Church also expound
the Scriptures. Few of them were able to accomplish this with any
degree of success. Dr. Goodell published a volume of sermons in
Armenian which were eagerly bought by the priests and preached by
them to their people. Although the evangelicals had been violently
thrust out of the Church, the spirit of reform in considerable
measure remained.
During the first bitter years, when feelings were stirred up and
controversy was rife, there was a wide breach between the
Gregorian and Protestant Churches. After discussions all over the
country, extending to nearly every village of importance, had settled
the question that the modern version of the Bible in the vernacular
was the unquestioned Word of God, there was actually no ground
for continued separate existence. All Armenians accepted the
modern Scriptures as the revelation of God to men and an infallible
guide to faith and practise. Neither did they have any scruples
against the Bible being put into the hands of the people. Hence, as
one might expect, the breach between the old and the new began
gradually to heal. The spirit of bitterness, little by little, passed away
until now it does not exist upon the old grounds which led to the
separation.
In many places the Protestant pastors are now asked to speak in
the old churches, and the children of both Gregorian and Protestant
parents meet in the same Christian schools and upon exactly the
same footing. In the theological seminaries of the missions there
have been and now are students who are not Protestants and who
are preparing for ordination as priests in the old Church. Many
ecclesiastics of the Gregorian Church received the major part of their
training for that service in the mission schools. During the last
twenty years there has been little separation from the old Church.
The missionaries have generally exerted their influence against it.
Some Gregorians have tried to keep the controversy alive by
claiming that the Protestants are not loyal to the race, but that
charge has been so fully proven untrue that it is now little used.
In no instance have the missionaries for any length of time been
the pastors of the native churches. At the first the policy was clearly
settled that the only true and effective pastor of an Armenian church
is an Armenian. The missionaries preach, and they have always been
preachers, and some of them of great power, but this is quite
different from being the settled pastor of a church. The rapid
increase in the number of evangelical churches, each one of which
demanded its own native pastor, compelled the missionaries to
redouble their efforts to raise up and train an adequate number of
worthy young men for these high offices. The seminary at Bebek
produced men who have left the stamp of their piety, earnestness
and ability upon the reform movement in Turkey. Some of these men
came from the far interior of the country, and returning became the
leaders in the new movement.
This seminary was ultimately moved to Marsovan, while other
similar institutions sprang up at Marash and at Harpoot, in the
eastern part of the country. A similar training-school became
necessary also at Mardin, where the spoken language is Arabic,
while in Beirut, Syria, a large training-school flourished. A whole
educational system grew up out of the necessities of the work. This
will be considered later when discussing the work of education in the
empire.
The evangelical Churches were not denominational in any
ordinary sense of that word. Their creed was the Bible in the
language of the people and this was taken as the guide of their life.
While the missionaries, because of their superior knowledge and
experience in such matters, were constantly sought for advice, they
did not exercise ecclesiastical control. These Churches were early
advised to form themselves into Associations or Unions, as they
were more generally called, for the purpose of mutual help. One
such union was formed in the vicinity of Constantinople, and later
one in Aintab and vicinity and at Harpoot and elsewhere. In these
organizations missionaries could be only honorary members without
a vote. They were composed of pastors and delegates from the
churches, and held an annual meeting, with more frequent meetings
of standing committees with varying functions. In some parts of the
country these unions ordain to the gospel ministry and examine
worthy candidates and grant them licenses to preach. It is not a
Congregational system, neither is it Presbyterian, but it has worked
well in developing native talent and directing it into right channels of
action.
The development and strength in the evangelistic work in Turkey
is due perhaps more to the leadership of a few individuals who seem
to have been sent into the empire at a time most opportune. Dr.
William Goodell, the first missionary of the Board to Constantinople,
lived and labored there for forty-three years, or until 1865. With rare
wisdom, patience and firmness did he direct the work through the
period of fiery persecution and of organization of the Church and the
Protestant community. Men are now there in the work, both
missionaries and others, who were colaborers with him and who
have helped to carry out the wise measures devised by him for the
true reform of that people. Time would fail us to speak of Schneider,
Dwight, Thompson and Riggs, of Post and the Blisses, of Wheeler,
Farnsworth and a great multitude besides who gave their lives to
build in the Turkish empire the pure, intelligent Church of Jesus
Christ, to say nothing of the equally faithful and able company who
are still there among perils and difficulties not less severe, but who
know they are doing the Lord’s work, and that they are in the place
where he has called them.
At the present time the nearly two hundred evangelical
Protestant churches in the empire, with some twenty thousand
church-members, do not begin to tell the tale of what has been
accomplished. The story is written in the awakened intellect of all
classes and races, in new conceptions of what Christianity demands
of its followers, and in a changed atmosphere affecting the life and
character of nearly all the youth born in the last generation, and is
destined to affect the empire still more vitally as the years go on.
The seed of intelligent belief and of right living has been sown and it
is finding soil in which to germinate. The fruit thereof shall be for the
healing of the nation.
XVII. INTELLECTUAL RENAISSANCE
Education has accomplished more toward the
regeneration of these lands than anything else. While
it has been very broad, especially in the higher
institutions, it has likewise been thoroughly permeated
with Christianity. Though Robert College is not directly
connected with any missionary society it “has exerted
an incalculable influence for Christian life all over the
empire. Among its graduates are many of the most
prominent men in Bulgaria, and it is perhaps not too
much to say that the nation really owes its existence to
the influence exerted by President George Washburn
and his associates. Its students have included
representatives of twenty nationalities, and its Young
Men’s Christian Association is unique among the
college associations of the world in that it is divided
into four departments according to the prevailing
language spoken,—English, Greek, Armenian and
Bulgarian.” The Syrian Protestant College at Beirut is
likewise independent, though in closest sympathy and
cooperation with the Presbyterian Board, North.
Concerning the college, Mr. John R. Mott writes: “This
is one of the three most important institutions in all
Asia. In fact there is no college which has within one
generation accomplished a greater work and which to-
day has a larger opportunity. It has practically created
the medical profession of the Levant. It has been the
most influential factor of the East. It has been and is
the center for genuine Christian and scientific literature
in all that region. Fully one-fourth of the graduates of
the collegiate department have entered Christian work
 either as preachers or as teachers in Christian schools.”
In less degree the same results noted in the case of
these two institutions are furnished by the records of
the American Board’s colleges at Aintab, Harpoot,
Samakov, Marsovan, and of its colleges for girls at
Marash and Constantinople, as well as of the less
ambitious Bishop Gobat School of the Church
Missionary Society and the Beirut Female Seminary of
the Presbyterians.

—Prof. Harlan P. Beach, F. R. G. S. etc.,

I
t has already been stated that in 1820 throughout the Turkish
empire there was practically no modern education. The few
schools which did exist were almost entirely ecclesiastical,
maintained for the purpose of teaching a few men to conduct
religious services. This was largely true of all schools, whether
Armenian, Greek, or Turkish. Nowhere in the country were there
schools for girls, the idea prevailing generally that girls could not
learn to read, even if they were worth educating. The great mass of
the people were unable either to read or to write. Ignorance even in
the capital was dense, but it was much greater in the interior cities
and towns. Often a large group of villages possessed not one person
who could write or read a letter.
Argument is not required to show that no real reform could be
introduced into the country without inaugurating some system of
education. There must be produced readers and a literature if the
intellectual and moral life of the people was to be raised. If the old
Gregorian Church was to become enlightened in its belief and
practise, there must be educated leaders as well as an intelligent
laity. For this reason the missionaries began with an effort to awaken
the intellects of the people. The Lancasterian schools that were so
popular for a period in the capital had their value and exerted a
good influence. The school of Pashtimaljian sprang from the aroused
desire of the people for education and the conviction of the leaders
of the Church that only educated leaders could be wisely trusted and
followed. There were other schools supported and directed by the
Armenians themselves, but springing largely from the persistent
effort of the missionaries. Until 1839 it was hoped that all the work
of modern education among the Armenians would be carried on by
the Armenians themselves, so that the missionaries need not open
schools of any kind.
As the zealous ecclesiastics became more and more suspicious,
restrictive measures were applied. It was observed that those who
studied in the schools were among the leaders seeking to reform the
errors which were destroying the spiritual influence of the Church. It
soon became evident to the missionaries that they must take a
direct part in the work of education. In 1840 Bebek Seminary for
training the young men was opened. The head of this school was
Cyrus Hamlin, who the year before had arrived at Constantinople,
designated to this work. He was a man of rare qualifications for the
task assigned him, knowing no fear, never disheartened in the face
of insuperable obstacles, of tireless industry, practical wisdom and
unbounded resourcefulness and devotion to the cause to which he
had given his life.
The seminary at Bebek was begun just as the persecution of the
evangelicals at the capital was becoming acute. Early in his career
Dr. Hamlin was impressed with the fact that the school must succeed
in the face of direct opposition from Russia. During his first year in
the mission, while he was learning the Armenian language, his
teacher was suddenly seized at the order of the Russian ambassador
and deported to Siberia. Dr. Hamlin and Dr. Schauffler repaired to
the Russian embassy and protested against the high-handed
proceeding. The ambassador haughtily replied, “My master, the
emperor of Russia, will never allow Protestantism to set its foot in
Turkey.” Dr. Schauffler, bowing low to the ambassador, gave the reply
which has become historic, “Your excellency, the kingdom of Christ,
who is my Master, will never ask the emperor of all the Russias
where it may set its foot.” From that day to this, the covert as well
as open opposition of Russia to missionary work in Turkey and, most
especially, to all educational work, has been unremittingly
experienced. Consistently has Russia adhered to the policy thus
outlined and the opposition from that source to-day is as bitter as at
any other period.
Dr. Hamlin threw himself into the work of the seminary with all
his intense and resourceful energy. Thwarted at a hundred points, he
immediately changed his plans and appeared even to his persecutors
to have gained the victory. For twenty years the work proceeded
with emphasis upon industries when industrial persecutions were
crushing the people, but always strenuous, and always supremely
Christian and evangelical. He saw that a vernacular training was not
sufficient for the full equipment of the young men under his care to
prepare them for positions of largest leadership. The Jesuit schools
taught their pupils French so that all their graduates knew a
European language. As yet the Armenian literature was very
circumscribed and most inadequate to meet the intellectual and
spiritual requirements of intelligent directors of a great national
reform movement.
This was the opinion of Dr. Hamlin, shared, as he felt, by the
great mass of the Armenian people. But he was not fully sustained in
it by his colleagues in the mission. The American Board, under the
leadership of its secretary, Dr. Anderson, had declared as its policy
that mission schools should not teach English or any other language
than the vernacular to their pupils. To Dr. Hamlin this seemed such a
backward step that he resigned from the Board and began to work
and plan for higher education among young men. The story of the
building of the now famous Robert College under an imperial irade
from the sultan, and upon the most commanding site along the
entire length of the Bosporus, is now so well known that it need not
be repeated.
The college became a reality and the scheme of education
conceived by Dr. Hamlin and carried out in Robert College
represented, within forty years of the time of his resignation from
the Board, the fundamental policy of all the higher educational work
in the empire carried on in both missionary and independent
institutions. For nearly a generation, however, in mission schools
little was done in European languages, and most of the education
given was imparted through the spoken language of the people.
As early as 1836, four years before the seminary at Bebek was
begun, a high school was opened in Beirut in which both Arabic and
English were taught. This school was apparently a great success, but
four years later the pupils, because of their practical knowledge of
English, became so useful to the English officers, then quartered in
Beirut on account of political troubles, that the school was broken
up. No doubt this unfortunate experience had much influence in
leading the Board to endeavor to exclude English from mission
schools. In 1848, a seminary upon the purely vernacular basis was
opened in Beirut with a view to training its students for useful
service among their own people. This school was continued until the
change in policy by the Board and the mission, when the English
language again took its place in the curriculum.
ROBERT COLLEGE, CONSTANTINOPLE
 SYRIAN PROTESTANT COLLEGE, BEIRUT, SYRIA
Whatever differences of opinion existed as to the place of English
in the educational system of Turkey, there was practical unanimity in
the belief that reform in the empire demanded the creation and
maintenance of a system of schools which should include all grades,
beginning with the primary. It was necessary to begin with the most
rudimentary teaching before higher institutions could be sustained.
The seminaries already referred to were not by any means colleges.
They taught many studies of the lowest grades. As most of the
pupils were mature in years, they made speedy progress and often
astonished their teachers by their rapid advancement and clear
grasp of abstruse subjects.
At every station where missionaries settled, schools sprang up
and were at once widely patronized. In the large centers like
Erzerum, Harpoot, Aintab and Marsovan, where the people were
unusually intelligent and eager for an education, there was marked
development and a rapid rise in the grade of the central schools.
Colleges were not then developed, for there were no natives
qualified to teach the studies of college grade, while there were no
preparatory schools fitted to train students for college work. At that
time the country itself was not in a condition to demand a college
education. In the meantime Robert College was taking the lead in
the higher education of men, although its work was then far inferior
to the courses it now offers. Educators throughout the empire were
closely watching the new institution upon the Bosporus, which
became the pioneer and leader for the entire country.
When Dr. Hamlin was in the midst of his efforts to organize and
construct a college for Turkey, the Rev. Crosby H. Wheeler, also from
the state of Maine, was sent into Eastern Turkey as a missionary,
and with designation to Harpoot. Dr. Wheeler, with energy similar to
that of his fellow laborer, stopped upon his way at Constantinople
and became acquainted with the educational work there developing.
He took direct issue with Dr. Hamlin upon the subject of the value of
English, but agreed with him upon the place of education in the
work of reform. Some years later, when the educational work at
Harpoot was well established, Dr. Wheeler felt so keenly upon this
subject that he gave public notice in the seminary, of which he was
the principal, that any student who was known to be studying
English, even by himself or by the aid of one or two resident
Armenians who had studied at Constantinople under Dr. Hamlin,
would be summarily expelled from the school.
Dr. Wheeler, with his keen vision and unconquerable energy,
while an evangelistic missionary of unusual power, became the
pioneer of education at Harpoot. Under his leadership, strongly
seconded by Rev. Dr. H. N. Barnum, the seminary for young men at
that place rapidly developed until in 1878 it was merged into
Armenia College, afterwards changed to Euphrates College. It did
not require many years for Dr. Wheeler to see that no broad
education could be given in Turkey without the use of the English
language, so that he became one of the most energetic and
enthusiastic supporters of an English education for all students in the
higher institutions of learning in the country. The other high schools
in the eastern part of Turkey became preparatory schools for the
college, which was heartily endorsed by the people themselves, as
appears from the wide patronage it received.
The same process of growth that has been noted at Harpoot took
place also at Aintab, which is distant some eight days’ journey from
Harpoot, upon the south side of the Taurus Mountains. In the
meantime, the educational work at Beirut had made rapid strides,
developing into a college which later became the largest and most
influential educational institution in Syria and one of the most
important in the Levant. This school early in its growth became
detached from the mission Board and came under the control of a
separate Board of Trustees in New York, and assumed the name of
the Syrian Protestant College.
Space will not permit the mention in detail of Anatolia College at
Marsovan, St. Paul’s Institute at Tarsus, and the International
College at Smyrna. The last two named are of comparatively recent
elevation to the grade of college, while the former has had a record
of college work of a quarter of a century. The school for the
Bulgarians was established at Samakov, which is now in Bulgaria. It
is called the Collegiate and Theological Institute, and is calculated to
do for the young men of Bulgaria and Macedonia what these other
institutions are doing for Asiatic Turkey.
The Syrian Protestant College at Beirut was begun as an
institution of higher learning in 1866 by Rev. Daniel Bliss. What Dr.
Hamlin was to Robert College and Dr. Wheeler to Euphrates College,
and Dr. Tracy to Anatolia College, Dr. Bliss has been to this college in
Syria. To-day with a campus of over forty acres, with five
departments including medicine, pharmacy and a commercial
course, and some seven hundred students in attendance from not
less than fourteen nationalities, including Druses, Jews and Moslems,
drawn from all parts of the Levant, from Persia and the Sudan, this
college stands among the first in the empire for equipment and
influence.
 Educational work for girls started more slowly and did not make
such rapid progress as the work among young men. There was not
at the beginning a manifest demand for the education of girls.
Among all classes in the country was an inherent prejudice against
the intellectual or social advancement of women. Intelligent men,
not a few, were ready to argue that girls were incapable of learning
to read, much less of acquiring a general education. It became
necessary, therefore, to educate the men up to the idea that girls
could learn and that it was worth while to educate them. In 1836 a
school for girls was opened by the missionaries at Smyrna, then the
most enlightened and advanced city in the empire. This passed out
of the hands of the mission very quickly, being taken over with its
forty pupils by the Armenian community. It was soon disbanded. In
Constantinople, while no regular school had been opened for girls, a
few of the most enlightened parents were providing instruction for
their daughters by engaging as teacher for them one of the
evangelical Armenians.
Under the impulse of the reform movement it was impossible to
keep out schools for girls. These multiplied in the large cities first
and then extended into the interior until they became almost as
popular as the schools for young men. The Mission School for girls in
Constantinople became the foremost institution of its kind in the
empire. After passing through several changes, all in the line of
progress, it became, nearly twenty years ago, the American College
for Girls in Constantinople. It is to-day the most advanced school for
the education of women in the Levant. Euphrates College at Harpoot
has also a female department, while in Central Turkey at Marash
there is now a collegiate school for young women as well as a similar
institution at Smyrna. These schools, for both boys and girls, are
overcrowded with students and have been from the beginning. It
has been impossible to keep pace by enlargement with the
increasing desire on the part of the people for the education of their
children.
The collegiate institutions are well scattered over the length and
breadth of the country. The two colleges for boys which are the
nearest together are St. Paul’s Institute at Tarsus and Central Turkey
College at Aintab, and yet these are some four days’ journey apart.
The students in Beirut speak Arabic for the most part; those in
Marash and Aintab use Turkish; those at Harpoot, Armenian; at
Marsovan and Smyrna, Armenian, Greek and Turkish; and those at
the American College for Girls and at Robert College, both in
Constantinople, use about all the languages of the empire. English is
taught in all, and constitutes, in some of the institutions, the only
common tongue; as, for instance, in Robert College there are seldom
less than a dozen nationalities and languages represented among
the students. The only language they all wish to master is English.
This becomes, then, the common linguistic meeting-place of scholars
in the Ottoman empire.
All but three of the American colleges here mentioned are
incorporated under the laws of either New York or Massachusetts,
and so are distinctively and legally American institutions. All of them
have some kind of official recognition from the Sublime Porte or from
the sultan himself. Below the colleges are schools for both boys and
girls of a grade which admits to the collegiate courses. This is true of
schools remote from any college where the pupils who cannot go to
a distant part of the country for an education are numerous.
Including the preparatory departments, there are not less than
six thousand pupils studying in connection with these collegiate
institutions, and all under Christian training. The grade in many
respects, if not in all, is equal to that of the ordinary American
college. In languages they all give the broadest courses. In
Euphrates College, for instance, there are from six to eight
languages taught, at least six of which are compulsory. The courses
of study are adapted to the needs of the country and with a view to
training the students for the highest service to their own people. The
college at Beirut has a medical department which is of great value to
the country, drawing its students from every race.
When the direct collegiate work was entered upon, in every
instance the theological schools were made separate departments or
were entirely set apart by themselves. There are at the present time
six distinct training-schools in Turkey which have for their object the
preparation of young men for the gospel ministry. Two of these,
namely the schools at Beirut, and at Mardin, in northern
Mesopotamia, train their pupils for work among Arabic speaking
peoples; the one at Harpoot, for work among the Armenians, where
the Armenian language is chiefly used, although some of its pupils
speak Turkish; the one at Marash for Turkish speaking peoples; the
one at Marsovan for those who speak Armenian, Turkish and Greek;
and the one at Samakov, Bulgaria, for Bulgarians alone. Attempts
have been made to unite this theological work, but the long distance
separating the schools and the time and cost of the journey to and
from them, the barriers of the different languages, and the
restrictions put upon all native students in travel, have made it
impracticable to do so up to the present time.
In these institutions, by far the largest number of teachers are
natives of Turkey, some of whom, after taking a course of study in
their own country, have had postgraduate work in Europe or the
United States. In each case, the president is an American who is
usually assisted by one or more Americans. It is the policy of all
these institutions to employ as many thoroughly equipped native
teachers and professors as can be secured consistent with
maintaining the high intellectual and moral tone of the schools.
In no case are these free schools. The students are charged
tuition, room rent, and board, and they also purchase their own
books and supplies. Some of these colleges secure from fees and
payments by the pupils nearly three-fourths of the entire cost of
conducting the institution. This is true of Robert College at
Constantinople and Anatolia College at Marsovan, and others. In
addition to the fees paid, the people of the country have contributed
in some cases most liberally for the college plant. Aintab College is a
marked instance of this. In recent years the early students who have
prospered in business have given freely for the endowment of their
Alma Mater, as in the case of Euphrates College at Harpoot. The
willingness of the people to contribute for the support of these
higher educational institutions demonstrates most unmistakably
belief in their value.
Such numerous collegiate and theological institutions necessitate
a large and ever increasing number of schools of lower grade all
over the country. These have sprung up in nearly every village and
are found in every town of size. They are for the most part entirely
supported by the people themselves. The great value of the
educational work done in Turkey by the missionaries does not lie
alone in the schools of different grades now controlled and directed
by them; it also appears in the thirst for education which manifests
itself in independent village, parochial, and city schools, with more
or less modern equipment, and stretching from Persia to the
Bosporus, from the Black Sea to Arabia. There is much yet to be
desired in this respect, but much has already been accomplished.
This educational work has made no perceptible impression upon
the Jews, for whose special awakening mission work in Turkey was
first undertaken. The Greeks have slowly responded and many
young men from that race are found in Robert College at
Constantinople, in the International College at Smyrna and in
Anatolia College in Marsovan. The race as a race, however, in Turkey
has not taken up the cause of modern education with vigor and
pressed it with moral earnestness. It is the Armenian race that has
responded most fully to the call of modern learning. By far the
largest number of students of any one race in the schools in Turkey
are Armenians. They constitute as large a proportion of the pupils of
Robert College as that of any other race. While they number
probably less than one-tenth of the inhabitants of the empire, they
furnish a large proportion of its student body.
These modern educational institutions in Turkey are a mighty
force in reshaping the life, thought, customs and practises of the
people of that country. Men and women from these schools are
taking leading positions there in the learned professions as well as in
commerce and trade. Large numbers of former students in the
mission schools are now prosperous merchants and business men in
Europe and America. Through these men of modern ideas Western
machinery and the products of our factories are finding their way
into that part of the East in increasing quantities while the products
of Turkey are in exchange brought to us. It is probably true, as has
been frequently stated, that the money given from America for the
establishment and support of American colleges in Turkey is far more
than returned, with large interest, in the form of increased trade
with that country.
While the Turks have not largely attended any of the schools
mentioned, nor have they seemed awake to the needs of a modern
education, nevertheless, through the influence of so many advanced
schools in the country they have been compelled to improve their
own schools. It is an interesting fact that recently a far greater
number of Mohammedan pupils are applying for admission to these
schools. Few of the Turkish schools have as yet been thoroughly
modernized; still, their entire educational system, if system it may be
called, has felt the influence of the foreign schools. There have now
and then been attempts at the organization of a Mohammedan
college. These have for the most part proven egregious failures from
the lack of preparatory schools to train students for the college and
of teachers with proper training to carry on college work. They have
also in cases, not a few, opened and conducted schools for girls,
thus demonstrating their acceptance, in a measure at least, of the
Christian doctrine of the equality of the sexes and the worth of
womanhood. Many Moslem young men have been aroused to seek
education in England or France.
 XVIII. THE PRINTING-PRESS
I cannot mention the American missionaries
without a tribute to the admirable work they have
done. They have been the only good influence that has
worked from abroad upon the Turkish empire. They
have shown great judgment and tact in their relations
with the ancient churches of the land, Orthodox,
Gregorian, Jacobite, Nestorian, and Catholic. They
have lived cheerfully in the midst, not only of
hardships, but latterly of serious dangers also. They
have been the first to bring the light of education and
learning into these dark places, and have rightly
judged that it was far better to diffuse that light
through their schools than to aim at a swollen roll of
converts. From them alone, if we except the British
consuls, has it been possible during the last thirty
years to obtain trustworthy information regarding what
passes in the interior.

—Hon. James Bryce,

T
he entire plan and purpose of missionary work in Turkey involved
the printing-press. Only a little more than two years after the
first missionaries to Turkey arrived upon the field, a press under the
care of a missionary of the Board arrived at Malta, commissioned to
print for the use of the Palestine and Turkish missions. At that time
hostilities between Greece and Turkey were in progress and no port
upon the Mediterranean was safe for the American press. Malta was
under the English flag, and so proved for the time the best base for
the literary operations of the mission.
 Undoubtedly the earlier publications were too impracticable to
meet the needs of the people of Turkey. The missionaries assumed
ability in the untrained Oriental mind to grasp the thoughts of the
West. In the list of what was printed at Malta during the first ten
years are found such works as “Serious Thoughts on Eternity,” “Guilt
and Danger of Neglecting the Saviour,” “Scott’s Force of Truth,”
“Content and Discontent,” “Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures.” A
great variety of books was prepared, for the most part, by those
who knew practically nothing of the thought and life of the people
who were supposed to read them.
In 1833 the political atmosphere had so cleared that the press
was removed from Malta, the Arabic equipment going to Beirut in
Syria, while the Greek, Turkish, and Armenian outfit was set up in
Smyrna. During the ten years at Malta, over twenty-one million
pages were printed in four different languages, namely modern
Greek, Italian, Armeno-Turkish, and Arabic. The largest amount by
far was in Greek. No printing in Armenian was done until the press
was set up in Smyrna and, previous to 1837, less than 175,000
pages had been printed in that language.
In 1829 it was decided to do more in the way of providing much
needed books for elementary schools. One of these books was so
popular that 27,000 copies were sold in Greece alone. In 1831 the
Armeno-Turkish New Testament, translated by Dr. Goodell, was
printed. That same year over five million pages of modern Greek
were put out from the press. Nearly all of this was circulated about
as rapidly as it could be run off.
The publication work in the Turkish missions outside Syria was
carried on at Smyrna until 1853, or for about twenty years. The last
and one of the most important works published there was the
modern Armenian Bible translated by Dr. Elias Riggs. This one book
has accomplished more to fix, unify, and simplify the modern spoken
Armenian language than all other influences combined. What the
King James version has done for the English speaking peoples, and
Luther’s Bible for the Germans, this scholarly and accurate
translation has done for the Armenians all over the world.
Besides the Bible and strictly Biblical works, a large number of
school-books of almost every grade as well as translations of choice
parts of English literature were printed and sold. The eagerness of
the Greeks and Armenians, and especially the latter, for a literature
suited to their aroused intellectual condition made it possible to sell
at cost much that was published. After the organization of the
Evangelical Protestant Church, hymn-books in various languages
were prepared and printed. It would be impossible in the limits of
this discussion to give even a classified list of the publications issued
from the mission presses of Turkey since printing began. The output
upon the average from 1833, even to the present time, has been at
the rate of from twelve to fifty million pages each year in not less
than ten languages, including Bulgarian and Koordish. In some years
this has been exceeded.
At Beirut in 1906 there were printed on the American press
152,500 volumes of distinctively Biblical literature, with a total of
47,278,000 pages. To this was added nearly 9,000,000 pages of
other Christian and educational books, making a total of 56,000,000
pages of literature from this one press alone in a single year.
For the Bulgarians and the Armenians the missionaries practically
created their new literature in the spoken tongue. Of the first one
hundred books printed in the modern Bulgarian, some seventy were
the product of the missionary press. The first grammar of the
modern Armenian language was printed by the missionaries. The
Koords had no literature of any kind, while their language is even yet
unclassified. The New Testament was translated into that tongue,
written with the Armenian characters, and in that language it was
printed. Parts of the Bible have also been printed in the Albanian
tongue.
The Bible has been translated into Arabo-Turkish, the language
read by all the educated Moslems in Turkey north of Syria and is
printed and widely circulated. This, with the Arabic and Syriac
versions printed at Beirut, puts the Bible into the language of all the
Moslems of Turkey, except the Koords and Albanians. As yet the
former have only a part of the Bible, and the latter a very poor and
fragmentary version, in their own language.
However great the influence of the press has been in the
preparation of books and tracts, it has probably reached and
permanently moved more people still by its periodical publications.
Papers have been printed for more than a generation in Armenian,
Greek, Armeno-Turkish, Greco-Turkish, Bulgarian, and Arabic which
have had wide circulation among all classes, but especially among
the evangelicals. These papers while religious, have also been
newspapers, carrying into the remote hamlets of the interior
information of the great outside world of which the masses were
profoundly ignorant when mission work began. The influence of
these papers can best be measured by the fact that when the
cholera was approaching any section of the country, the missionaries
were accustomed to publish detailed instructions regarding the best
methods to prevent contracting the dread disease and what to do as
soon as the symptoms appeared. Those who read the papers took
great care to follow directions, and so the Protestants who usually
knew how to read seldom suffered from the scourge.
When the cholera was raging with unusual virulence in Aintab,
taking for the most part the Moslems and ignorant Gregorians and
leaving the Protestants almost unscathed, a learned Moslem asked a
missionary if God spread a tent over the Protestants that the cholera
should pass them by. Through the periodicals in the various
languages, the missionaries and leading Armenians have been able
constantly to speak directly to the most intelligent classes of people
in the entire empire.
When the missionaries began work in Turkey in 1820 there was
no newspaper worthy the name in the country in any language and
the number of books was but few. Printing was not left, however,
entirely in the hands of the missionaries, for, after a time, to meet
the demands of the different religious communities other presses
were started. These were small in output and power and did not
amount to much until within the last twenty-five years. During this
time the Armenians have prepared and published some excellent
text-books, many of which have been and still are in constant use in
Protestant schools. They also have started a few periodicals that for
the most part have little permanent value. The Moslems have done
but little in the way of printing books or periodicals of any kind. They
do not allow the Koran to be translated into the vernacular of the
people, and it is their policy to exclude from their subjects, as far as
possible, all knowledge of the outside world. The Moslem press has
produced little of real value to the people.
Great freedom to the work of the press was given in the earlier
days, all of which has changed during the last thirty years. While the
Turks were never favorable to it, they tolerated it under a silent
protest. Gradually the opposition became more and more open and
violent. Undoubtedly all this originated among the Roman Catholics
and the Jesuits, who even in the early days of the mission fought
against the circulation of the Bible and Protestant books. They did
much to stir up opposition to Protestant books, among the Greeks
first and later among the Armenians, always assuming that the Bible
is a Protestant book. There is no doubt that this hostility was helped
on also by the representatives at the Porte from Russia. The Turks
were not so much concerned with what they regarded as squabbles
between the various Christian sects.
About 1878 Dr. Wheeler, President of Euphrates College,
imported a printing-press into Harpoot, where he set it up and ran it
with great industry for several years. Only a local work was done
there, while the general publication operations of the missions were
carried on at Beirut and Constantinople. In the eighties the Turkish
government began to put severe restrictions upon the press. The
one at Harpoot was silenced and has so remained to this day.[1]
Strict rules were promulgated to restrict printing in the empire.
Formal permission must be procured in order to own a printing
outfit, and strict rules were formulated for its conduct. All matter to