SHEFFIELD HALLAM UNIVERSITY

College of Business, Technology and Engineering

Department of Engineering and Mathematics

Evaluating Damage and Failure Risks in Onshore and Offshore

Wind Turbines: An Analytical Overview to Improve Structural
Stability and Performance Effectiveness

BY

STUDENT NAME: YT Kamalakar

STUDENT ID:

MSc. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SUPERVISOR NAME:

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 Preface
I am pleased to present this report, which outlines the project conducted from
September-December 2024 at the Department of Engineering and Mathematics,
Sheffield Hallam University.
This research fulfils the requirements for obtaining a Master of Science degree
in Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

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 Dedication
I dedicate my dissertation to my family, who have been my constant inspiration and support.
To my parents, whose unwavering belief in me and selfless encouragement have always
motivated me to strive for success, I am deeply grateful.

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 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to everyone who contributed to the
completion of my dissertation titled "Evaluating Damage and Failure Risks in Onshore and
Offshore Wind Turbines: An Analytical Overview to Improve Structural Stability and
Performance Effectiveness."
First and foremost, I extend my gratitude to Prof. , my project supervisor, whose
guidance and insightful feedback were instrumental to the success of this project. His support
and expertise greatly enhanced my understanding of the subject matter.
I also wish to thank the faculty and researchers at Sheffield Hallam University College of
Business, Technology, and Engineering. Their willingness to share their knowledge and
experience was invaluable in facilitating the project's development.
Additionally, I am grateful to all participants who took the time to engage in surveys and
interviews. Their contributions provided essential data and perspectives that enriched my
research.
Finally, I want to acknowledge my friends and family for their unwavering support and
patience throughout this journey. Your encouragement has been a constant source of
motivation, making this achievement possible. Thank you all for being part of this significant
milestone in my academic career.

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 ABSTRACT
Energy is an essential component of human society, which has grown from a necessity to the
life of contemporary society. The energy demand globally and the damaging effects of
conventional energy has gained the interest with reference to renewable energy technologies.
Of all the renewable energy resources aforementioned, wind energy takes the lion share due it
generates zero carbon emissions and friendly to the environment. Offshore as well as onshore
wind turbines are new frontiers in this renewable energy source.
This is apparent as wind energy gains more acceptance as an energy source around the globe.
Though, the growth has come with some challenges concerning the performance character of
wind turbines. It is also important to understand potential failures in order to avoid various
risks connected with the operation of turbines. Some of the failures cause operating stops and
huge loss of money; therefore, proper findings concerning the durability and reliability of
turbines are important.
The objective of this research work is to assess and compare the losses that may happen in
onshore and offshore wind turbine systems. Accordingly, the research aims at improving the
structural performance and system reliability of such systems by understanding potential
failure modes and the reasons behind them. Several case studies will be reviewed with a view
of identifying the kind of damages that literature has highlighted.
As seen, despite some of these limitations like the exclusion of the transportation and
construction phases the research focuses on data from operation. This report will not explore
detailed background causes of failures or detailed downtime/cost type data; the focus will be
on operational issues that impede the performance of turbines.
The results will help specify continuing enhancement requirements and continued design
adjustments to enhance the fatigue resistance of wind turbines and prevent possible failures.
Addressing these challenges therefore is the key reason why the study seeks to support the
longevity of wind energy as a sustainable source of energy. The case collection spreads across
multiple areas and their integration will build a volume based on which an overall failure rate
can be gauged to represent the industry at the current state across the wind turbine facilities.
Keywords: Wind Energy; Operational Reliability; Failure Analysis; Structural Integrity;
Renewable Energy Technologies

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 Glossary of Terms & Abbreviations
DC – Direct Current
AC – Alternating Current
kW - kilowatts
MW - Megawatts
HAWT - Horizontal axis wind turbine
NREL - National Renewable Energy Laboratory
IRENA - International Renewable Energy Agency
HV - High Voltage
LV - low voltage
IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission's

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 Table of Contents
Preface

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Abstract

Glossary of Terms & Abbreviations

Table of Contents

List of Figures

List of Tables

Chapter I Overview of Wind Energy and Structural Challenges

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objective
1.2 Approach
1.3 Structure of thesis

Chapter II Historical Development and Current Trends in Wind Energy

2.1 Historical evolution of wind energy
2.2 World’s Wind Energy
2.3 Wind turbines and components
2.3.1 An overview of wind turbines
2.3.2 Classification of wind turbines
2.3.3 Wind Turbine Parts
[Link] Foundation
[Link] Tower
[Link] Rotor
[Link] Hub
[Link] Nacelle
[Link] Generator
2.3.4 Offshore and Onshore Wind Turbines
[Link] Comparison between Offshore and Onshore Wind Turbines
2.4 Wind turbine mechanical design
2.4.1 Loads on the rotor
[Link] Aerodynamic loads on the blade
[Link] Additional blade loads
[Link] Vibrations
[Link] Fatigue of the blades
2.5 Construction of blades
2.6 Gearbox
2.7 Nacelle

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2.8 Tower
2.9 Concerns about safety
2.9.1 Blade failures
2.9.2 Generator failures
2.9.3 Yaw system failures
2.9.4 Gearbox failures
2.9.5 Effect of temperature and environmental changes
2.9.6 Lightning
2.9.7 Ice crystallizing on the blades
2.9.8 Structural failures

Chapter III Design Standards and Considerations for Wind Turbines

3.1 Wind turbine stages
3.1.1 Conditions should be taken into account while building wind farms
[Link] Work in the field
[Link] Equipment for wind turbine transportation
[Link] Construction of wind turbine
[Link] Utilizing wind turbines
[Link] Wind turbine maintenance procedure
3.2 Wind turbine standards and design specifications
3.2.1 IEC Standards
[Link] Design Requirements Standard IEC 61400-1
3.2.2 Design of Structures
[Link] Gravitational & inertial loading
[Link] Aerodynamic loads
[Link] Actuation loading
[Link] Other loading
3.2.3 Create load scenarios
[Link] Generation of power (DLC 1.1 to 1.5)
[Link] Power generation plus the occurrence of an electrical network connection
failure or loss (DLC 2.1 to 2.5)
[Link] Start-up (DLC 3.1 to 3.3)
[Link] Normal shutdown (DLC 4.1 to 4.2)
[Link] Emergency stop (DLC 5.1)
[Link] Parked (standstill or idling) (DLC 6.1 to 6.4)
[Link] Fault conditions plus parked (DLC 7.1)
[Link] Transportation, assembling, upkeep, and fixing (DLC 8.1 to 8.2)

Chapter IV Analysis of Wind Turbine Failures and Risks

4.1 Failures of wind turbines
4.1.1 USA Klickitat, Washington; wind turbine fire
4.1.2 USA California Tehachapi; idle wind turbine blades
4.1.3 Ice accumulating on the blades of Denmark's Roedsand-2 Offshore Wind Park
4.1.4 USA Ohio Perkins; wind turbine blade fall
4.1.5 Netherland Medemblik Lely; wind farm blades fall
4.1.6 Sweden Yttre Stengrund; Offshore Wind Farm to be scrapped
4.1.7 UK Anglesey; wind turbine fire
4.1.8 Belgium Offshore: Wind Farms Stop Operating Wind Turbines

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 4.1.9 Norway Fitjar Midtfjellet; Vindkraft generator fire
4.1.10 UK Shrewsbury; unstable wind turbine
4.1.11 USA New Hampshire Balsams; wind turbine ice forming
4.1.12 Germany Bavaria Zultenberg-Seubersdorf; wind farm gearbox oil leak
4.1.13 Antarctica Mawson research station; wind turbine rotor fall
4.1.14 USA Iowa Highway 65; wind turbine blade bent
4.1.15 USA Block Island Wind Farm; exposed cable
4.1.16 Spain Bilbao Saitec; floating wind turbine
4.1.17 Denmark Horns Rev 1 Wind Farm; turbine fire
4.1.18 Germany Oberwolfach Hohenlochen Wind Farm; cracks on blades
4.1.19 Belgium Offshore; Wind Farms shut down wind turbines operation

Chapter V Statistical Analysis of Wind Turbine Failures and Risks

5.1 Data
5.1.1 Gathering and cleansing data
5.1.2 Features of the data
5.2 Analysis and Findings
Chapter VI Summary of Findings and Future Recommendations
Chapter VII References
Appendix-A Failures Data

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 List of Figures
Figure 1. Rotor diameters of wind turbines and distribution of power by years….15
Figure 2. Historic development of total installations………………………………17
Figure 3. Wind turbine classification………………………………………………19
Figure 4. Wind turbine components……………………………………………….22
Figure 5. Example of offshore wind farm…………………………………………23
Figure 6. Onshore wind farm example……………………………………………24
Figure 7. Blade configuration with respect to rotor hub………………………….26
Figure 8. Aerodynamic force on a blade segment……………………………….27
Figure 9. All the aerodynamic force on two symmetric blades………………….28
Figure 10. Centrifugal, inertial and weight force at three positions of a blade….30
Figure 11. Decomposition of force of blade weight when at an angle………….33
Figure 12. A blade can bend in two directions 90° from each other…………….35
Figure 13. Position of the centrifugal force with respect to blade axis………….36
Figure 15. Wind turbine foundation work………………………………………. 39
Figure 16. Tower construction……………………………………………………40
Fig.17 Scada application…………………………………………………………41
Fig.18 Wind turbine fire in USA, Washington…………………………………...52
Fig.19 Lely Wind Farm's wind turbine blades collapsed in the Netherlands…….53
Fig20. Overlooking the Balsams are wind turbines……………………………...54
Fig 21 Belgian Offshore Wind Farm…………………........................................ 55
Fig.22 Failure percentages shown on a graph.......................................................57
Fig.23 Percentages of causes of blade failure...................................................... 58
Fig 24. percentages of reasons why generators fail ............................................. 59
Figure 25. percentages of factors that lead to structural breakdown.....................59
Fig.26 percentages of reasons why gearboxes
fail..........................................................................................................................60
Figure 27. Failure distribution by nation.............................................................. 61
Figure 28. Failure kinds and rates by nation......................................................... 61
Figure 29. Wind turbine failure rates, both onshore and
offshore..................................................................................................................63

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Fig.30 Offshore wind turbine failure
percentages............................................................................................................64
Fig 31. Onshore wind turbine failure
percentages........................................................................................................... 64

List of Tables
Table 1. Leading nations and new capacity changes in 2020, source [WWEA,
2021] ...................20
Table 2. Leading nations and new capacity changes in 2022, source [WWEA,
2023......................................................... 20
Table 3. Entities that establish standards, source [DNV-GL, Overview of offshore wind
standards in selected countries, 2020-1194] ................................... 44
Table 4. Relevant IEC standards for wind turbines, source [DNV-GL, Overview of offshore
wind standards and certification requirements in selected countries, 2020-
1194] .............................................................................................. 45
Table 5. Design load cases (DLC), source [ACP (American Clean Power Association) 61400-
1-202x, Modified Adoption of IEC 61400-
1] .............................................................................................. 49
Table 6. Design load cases keys, source [ACP (American Clean Power Association) 61400-1-
202x, Modified Adoption of IEC 61400-1]50
Table.7 Failure percentages...................................................................... 60
Table 8. Failure type percentages by nation..................................................................... 64
Table 9. Causes and consequences of failure type......................................................67
s

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 Chapter - I
Overview of Wind Energy and Structural Challenges
1.0 Introduction
Energy is a fundamental element that shapes both our lives and the planet. Initially utilized
for basic needs, energy has become essential to modern civilization, with demand rising
rapidly. This escalating energy demand, coupled with environmental concerns associated with
traditional energy production, has underscored the importance of renewable energy
technologies. Wind energy, recognized for its carbon-free and environmentally friendly
nature, has emerged as a leading renewable source. Offshore and onshore wind turbines
represent significant advancements in wind energy production, offering numerous benefits.
As the global appetite for energy grows, the deployment of wind turbines has become
increasingly widespread. However, this growth presents challenges during construction,
maintenance, and operational phases, particularly regarding the structural integrity of the
turbines. Understanding potential failure modes is crucial for effective risk management and
ensuring continuous operation. Failures can lead to operational disruptions and financial
losses, necessitating proactive assessments of turbine vulnerabilities (Carroll et al., 2015;
DNV, 2023).
This research aims to evaluate damage and failure risks in onshore and offshore wind turbines
to enhance their structural integrity and operational reliability. By analysing existing literature
and case studies, the study seeks to identify common failure mechanisms and their impacts on
turbine performance (Chen et al., 2015; Onyx Insight, 2023). The insights gained will
contribute to strategies that improve the resilience of wind energy systems.
1.1 Objective
The objective of this study is to evaluate and analyze damages to onshore and offshore wind
turbines to mitigate the risk of failures and collapses. By identifying common failure modes,
the research seeks to highlight the importance of enhancing turbine strength and
implementing effective maintenance strategies. Understanding these potential challenges is
crucial for ensuring the long-term viability of wind energy systems. The study will draw upon
existing literature and case studies to inform best practices in turbine maintenance and design
improvements (Branner & Ghadirian, 2022; DNV, 2023). Ultimately, this analysis aims to
contribute valuable insights into the operational reliability of wind turbines, promoting
sustainable energy production while minimizing environmental impacts (Arabian-
Hoseynabadi et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2015).
1.2 Approach
This research aims to analyze specific faults in wind turbines by evaluating data from various
sources, including scientific literature and online databases. The goal is to categorize the
identified faults and damages systematically. By listing, explaining, and assessing these data
points, the study seeks to achieve optimal results within the available timeframe. This
comprehensive approach will enhance understanding of failure mechanisms and contribute to
improving the reliability of wind turbine operations (Branner & Ghadirian, 2022; DNV,
2023).

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1.3 Structure of thesis
This thesis is structured into six segments.
Chapter 1 presents an introduction of offshore and onshore wind energy and outlines the
study's research question.
Chapter 2 provides a complete theoretical basis for wind turbines, with an emphasis on risk
scenarios and damage failures.
Chapter 3 discusses design aspects and standards relevant to wind turbine construction.
Chapter 4 details the data and methodology employed to collect information on failures and
their occurrences.
Chapter 5 presents statistical analyses regarding risks and failures associated with wind
turbines.
Chapter 6 concludes the thesis with recommendations aimed at mitigating damages and
enhancing the reliability of wind turbine operations (DNV, 2023; IEC, 2019).

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 Chapter-II
2.0 Historical Development and Current Trends in Wind Energy
2.1 Historical evolution of wind energy
Wind, defined as the movement of air, has been a crucial element in human history. Early
civilizations utilized wind for essential tasks such as grinding grain and sailing ships. While
ancient Greeks and Romans harnessed wind power for navigation, they did not explore its
broader applications. In contrast, circular motion windmills were developed in Central and
East Asia, including regions like Iran and China, showcasing a more diverse use of wind
energy (Durak & Ozer, 2007). Understanding the historical context of wind utilization is vital
for evaluating current technologies and their reliability in modern wind turbine applications.
Wind energy has been utilized since ancient times, with early applications including irrigation
and grain milling. While it is often believed that wind energy use began in Western
civilizations, evidence indicates that Eastern civilizations like China, Tibet, India, and Iran
were pioneers in this field. For instance, windmills in Iran spread westward after the
Crusades, and historical records show the existence of horizontal axis windmills as early as
200 BC. Furthermore, vertical axis windmills were documented in Iran around 700 BC, and
Babylonians are known to have used windmills for irrigation around 1700 BC. The transfer
of wind power technology from Asia to Europe began around the 10th century, with England
being one of the first regions to adopt this innovation (Durak & Ozer, 2007).
Following the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, steam engines emerged as a
dominant energy source globally. These machines, powered by fossil fuels like oil, gas, and
coal, provided significant advantages due to their availability and efficiency (Durak & Ozer,
2007).
Wind energy consumption has increased dramatically in recent years, owing to its low
operating costs and independence from raw resources. The history of wind energy began in
Denmark, where Danish meteorologist Paul La Cour built the first wind power plant in 1897,
producing 89 watts of electricity. In the ensuing decades, the engineering firm F. L. Smidth
created early wind power facilities that used direct current (DC). Johannes Juul, a La Cour
student, built the first alternating current (AC) wind power plant, and the Gedser wind power
plant emerged in 1956 as a pioneer of contemporary wind technology, functioning without
maintenance for 11 years (Durak and Ozer, 2007).
Significant advances in wind energy technology did not emerge until after the oil crisis of the
1970s, which fueled interest in alternate energy sources. This period marked a shift toward
increasing the installed capacity and rotor diameters of wind turbines. Notably, from 1995
onwards, there was a transition from kilowatt (KW) level turbines to megawatt (MW) level
installations, with current turbines reaching capacities of up to 6 MW. Rotor diameters have
also expanded dramatically; for instance, while diameters were around 20 meters in the
1980s, they have grown to over 150 meters today (Durak & Ozer, 2007).
As technology advances, it is expected that even larger wind turbines will appear in the next
years, substantially improving the efficiency and dependability of wind energy systems
(World Economic Forum, 2024).

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 Fig. 1. Wind turbine rotor diameters and power distribution over the years. Source: Josh
Bauer, NREL, 2020
Significant research and investments in offshore wind turbines began in the 1990s, as the
possibility for harnessing higher wind speeds at sea became apparent. The first offshore wind
turbine was built at Nogersund, Norway, in 1990 for testing. Following this, the first
commercial offshore wind farm was commissioned in 1991 in Denmark's Vindeby area,
consisting of 11 turbines, each providing 450 kW of power. (Ørsted, 2024).
As the demand for wind energy increased and suitable land sites became scarce, the focus
shifted towards offshore installations. The challenges associated with maintenance and repair
in high-wind areas further accelerated this transition. By the early 2000s, countries around the
North Sea, including Norway, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, and England, began to
invest heavily in offshore wind turbine technology (Durak & Ozer, 2007). This shift has laid
the groundwork for the robust offshore wind industry we see today.
In 2009, the world's first floating wind turbine, known as Hywind, was built off the coast of
Norway, 10 kilometres from shore and 200 meters underwater. This innovative turbine has a
capacity of 2.3 MW and represents a significant advancement in offshore wind technology,
enabling the establishment of wind farms in deeper waters where traditional fixed turbines
cannot operate (StatoilHydro, 2009). The interest in offshore wind farms has been steadily
increasing, particularly in Europe, with leading manufacturers focusing on developing new
projects and designs to capitalize on this potential (AWS Truewind, 2009). As floating wind
technology matures, it is expected to play a crucial role in expanding offshore wind capacity
globally.
2.2 World’s Wind Energy
The urgency for alternative energy sources has intensified over the past 40 years due to fossil
fuel depletion, rising oil prices, and climate change. Wind energy has emerged as a
sustainable solution, showing economic and ecological viability. In 2020, the global wind
industry saw a 53% increase in installations, totalling over 93 GW and raising the cumulative
capacity to 743 GW, which reduced CO2 emissions by approximately 1.1 billion tons (Global
Wind Report, 2021).
Onshore installations increased by 59%, with China and the United States collectively
accounting for 76% of new capacity. The wind power sector has quadrupled its capacity over
the last decade, becoming one of the most cost-effective energy sources (International Energy

15
Agency [IEA], 2020). Investments in offshore wind reached $330 billion in 2020, partly due
to resilience against pandemic disruptions (Global Wind Report, 2021).
This growth highlights wind power's role in addressing climate change and ensuring energy
sustainability. As the industry evolves, addressing potential damage and failure risks in both
onshore and offshore turbines will be crucial for maintaining operational reliability and
enhancing structural integrity (Wood Mackenzie, 2021).

Figure 2. Historical evolution of total installations, source [GW, 2021]

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Table 1. Leading nations and new capacity changes in 2020, source [WWEA, 2021]

Table 2. Leading nations and new capacity changes in 2022, source [WWEA, 2023]
2.3 Wind turbines and components
2.3.1 An overview of wind turbines
A wind turbine is a device that transforms wind energy into electricity, much like traditional
windmills. These turbines are often connected to the electrical grid, which can include
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everything from battery-charging systems to public utility networks. The energy conversion
process begins with the aerodynamic force acting on the turbine blades, which produces
mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is then transformed into electricity using a
generator with a revolving shaft.
Modern wind turbines can generate electricity from kilowatts (kW) to megawatts (MW),
capturing approximately 20% to 40% of the wind's energy, depending on blade efficiency and
design. The advancements in turbine technology have led to significant increases in both size
and power output over recent decades (U.S. Department of Energy, 2023). As turbine designs
continue to evolve, optimizing rotor radius and blade efficiency remains crucial for
maximizing energy production (Iberdrola, 2021). This ongoing development is essential for
enhancing the operational reliability and structural integrity of wind turbines, ultimately
supporting the transition to renewable energy sources.
2.3.2 Classification of wind turbines
Today's most common wind turbine design is the horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT),
which has a spinning axis parallel to the ground. These turbines are classified according to
rotor orientation (upwind or downwind), rotor control systems (pitch or stall control), blade
count (often two or three), and yaw mechanisms (free yaw or active yaw) (Bianchi, 2007;
Hau, 2006). Wind turbines may also be classed based on axes of rotation, revolutions per
minute, power production, blade count, wind conditions, gear characteristics, and installation
sites (Elibuyuk & Ucgul, 2014). Figure 2-3 shows a thorough categorization diagram. While
the basic classification relies on the axis of rotation, further categories take into account
power generation and blade efficiency. Understanding these categories is critical for assessing
wind turbine performance and dependability in various operating settings.

Fig.3 Classification, source [Elibuyuk and Ucgul, 2014]

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2.3.3 Wind Turbine Parts
Large wind turbines, mostly utilized by utilities, generally range between 250 kilowatts (kW)
to 3.5 to 5 megawatts (MW), especially in offshore applications. These utility-scale turbines
are arranged in wind farms to maximize energy capture from optimal locations, generating
enough electricity to power tens of thousands of homes (U.S. Energy Information
Administration [EIA], 2024).
Horizontal axis wind turbines include three primary components: the tower, blades, and
nacelle, which houses machinery that converts kinetic energy into electricity. Unlike smaller
turbines, large models utilize hydraulic controls to align blades with the wind direction. The
turbine blades connect to an axle linked to a gearbox that increases rotational speed from
about 50 rpm to around 1,800 rpm, driving a generator that produces alternating current (AC)
electricity.
Wind turbines can be classified based on axes of rotation, power output, number of blades,
and installation locations (Elibuyuk & Ucgul, 2014). Their efficiency varies significantly;
typically converting 20% to 40% of wind energy into electricity, with blade efficiency being
crucial for maximizing output (International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2023). As
technology advances, wind turbine design and efficiency are expected to improve further.
[Link] Foundation
The foundation of onshore wind turbines is buried underground and typically consists of a
large, heavy concrete block designed to support the entire turbine structure and withstand
various forces acting upon it. This foundation is crucial for maintaining the stability and
safety of the turbine (International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2023).
[Link] Tower
Modern wind turbine towers are generally made of circular tubular steel, with diameters
ranging from 3 to 4 meters (10 to 13 feet) and heights ranging from 75 to 110 meters (250 to
370 feet), depending on turbine size and location. A usual rule is that the tower's height
should correspond to the diameter of the rotor's circular sweep. Taller turbines collect more
wind energy, as wind speeds normally rise with height due to lower friction with the ground
(U.S. Department of Energy [DOE], 2023). As the distance from the ground increases, wind
speed varies significantly, making taller turbines more efficient at harnessing energy. This
phenomenon, known as wind shear, underscores the importance of optimizing tower height
for maximum energy production (Veers et al., 2019). Consequently, advancements in turbine
design have led to taller structures that can effectively utilize higher wind speeds, enhancing
overall operational reliability.
[Link] Rotor
The rotor is the revolving component of a wind turbine, which usually consists of three
blades linked to a central hub. While turbines can feature different numbers of blades—such
as two or four—the three-blade configuration is favoured for its optimal efficiency and
performance advantages (Bianchi, 2007).
The blades are designed to be lightweight and robust, constructed from hollow composite
materials. Current trends focus on increasing blade size to enhance power generation while

19
maintaining a lightweight structure. The aerodynamic shape of the blades resembles an air
foil, similar to aircraft wings, and they are twisted from the root to the tip to optimize airflow.
Additionally, blades can rotate up to 90 degrees around their axes, a motion known as blade
pitch, which allows for better control of energy capture under varying wind conditions (Hau,
2006).
[Link] Hub
The hub of a wind turbine serves to secure the blades and facilitate their rotation relative to
the turbine's main structure. It connects the blades to the turbine's drivetrain, enabling
efficient energy conversion from wind motion into mechanical power (U.S. Department of
Energy [DOE], 2023). This critical component ensures that the forces exerted by the blades
are effectively transferred to the generator, which ultimately produces electricity.
[Link] Nacelle
The nacelle is the housing located atop the wind turbine tower, containing essential
components for its operation. It accommodates the generator, gearbox, and other critical
systems that facilitate the conversion of wind energy into electricity. The gearbox plays a
vital role by increasing the rotational speed from the low-speed turbine shaft (approximately
12–25 rpm) to a higher speed suitable for the generator, often referred to as the high-speed
shaft (U.S. Department of Energy [DOE], 2023).
To optimize energy capture, the nacelle must rotate to face the wind direction, a movement
known as yaw motion. This allows the rotor to align with the wind, maximizing efficiency.
The yaw system consists of sensors and motors that adjust the nacelle's position based on
wind direction changes, ensuring consistent energy production (Lindy Energy, 2021). Proper
maintenance of the nacelle and its components is crucial for preventing mechanical failures
and enhancing the total dependability of wind turbines.
[Link] Generator
The generator of a wind turbine is the component that converts the mechanical energy
generated by the rotor into electrical energy. It operates similarly to an electric motor and
primarily produces three-phase alternating current (AC) electricity. Wind turbines typically
employ induction generators due to their ability to operate efficiently at variable speeds,
unlike synchronous generators that require a constant rotational speed to maintain a stable
frequency (U.S. Department of Energy [DOE], 2023).
To generate energy, the rotor must revolve faster than the turbine itself, necessitating a
gearbox that boosts the rotational speed from roughly 12-25 revolutions per minute (rpm) to
around 1500 rpm for 50 Hz systems and 1800 rpm for 60 Hz systems. This speed adjustment
is critical because most wind turbines cannot achieve such high rotor speeds naturally.
However, the gearbox is often a problematic component due to the fluctuating nature of wind
energy, leading to overload and stress on the gear teeth, which can result in fatigue and failure
(Hau, 2006).
Additionally, the gearbox adds significant weight to the nacelle, which can further complicate
maintenance and operational reliability. As wind energy technology evolves, addressing these
challenges will be essential for enhancing the performance and durability of wind turbines
(Bianchi, 2007).

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 Fig.4 Source: Electrical Academia, Wind Turbine Parts and Functions (2015).

2.3.4 Offshore and Onshore Wind Turbines

Onshore and offshore wind farms provide various choices for large-scale wind power
generation, each having advantages and downsides. Onshore wind farms are now the most
common worldwide, although interest in offshore projects is growing, especially in
industrialized nations (Zheng et al., 2016). Offshore wind power uses wind over open water,
usually in the ocean, where wind speeds are higher. One advantage of offshore wind farms is
the flexibility to build larger and higher turbines, which improves energy gathering.
Furthermore, their isolated settings reduce visual and environmental impacts on neighbouring
areas while allowing for more installations per square mile. Offshore locations often have
stronger and more steady winds, which leads to increased energy output.
However, offshore wind farms face significant challenges, primarily high construction and
maintenance costs due to their difficult-to-access locations. They are also vulnerable to
damage from severe weather conditions, such as storms and hurricanes, which can complicate
repairs (Brunel, 2023). Furthermore, the ecological impacts on marine life and birds are not
fully understood, and offshore projects near coastlines may face opposition from local
residents concerned about property values and tourism (American Geosciences Institute,

21
2023). Despite these challenges, both onshore and offshore wind energy play crucial roles
transitioning to renewable energy sources.

Fig 5 Example of an offshore wind farm., source [DNV, 2018]

Onshore wind power consists of turbines built on land that use wind energy to create
electricity. They are often located in locations with little conservation or habitat importance.
Onshore wind turbines provide several advantages, including cheaper costs, which make
large-scale wind farm development more feasible. Additionally, the shorter distance between
turbines and consumers reduces voltage drop in the cabling, increasing efficiency. Onshore
wind turbines can be built in a matter of months, but nuclear power facilities can take over
twenty years (U.S. Department of Energy [DOE], 2023).
However, onshore wind farms face several challenges. Many consider them visually
unappealing, which can lead to public opposition. Moreover, they do not generate energy
consistently throughout the year due to variable wind speeds and potential obstructions like
buildings or hills. Noise pollution is another concern, as the sound produced by wind turbines
can be comparable to that of a lawnmower, affecting nearby communities (International
Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2023).

22
 Figure 6. Examples of onshore wind farms, source [Roxtec Global, 2013]

[Link] Comparison between Offshore and Onshore Wind Turbines

Offshore wind turbines have significant benefits over their onshore counterparts, principally
because of the greater and more constant wind potential available at sea. This advantage can
offset the high installation and operational costs associated with offshore projects. Offshore
installations are typically located far from the coast, minimizing visual impacts and noise
pollution; the noise from wind turbines becomes inaudible beyond approximately 1.5
kilometres (Van Bussel & Zaaijer, 2001). Furthermore, the absence of land-based obstacles
reduces turbulence, which can enhance energy efficiency. The capability to transport larger
rotor components via ships also facilitates the construction of larger turbines offshore.
However, offshore wind farms also face significant challenges. The pre-installation planning
phase is more extensive due to labour-intensive seabed and depth surveys, which can be
costly. Maintenance and repair operations are also complicated by harsh marine conditions;
repairs may take longer and incur higher costs compared to onshore turbines (Van Bussel &
Zaaijer, 2001). Additionally, the overall cost of offshore wind farms remains a critical
concern, as engineering solutions to address design challenges often lead to increased
expenses. Despite these disadvantages, offshore wind energy is essential for meeting growing
energy demands and achieving sustainability goals.
2.4 Wind turbine mechanical design
A wind turbine's capacity to remain upright in the wind is critical for its functioning, because
the wind applies considerable pressures that might overturn the building. The power capacity
of a turbine is directly related to its size; however, larger turbines face greater wind forces.
Therefore, it is essential for both the turbine and its mechanical components to withstand
these forces. If the components are not adequately designed to handle the loads, they risk
mechanical failure (Hemami, 2011).
The forces acting on a turbine vary depending on whether it is operating or stationary, and
these forces might cause vibrations in the blades and tower. These vibrations are detrimental,
potentially leading to premature wear or failure of components. The loads experienced by

23
major turbine components, along with concerns such as vibration and fatigue, are critical
factors influencing mechanical integrity and operational reliability (University of Notre
Dame, 2021).
Understanding these mechanical issues is vital for preventing failures and ensuring that wind
turbines can operate efficiently over their intended lifespan. As wind energy technology
advances, addressing these challenges through improved design and engineering solutions
will be essential for enhancing the durability and performance of both onshore and offshore
wind turbines.
2.4.1 Loads on the rotor
A wind turbine's rotor is made up of blades and a hub, both of which are crucial in energy
generation. During operation, the blades are subjected to a variety of loads, which are
transferred to the nacelle through the hub. As a result, the fluctuation in stresses on the hub is
precisely related to the forces applied by the blades. The hub is often shaped like a shell
rather than a solid structure, allowing it to accommodate systems for controlling blade pitch.
From a mechanical standpoint, all rotor forces must eventually be delivered to the ground
through the nacelle and tower, requiring that the hub can sustain these forces (Bianchi, 2007).
Blade loads are transferred to the hub by bolts that secure the blade bearings in variable pitch
systems. In fixed-blade turbines, the blades are fastened directly to the hub, with no bearings.
Another bearing at the back of the hub links the rotor assembly (hub and blades) to the
nacelle. This bearing must support all loads from the rotor as it spins relative to the nacelle.
(U.S. Department of Energy [DOE], 2023).
To understand how these loads affect turbine performance, it is essential to examine the
various forces acting on a blade. The primary forces include aerodynamic force, weight, and
centrifugal force when operating at a constant speed. During start-up and shutdown phases,
inertial forces also become significant. Aerodynamic force arises from wind acting on the
blades, while centrifugal force is experienced by any rotating object, pushing it outward from
its axis of rotation (Hau, 2006). Inertial force relates to the acceleration of an object; for
instance, accelerating a vehicle requires overcoming its inertial force. Similarly, deceleration
involves counteracting this force, as seen when brakes are applied in a car (International
Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2023).

24
 Fig 7. Blade arrangement with regard to the rotor hub., source [Cengage Learning, 2012]
Figure 7 depicts the interaction between the blade and the rotor hub, emphasizing that the
blade axis, around which the blade pivots, is not always perpendicular to the rotor axis.
Instead, there is a minor angle known as the cone angle. This angle can change when
aerodynamic forces cause the blade to bend. In some rotor designs, the cone angle is
intentionally set to lean toward the front of the turbine, allowing for a reduction in the angle
when aerodynamic forces bend the blade backward (Hemami, 2011). Understanding this
dynamic is crucial for evaluating mechanical stresses and potential failure risks in wind
turbine operation.
[Link] Aerodynamic loads on the blade.
A wind turbine's blades are susceptible to aerodynamic forces from the wind, which have a
substantial impact on its performance and structure. The airstream maintains a relatively fixed
direction throughout the region swept by the blades; yet, due to the twisting of the blades, the
relative direction of the wind varies along distinct segments. As a result, while the wind speed
remains constant over short periods, the speed of air relative to each blade segment differs,
being slower near the hub and faster toward the tip. This variation leads to differing
aerodynamic forces acting on each segment of the blade (Hemami, 2011).
The aerodynamic force on a blade segment is made up of two major components: drag force,
which operates parallel to the wind direction, and lift force, which acts perpendicular to it.
This interaction is crucial for understanding how turbines generate energy. In two-blade
turbines, for instance, both blades experience drags forces in the same direction while lift
forces act in opposite directions due to their symmetrical arrangement. When blades are
feathered—meaning they are positioned to minimize energy capture— Compared to the drag
components, the lift components are smaller. This scenario illustrates that horizontal forces

25
on parked turbines can be greater than those when they are operational (U.S. Department of
Energy [DOE], 2023).
The resultant forces from these aerodynamic interactions create a backward push on the
blades along with a torque about the turbine shaft axis. While drag forces contribute to this
push, they do not facilitate rotational motion; only lift components generate torque that drives
turbine rotation. The aerodynamic forces acting on the blades depend on several factors,
including wind speed, rotational speed, and pitch angle, meaning they vary under different
operating conditions (International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2023).
Given these dynamics, it is essential for turbine blades to withstand maximum loads during
harsh conditions. A turbine's tower must eventually transmit all of the forces exerted on it to
the ground. Therefore, understanding these forces and their implications for mechanical
failure is critical for enhancing structural integrity and operational reliability in both onshore
and offshore wind turbines.

Fig.8 All the aerodynamic forces (Cengage Learning, 2012)

[Link] Additional blade loads
Each wind turbine blade experiences its own weight in addition to aerodynamic forces. and a
longitudinal force known as centrifugal force when rotating at a constant speed. The weight
of the blade exerts a constant downward force directed vertically, while the centrifugal force
acts along the length of the blade and varies with the blade's rotational speed. As the
rotational speed increases, the magnitude of the centrifugal force also increases, often
surpassing the weight of the blade. For instance, a 44-meter (144-foot) turbine blade
weighing 6,150 kg (13,576 lb) rotating at 12 rpm experiences a centrifugal force of
approximately 145,000 N (32,955 lb) (Hemami, 2011).
During startup and shutdown phases, additional forces come into play due to changes in
speed. The inertial force, which acts laterally to the blade direction, becomes significant
during these transitions. Its magnitude is contingent upon how quickly the turbine accelerates

26
to its normal operating speed or decelerates during shutdown. The direction of the inertial
force opposes rotation during startup and aligns with it during shutdown. This force can
induce bending in the blades within the plane of rotation and directly impacts the bolts and
bearings at the root of the blades (U.S. Department of Energy [DOE], 2023).
Consistently, the centrifugal force radiates outward from the centre of rotation. Weight and
centrifugal forces combine when a blade hangs downward, increasing the hub's overall stress.
On the other hand, when the blade is upright (tip up), these forces act in opposite directions
and partially offset each other. The inertial force further complicates this dynamic during
acceleration and deceleration phases.
Understanding these forces is crucial for evaluating potential mechanical failures in wind
turbines. The interaction between weight, centrifugal, and inertial forces can lead to
significant stresses on turbine components, particularly during rapid changes in operational
conditions. During emergency shutdowns, for example, where rotational speed is abruptly
reduced to zero, the resulting inertial forces can be particularly high, posing risks to structural
integrity (International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2023).
To ensure safe operation and longevity of wind turbines, it is essential that engineers account
for these varying forces in their designs. By enhancing structural resilience against these
mechanical stresses, wind energy systems can achieve greater reliability and efficiency in
both onshore and offshore applications.

Fig.9 Weight, inertial, and centrifugal forces at three different blade locations, source
[Cengage Learning, 2012]

27
Wind turbine blades experience complex loading due to their positions between vertical and
horizontal. The force of weight breaks down into lateral and longitudinal components,
leading to combined stresses from tensile and compressive forces. Structural failures account
for significant risks, with storms causing 63% of incidents, while mechanical failures
contribute 15%. The drag component of aerodynamic forces introduces bending in multiple
directions, complicating load dynamics.
The centrifugal force acting on rotating blades creates misalignment, resulting in shear stress
and potential material fatigue. This periodic load variation necessitates careful design to
ensure structural integrity under dynamic conditions (Dai et al., 2010; Xu et al., 2020).
Factors such as wind speed, blade length, and pitch angle influence these loads, which
fluctuate continuously during operation.
Understanding these interactions is crucial for evaluating potential damage risks. Engineers
must design blades to withstand maximum loads while considering dynamic stresses (NREL,
1999). Regular maintenance and monitoring are essential to prevent failures caused by
storms, electrical faults, and mechanical issues. The study highlights the significance of
integrating aerodynamic and structural modelling tailored to specific environmental
conditions to enhance turbine reliability and performance.
[Link] Vibrations
Mechanical components in wind turbines face various forces that can significantly impact
their structural integrity and operational reliability. A constant force is preferable to a variable
force, as the latter requires a stronger design to withstand fluctuations, which can induce
damaging vibrations (Hemami, 2011).
Wind turbine blades encounter different aerodynamic forces based on their rotational
position. For instance, blades at their highest point experience stronger aerodynamic forces
due to increased wind speeds. Additionally, passing through the tower's shadow creates
turbulence that further contributes to variable aerodynamic loading (U.S. Department of
Energy [DOE], 2023).
These cyclic forces can lead to vibrations that may not cause immediate harm but can
resonate with the blade's natural frequency, resulting in severe consequences. Such vibrations
impose repeated stress cycles, leading components designed for static loads to fail much
sooner under cyclic conditions (International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2023).
To mitigate these risks, engineers must guarantee that the blades' inherent frequency is
distinct from the rotor's operational speed. Imbalance among blades can also exacerbate
vibrations, necessitating uniform design and weight distribution (Cengage Learning, 2012).

28
 Fig.10 Possible vibrations in a turbine blade, source [Cengage Learning, 2012]

[Link] Fatigue of the blades

Fatigue refers to the stress effects caused by cyclic loads on mechanical components, leading
to premature failure known as fatigue failure. This phenomenon occurs when parts, such as
wind turbine blades, are subjected to continuously varying loads due to vibrations or other
factors (Hemami, 2011). All rotating components in machinery are susceptible to fatigue,
even without vibration. For example, a turbine blade operating at 14 rpm experiences every
year, alternate stresses occur about 7 million times. Fatigue test data, represented in S-N
curves, are crucial for designing components like airplane propellers and compressor blades
(Dai et al., 2010).
In the wind energy sector, comprehensive fatigue data are still developing due to the
industry's relative youth. Wind turbine rotors operate at lower speeds and generally
experience smaller loads compared to blades in other applications. However, mechanical
components can fail sooner than anticipated under fatigue stress. For instance, a specimen
tested at 32,000 psi may endure up to 100 million cycles at only 25,000 psi (International
Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2023).
2.5 Construction of blades
Wind turbine blades are designed as hollow structures to minimize weight while maintaining
strength, allowing for effective rotor movement. If blades were solid, their weight would be
prohibitive, making turbine operation impractical. A turbine blade spinning at 14 rpm
undergoes approximately 175 million cycles over a 25-year lifespan, necessitating a robust
design to withstand various stresses throughout its operational life (Hemami, 2011).
Typically, the outer shell of the blades is constructed from lightweight composite materials
that provide both strength and durability. Internally, these blades require structural support,
often made from materials like wood or other lightweight substances. A critical feature in
modern blade design is the incorporation of a lightning rod, which consists of a copper strip
running along the blade. This strip is exposed at the tip and connects to a metallic counterpart
in the hub, ultimately grounding any lightning strikes through the tower (National Renewable
Energy Laboratory [NREL], 2021).

29
When damage occurs to a blade during operation, repairs can be complex and costly.
Damaged sections may need to be cut out and replaced with new pieces of the same size,
which can sometimes be done while the blade remains in position or may require lowering it
to the ground. Regardless of the method, repair work results in production downtime and
financial loss (Alshannaq et al., 2017).
2.6 Gearbox
A wind turbine's gearbox is essential to moving energy from the rotor to the generator. Since
the gearbox transfers all of the power that the rotor collects, the load on each gear tooth
becomes significant. The rotor experiences periodic forces due to nonuniform aerodynamic
loads, particularly when a blade is at its highest position and when it passes through the
tower's shadow. This variation results in pulsating torque on the rotor shaft, which is then
transferred to the gearbox, leading to fatigue in the gear teeth (Hemami, 2011).
Moreover, wind gusts can cause sudden fluctuations in power output, creating shocks that
further stress the gearbox. In industrial applications, flywheels are often used to smooth out
load variations; however, in wind turbines, the rotor itself acts as a flywheel while
simultaneously introducing uneven loads. This dual role means that while the rotor attempts
to stabilize loads, it also contributes to disturbances transmitted to the gearbox (Li, 2018).
One of the primary challenges facing wind turbines today is the uncertainty surrounding
gearbox performance and reliability. Many gearboxes have failed after only 6-7 years of
operation, significantly shorter than their expected lifespan of over 20 years. The costs
associated with replacing or repairing a gearbox can be substantial and impact the overall
economics of wind energy projects. Therefore, proper maintenance and monitoring of
gearbox conditions are essential for extending service life and ensuring operational reliability
(National Renewable Energy Laboratory [NREL], 2021).
2.7 Nacelle
A key part of a wind turbine is the nacelle, which sits atop the tower and houses vital
components including the generator and gearbox. The nacelle usually comprises of a shell-
like cover to protect the equipment and a bed plate to support it. To transport the weight of all
parts, including the rotor, and the torque produced by the rotor to the tower, the nacelle needs
to be strong enough (Hemami, 2011).
The forces acting on the nacelle depend on the size and design of the turbine. For instance, in
a Gamesa G87 2-MW turbine with an 87-meter blade diameter, the blade weighs
approximately 6,150 kg (13,576 lbs), while the rotor itself weighs around 37 tons (81,000
lbs). The total mass at the top of the tower can reach 107 tons (235,000 lbs), with the four-
section tower weighing about 203 tons (446,000 lbs) (National Renewable Energy Laboratory
[NREL], 2021).
In addition to supporting these weights, the nacelle must accommodate various auxiliary
components such as anemometers and oil coolers. Proper design and material selection are
critical for ensuring that the nacelle can withstand operational stresses over its expected
lifespan. Understanding these dynamics is essential for evaluating potential damage and
failure risks in wind turbines.

30
2.8 Tower
A wind turbine's tower, which is fixed at the base and susceptible to different loads, operates
like a cantilever beam. These consist of lateral forces and a compression stress from the rotor
and nacelle weight at the free end from aerodynamic loads on the rotor, and moments induced
by these forces. Additionally, the tower must support its own weight, any attached
components, and aerodynamic forces acting directly on it (Hemami, 2011). The forces
exerted on the tower are not constant; they vary periodically due to changing wind conditions
and can become impulsive during gusts. Typically, wind turbine towers are designed with
three to four segments, with a general guideline suggesting that tower height should match
the diameter of the blades. However, this is not always strictly adhered to. The tower is
pushed into the wind by the aerodynamic force acting on it, which mostly takes the form of
drag. According to Lavassas et al. (2003), this force may be roughly represented as a
horizontal load applied at two-thirds of the tower's height. The following formula may be
used
to determine the amount of wind force acting on the tower:

-----eq (1)
where vv is the wind speed, AA is the surface area that faces the wind, cc is
the drag coefficient, and ρρ is the air density. Understanding these forces is critical for
evaluating potential damage and ensuring structural integrity in both onshore and offshore
wind turbines.

31
 Fig.11 Moment and force at the summit of the tower, source [Cengage Learning, 2012]

2.9 Concerns about safety

Maintenance workers must operate wind turbines safely, surrounding communities, and their
own integrity. Minimizing risks and hazards is essential for ensuring efficient and orderly
turbine operation, thereby promoting a sustainable lifespan. Environmental conditions
significantly impact wind turbine performance, with common failure components including
blades, generators, yaw systems, and gearboxes. These failures often lead to increased
maintenance costs and necessitate preventive design measures (Hassan et al., 2022).
The loads experienced by wind turbines contribute to various faults, which can arise from
environmental factors such as wind gusts and temperature fluctuations. For instance, blade
erosion due to rain and airborne particles can diminish aerodynamic efficiency, leading to
structural damage (Vidya Technology, 2024). Additionally, gearbox failures due to torque
fluctuations can result in extended downtime and costly repairs (National Renewable Energy
Laboratory [NREL], 2021). Understanding these risks is crucial for developing effective
maintenance techniques that improve wind turbine dependability and efficiency.
2.9.1 Blade failures
For wind turbine blades to capture mechanical energy from the wind and withstand a range of
operating stresses, reliability is essential. Environmental factors including wind, rain, snow,
and storms can make wear and tear worse and can cause failures. Addressing these challenges
at the design stage is vital to achieving a balance between durability, aerodynamic efficiency,
and noise reduction (Sandia Energy, 2020).

32
A significant risk to blade integrity begins during transportation to the installation site, where
minor damages may occur that can worsen during assembly and operation. Larger blades,
while effective at capturing more wind energy, also introduce rotor imbalances and increased
loads that can accelerate wear (Hassan et al., 2022). Common failure mechanisms include
leading edge erosion, delamination, and structural fatigue, which necessitate ongoing
monitoring and maintenance strategies to ensure long-term reliability (National Renewable
Energy Laboratory [NREL], 2021).
By understanding these risks and implementing robust design and maintenance practices, the
operational lifespan of wind turbine blades can be significantly enhanced, ultimately
contributing to the sustainability of wind energy systems.
2.9.2 Generator failures
The most popular type of generator found in wind turbines is the double-fed asynchronous
generator, which is essential for transforming mechanical energy from wind into electrical
energy. Generator failures can significantly impact turbine operation, and these failures are
categorized into mechanical and electrical issues. Mechanical failures often stem from
misalignment or bearing problems, while electrical faults typically arise from stator and rotor
winding issues or slip ring malfunctions (National Renewable Energy Laboratory [NREL],
2021).
Developing maintenance plans that improve wind turbine dependability and operating
efficiency requires an understanding of these failure types. By addressing potential
mechanical and electrical faults early, operators can minimize downtime and associated costs,
ensuring that turbines operate effectively throughout their lifespan (Hassan et al., 2022).
2.9.3 Yaw system malfunctions
The yaw system positions wind turbine blades at the optimal angle. Common failures in this
system include shaft cracks, gear and bearing failures, often exacerbated by adverse weather
and heavy loads. Such failures can lead to significant issues, including damage from
improperly aligned blades (Hassan et al., 2022; National Renewable Energy Laboratory
[NREL], 2021).
2.9.4 Gearbox failures
In order to transform the turbine rotor's low-speed rotational energy into higher speeds
appropriate for producing electricity, a wind turbine's gearbox is necessary. It can utilize fixed
or variable gear ratios, with variable ratios enhancing stability and aerodynamic efficiency.
However, under prolonged heavy operating conditions, gearboxes are prone to failures such
as shaft misalignment, bearing damage, and gear degradation (Pall Corporation, 2023).
2.9.5 Impact of environmental changes and temperature
Wind turbines may function in a variety of geographic and climatic settings, ranging from hot
and dry to humid and freezing. These variations significantly impact turbine performance and
component selection, particularly for lubrication in gearboxes, which must be tailored to the
specific climate of the installation site (Hassan et al., 2022). Seasonal changes also affect
operational efficiency; for instance, cooling systems such as blowers are employed in summer

33
to circulate air within the nacelle, while heaters maintain optimal temperatures during winter
(ICARUS Heat Exchangers, 2023).
In regions with minimal temperature fluctuations, a single type of lubricant may suffice year-
round. However, extreme weather can hinder maintenance activities, prolonging downtime
and increasing operational costs. Additionally, adverse conditions can impair the functionality
of anemometers, leading to inaccurate wind speed measurements and potential control errors
(National Renewable Energy Laboratory [NREL], 2021).
Offshore installations face unique challenges from sea salt corrosion, while onshore turbines
in dusty areas require regular cleaning to maintain efficiency. Ensuring cleanliness within the
nacelle and other components is essential for preventing damage and ensuring reliable
operation (Airtecnics, 2024). Operators must prioritize maintenance practices that account for
these environmental factors to enhance the longevity and reliability of wind turbines.
2.9.6 Lightning
Lightning poses a significant risk to wind turbines, especially as their size and blade length
increase, making them more susceptible to lightning strikes akin to lightning rods. The
destructive force of lightning can cause irreversible damage to both metal and non-metal
components, particularly affecting the blades, which are critical for turbine operation (Hassan
et al., 2022).
Such damage can lead to operational failures, resulting in costly repairs and downtime.
Approximately 1-3% of lightning strikes on wind turbine blades result in damage, with the
majority of incidents occurring at the blade tips (Vaisala, 2022). Effective lightning protection
systems are essential to mitigate these risks and ensure the longevity and reliability of wind
turbines (National Renewable Energy Laboratory [NREL], 2021).

Fig12. Lightning-induced damage to a turbine blade, source [A. Garolera et al., 2016]

34
Blades of wind turbines are equipped with embedded lightning rods, typically made of
copper, which connect to the tower's grounding system. These rods are exposed near the
blade tips to capture lightning strikes, directing the discharge safely to the ground. While this
system significantly reduces the risk of damage, it does not guarantee complete protection.
Lightning may still cause some damage to the blade, albeit to a lesser extent than would
occur without a rod (Hemami, 2011). Effective lightning protection is crucial for maintaining
turbine integrity and operational reliability, especially as blade sizes increase and
susceptibility to strikes rises (National Renewable Energy Laboratory [NREL], 2021).
2.9.7 Ice crystallizing on the blades
Ice formation on wind turbine blades poses significant operational challenges, particularly in
freezing conditions. When air temperatures are near the freezing point, moisture can
condense on the blade edges, leading to ice accumulation. This ice alters the blade profile,
adversely affecting drag and lift coefficients, which reduces the power capture capacity and
overall energy output (Hassan et al., 2022).
In severe cases, ice can accumulate sufficiently to disrupt blade balance and potentially freeze
the entire air foil, resulting in substantial energy losses. Additionally, falling ice fragments
pose risks to surrounding structures, wildlife, and nearby settlements. Therefore, special
precautions must be taken during maintenance operations in icy conditions to mitigate these
hazards (National Renewable Energy Laboratory [NREL], 2021). Understanding the risks
associated with ice formation is essential for enhancing the reliability and safety of wind
turbines in cold climates.

Fig.13 Ice crystallizing on

the blades, source [Haaland, Estimating Production Loss due to Icing on Wind Turbines,
University of Tromsø, 2011]

35
2.9.8 Structural failures
Structural failures in wind turbines, such as collapses and blade fractures, primarily arise
from extreme winds and the ground conditions at installation sites. In areas prone to natural
disasters like hurricanes, wind turbines may experience inevitable damage. When wind
speeds exceed 25 m/s, turbines switch to "standstill" mode, allowing blades to feather and
minimizing wind load on both the blades and tower (National Renewable Energy Laboratory
[NREL], 2021).
In critical situations involving power loss or mechanical failures, turbines enter a "fault
parked" state where the yaw system locks, preventing repositioning against incoming winds.
This exposure to high forces, combined with inadequate ground support, increases the risk of
structural failure (Ma et al., 2016). Vulnerabilities may also result from design elements like
bending stiffness and thinner shell walls. Selecting the right composite materials for blades is
essential since some may be more likely to break under stress. Enhancing the dependability
and safety of wind turbines in challenging circumstances requires an understanding of these
issues.

Fig.14 An
example structural failure of onshore wind turbines, source [Tallbloke’s
Talkshop, 2014

36
 Chapter 3
3.0 Design Standards and Considerations for Wind Turbines
3.1 Wind turbine stages
Wind turbine design specifications are crucial to guarantee their resilience against various
hazards throughout their operational lifespan. These requirements are established by
international standards and certification bodies, which base their guidelines on these global
benchmarks. Such standards address numerous aspects of turbine life, including component
testing, installation, and operation before construction, under site-specific circumstances
(DNV, 2024).
Wind turbines are expensive investments that are usually bought before they are installed and
put into service. Following these guidelines yields provable technical words that facilitate
business transactions, enabling financing and installation. Prior to discussing specific
standards, it is crucial to consider certain conditions that impact the installation of wind
turbines (TÜV Rheinland, 2022). By adhering to these design standards, manufacturers can
enhance wind turbines' operational dependability and structural soundness, ultimately leading
to safer and more efficient energy production.
3.1.1 Conditions should be taken into account while building wind farms
When selecting a wind turbine, investors must thoroughly analyze their specific needs,
considering economic, technical, social, and environmental factors to identify the most
suitable wind energy conversion system for their site (Sarucan et al., 2010). Important factors
to consider while selecting a turbine's model, brand, and power include:
 Wind Class: Assessing the site’s wind classification based on land structure and the
outcomes of micro-deployments.
 Expenditures for Capital and Operation: Assessing the turbine's CAPEX and OPEX.
 Service Support: Ensuring reliable service support and availability of materials.
 Energy Production Metrics: Analysing annual energy production, loss production
factors, and power curve performance.
Additionally, several factors must be considered for wind farm location and turbine
placement:
 Completion of licensing procedures and feasibility studies prior to construction.
 Review of local regulations and site selection analysis.
 Assessment of land ownership, transportation logistics, capacity factor, wind speed,
and power density.
 Consideration of local environmental acceptability and initial investment costs.
 Careful evaluation of these criteria is crucial for optimizing the performance and
dependability of wind turbines during the course of their lifetime (Kuczynski et al.,
2021).

37
[Link] Work in the field
Wind turbine installation involves a systematic sequence of steps to ensure proper setup and
functionality. Initially, access roads must be opened to facilitate transportation to the turbine
site. Following this, excavation work is conducted to prepare the foundations of the turbines.
After that, the required cabling and high voltage (HV) lines are put in between the turbines.
A steel base is then built to support the tower, and the turbine foundation is laid. Cubicles are
positioned and connected to turbine breakers as part of the switchgear assembly for grid
connection. Lastly, a high-voltage link is made between the energy distribution centre and the
power plant. (Renewable Energy Hub, 2024).
Adhering to this sequence is crucial for minimizing risks and ensuring the operational
reliability of wind turbines throughout their lifespan (Kuczynski et al., 2021).

Fig.15 Foundation work for wind turbines, source [Creamer Media's Engineering News,
2014]
[Link] Equipment for wind turbine transportation
Transporting equipment for wind turbines from ports or production centres to installation
sites requires careful planning and specialized organizations. Key steps include conducting
pre-shipping route surveys, and transporting nacelles, drive trains, hubs, towers, and blades
(Kuczynski et al., 2021).

38
[Link] Construction of wind turbine
The assembly of wind turbines involves handling large and heavy components, necessitating
the use of heavy-duty machinery. Adhering to technical safety regulations and monitoring
weather conditions is crucial during this process. For instance, rotor assembly should be
avoided in conditions of lightning or when wind speeds exceed 6 m/s (Kunt et al., 2013).
Each component has designated lifting points and specific torque values based on bolt
diameter and quality. Detailed records are maintained, documenting the torque applied to
each bolt, the tools used, and other relevant assembly information.
The construction steps for wind turbine assembly typically include:
 The primary and auxiliary cranes are installed.
 The tower assembly.
 The assembling of nacelle.
 Assemble the drive train.
 The assembling of the hub.
 Blade assembly.

Maintaining comprehensive checklists and record reports throughout this process is essential
for ensuring operational reliability and safety (Hassan et al., 2022).

Fig.16 Tower construction, source [Betontec, Clean Energy Structures, 2019]

[Link] Utilizing wind turbines

39
A number of crucial procedures come after the wind turbine's component parts are assembled.
These include finishing the cabling, hydraulic, and cooling system connections, as well as
creating high voltage (HV), low voltage (LV), and communication connections between the
tower CPU and nacelle. In addition, the turbine processor software is downloaded, the
gearbox and generator are aligned, and the required SCADA setups are produced (Kuczynski
et al., 2021).

Fig.17 Scada application, source [Windpower Engineering & Development, 2009]

[Link] Wind turbine maintenance procedure
The duration of wind turbine maintenance, both planned and unplanned, vary based on
turbine technology and type. As energy prices decline, pressure mounts on producers and
investors to minimize maintenance costs. Research is ongoing to determine optimal
maintenance schedules, with average maintenance requiring 50-70 man-hours per turbine.
However, gearless turbines or those with electric pitch systems may have different
requirements.
Maintenance activities typically include visual inspections, lubrication, electrical and
mechanical maintenance, and cleaning. While investor companies operate the turbines,
maintenance is usually conducted by manufacturers, although turbine owners may establish
their own teams. A critical consideration is that reducing reliance on manufacturers for
maintenance can lead to longer downtimes and potential spare parts supply issues in case of
malfunctions. Therefore, it is vital for wind farm owners to negotiate maintenance contracts
that maximize profitability while ensuring operational reliability (Kuczynski et al., 2021;
BGB Innovation, 2024).
3.2 Wind turbine standards and design specifications
Since 1988, International Electrotechnical Commission's (IEC) Technical Committee 88 has
been creating international standards for wind turbines. This committee is made up of

40
different project teams and working groups that are in charge of developing and updating
technical reports, standards, and specifications that guarantee wind turbines operate
dependably (DNV-GL, 2020). Through cooperation with other European working groups,
CENELEC's Technical Committee 88 has created its own European Norms (EN) in addition
to IEC standards.
In order to create technical standards that satisfy industry demands, standardization bodies
are essential. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the IEC, and
classification groups that uphold technical standards are notable examples. Important roles in
creating and disseminating pertinent standards are also played by national organizations like
the Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN) and the British Standards Institute (BSI), as well as
regional agencies like the European Committee for Standardization (CEN).
These standards address design requirements, component specifications, and operational
considerations essential for ensuring that wind turbines can operate reliably throughout their
planned lifespan while delivering environmental and economic benefits. By adhering to these
established standards, manufacturers can enhance the structural integrity and operational
reliability of wind turbines, ultimately contributing to the growth of renewable energy
sources (Kuczynski et al., 2021).

National
Standards
Organisation

Table 3. Entities that establish standards, source [DNV-GL, Overview of offshore wind
standards in selected countries, 2020-1194]
3.2.1 IEC Standards
Because IEC standards are globally applicable and have an impact on several national and
certifying bodies, they are essential in the wind energy industry. Onshore and offshore wind
turbine design, operation, safety, and sustainable maintenance are all covered by the
extensive set of standards set by the IEC. The IEC 61400 series, which includes IEC 61400-1,

41
contains the main standards for wind power production systems. It focuses on design
specifications that are crucial for turbine manufacturers. (DNV-GL, 2020).
The IEC Technical Committee (TC) 88 oversees these standards, ensuring they address not
only electrical components but also the structural requirements necessary for reliable turbine
operation. By improving wind turbine performance and safety throughout the course of their
operating lives, the guidelines hope to increase wind energy systems' overall sustainability
and efficiency (Kuczynski et al., 2021). By adhering to these internationally recognized
standards, manufacturers can ensure that their designs meet rigorous safety and performance
criteria.

42
 Table 4. Relevant IEC standards for wind turbines, source [DNV-GL, Overview of offshore
wind standards and certification requirements in selected countries, 2020-1194]
[Link] Design Requirements Standard IEC 61400-1
A thorough worldwide framework for wind energy and wind turbines, the IEC 61400
standard covers many topics both before and after implementation. In particular, IEC 61400-1
specifies crucial design specifications to guarantee wind turbines' structural soundness with

43
the goal of offering sufficient defence against any risks for the duration of their operating life.
(IEC 61400-1, 2019).
This standard is essential for load analysis and preserving structural integrity, enabling
designers to produce dependable, reasonably priced wind turbines. In addition to typical and
extreme exterior circumstances and possible failure scenarios, the design considerations
cover a variety of operating modes, such as normal conditions, start-up events, shut down
situations, and idle states.
Important factors like the external circumstances that define the wind turbine class are
detailed in the IEC 61400-1 standard, structural design requirements, and the loads that
turbines will encounter. It emphasizes the verification of load-bearing components to ensure
safety and minimize stress on the structure. The ultimate and fatigue strength of these
components must be validated through calculations or testing to confirm their integrity under
expected conditions (American Clean Power Association [ACP], 2022).
Design situations are categorized to address critical conditions that turbines may face. Load
cases are derived from combinations of operational modes and external factors, ensuring that
all relevant scenarios are taken into account in conjunction with control system behavior that
has a plausible chance of happening. Manufacturers may improve wind turbine dependability
and safety by following these guidelines, which will eventually aid in the development of
renewable energy technology (Kuczynski et al., 2021).
3.2.2 Design of Structures
The ACP 61400-1-202x and IEC 61400-1 Design Requirements standards are essential for
guaranteeing the structural soundness of wind turbines. Based on the different loads that
turbines experience, these standards specify eight design scenarios that identify the sorts of
analyses and safety considerations required for a robust design (ACP, 2022).These
international standards state that establishing adequate safety levels and confirming the
integrity of load-carrying components inside the wind turbine construction are crucial. To
prove sufficient safety and structural integrity, the ultimate and fatigue strength of structural
components must be verified by computations, testing, or both (IEC 61400-1, 2019).
Furthermore, it is necessary to detect resonances in the drive train, rotor, and tower within a
frequency range up to twice the blade passing frequency. For Design Load Case (DLC) 1.2,
investigations should evaluate possible resonances at turbulence levels equivalent to 30% of
the category C design turbulence of the Normal Turbulence Model (NTM). It is necessary to
take steps to reduce or include resonances into the design loads if sizable resonant loads are
found in low turbulence situations (ACP, 2022). Chapter 2 will go into more detail on the
structural loads that wind turbines are subject to, which are crucial in establishing standards.

[Link] Gravitational and inertial loads

Critical static and dynamic forces affecting wind turbines include gravitational and inertial
loads, which result from rotation, vibration, seismic activity, and gravity. Allowable tower
verticality tolerances that take into consideration the immediate as well as long-term impacts

44
of soil subsidence must be included in the design documents. To guarantee precise
evaluations of the tower and foundation integrity during structural analysis, the effect of
tower verticality on gravity loads should be assessed independently (ACP, 2022).
By considering these factors, engineers can increase wind turbines' structural stability, which
will eventually increase their lifetime and operating efficiency. Properly addressing
gravitational loads is essential for minimizing potential failures and ensuring the safe
operation of wind energy systems.
[Link] Aerodynamic loads
Airflow interacting with both stationary and moving components causes aerodynamic stresses
on wind turbines. Average wind speed, turbulence across the rotor plane, rotor rotational
speed, air density, and the aerodynamic forms of turbine components—including their
aeroelastic effects—all have an impact on these loads.. Notably, the calculation of
aerodynamic loads does not require accounting for geometric tolerances in tower verticality if
they are less than or equal to 3° (ACP, 2022).
Understanding these aerodynamic interactions is crucial for optimizing turbine design and
performance. By accurately assessing these loads, engineers can enhance the structural
integrity and operational reliability of wind turbines, ultimately leading to improved energy
production efficiency.
[Link] Actuation loading
Wind turbine operation and control result in actuator loads, which fall into a number of
categories, including mechanical brake loads, yaw and pitch actuator loads, and torque
control from generators or inverters. The spectrum of actuator forces, including friction
effects, must be taken into account when calculating response and loading. To guarantee
appropriate reaction during braking events, mechanical brakes in particular require
consideration of variables like friction, spring force, and pressure that are impacted by age
and temperature (ACP, 2022).
Understanding these actuation loads is vital for optimizing turbine performance and
reliability. By accurately accounting for these forces, engineers can enhance the structural
integrity of wind turbines, ultimately contributing to safer and more efficient energy
production. Effective management of actuation loads also helps mitigate potential failures
and reduces maintenance costs over the turbine's operational lifespan.
[Link] Additional loads
Additional loads from vortex-induced vibrations, include wake loads, impact loads, ice loads,
and tower loads, must be considered in wind turbine design. These loads can significantly
affect structural integrity and operational reliability, necessitating thorough analysis and
incorporation into design calculations (ACP, 2022).

3.2.3 Create load scenarios

A wind turbine's lifespan is represented for design purposes by a set of design scenarios that
include the most crucial circumstances the turbine could experience. Combinations of several

45
design scenarios, including as assembly, erection, and maintenance circumstances, as well as
external elements, are used to create load instances. It is crucial to take into account the
behavior of the control system as well as all pertinent load scenarios that have a plausible
chance of occurring. (ACP, 2022).
A number of factors must be integrated in order to calculate the design load cases used to
verify structural integrity: transportation, installation, and maintenance scenarios; fault design
situations with pertinent external conditions; and normal design situations with appropriate
normal or extreme external conditions. A realistic combination of a severe external condition
and a fault scenario should be included as a design load case if there is a link between the
two.
Several design load situations need to be assessed for every design scenario. Relevant tables
that detail wind, electricity, and other external circumstances specify the minimum needed
load scenarios. If the controller for the wind turbine is able to effectively shut down the
turbine before reaching maximum yaw angles or wind speeds during deterministic wind
model scenarios, it must also demonstrate reliability under turbulent conditions.
Each design load case requires appropriate analysis types indicated as "F" for fatigue loads—
critical for assessing fatigue strength—and "U" for ultimate loads, which pertain to material
strength, blade tip deflection, and structural stability (IEC 61400-1, 2019). By accurately
analysing these loads and conditions, engineers can enhance the structural integrity and
operational reliability of wind turbines.
Several design load situations need to be assessed for every design scenario. Relevant tables
that detail wind, electricity, and other external circumstances specify the minimum needed
load scenarios. If the controller for the wind turbine is able to, reflecting typical operational
conditions or minor faults. In contrast, abnormal design situations are less common and
typically involve severe faults that trigger system protection mechanisms. The classification
of design situations as N or A directly influences the partial safety factors applied to the
ultimate loads, ensuring that safety considerations are appropriately addressed in the design
process (ACP, 2022).

46
Table 5. Design load cases (DLC), source [ACP (American Clean Power Association) 61400-
1-202x, Modified Adoption of IEC 61400-1]

47
Table 6. Design load cases keys, source [ACP (American Clean Power Association) 61400-1-
202x, Modified Adoption of IEC 61400-1]
[Link] Generation of power (DLC 1.1 to 1.5)
Because the wind turbine is powered by an electric load in this design scenario, rotor
imbalances such as mass and aerodynamic differences such blade pitch and twist aberrations
must be taken into account. Operational load assessments also need to account for departures
from ideal circumstances, including yaw misalignment and tracking problems in the control
system.
Design Load Cases (DLCs) 1.1 and 1.2 address loads from atmospheric turbulence
encountered during normal turbine operation throughout its lifespan. DLC 1.3 focuses on
ultimate loading from extreme turbulence conditions. Meanwhile, DLCs 1.4 and 1.5 specify
transient cases identified as potentially critical events in a wind turbine's operational life
(ACP, 2022).
By incorporating these design load cases into structural assessments, engineers can ensure
that turbines are designed to withstand both normal and extreme operational conditions,
thereby enhancing their reliability and performance over time.
[Link] Power generation plus the occurrence of an electrical network connection failure
or loss (DLC 2.1 to 2.5)
In this design scenario, a breakdown or loss of electrical network connection during wind
turbine power generation causes a transient event. Because they affect turbine loading, any
control system malfunctions or serious internal electrical issues, including generator short
circuits, must be taken into account. This situation is pertinent to fatigue analysis as well. To
find fault occurrences that could have an impact on loads, a Failure Mode and Effects
Analysis (FMEA) should be carried out. During analysis, the rotor's azimuth location at the

48
moment of a problem should be considered random as it might have a substantial impact on
load levels (ACP, 2022). The angle between two points is called the azimuth. Engineers can
improve reliability and operating efficiency by better understanding how these fleeting
occurrences affect turbine performance and structural integrity.
[Link] Start-up (DLC 3.1 to 3.3)
Any event that causes loads on a wind turbine during the changeover from a standstill or idle
condition to active power generation is included in this design scenario. The behavior of the
control system must be used to estimate the frequency of these events. At least four different
timing events between the End of Generation (EOG) and the start-up event should be
examined for every wind speed in Design Load Case (DLC) 3.2. When power generation
reaches 50% of its maximum, the first timing should take place, and when it reaches 95%, the
last timing should take place. Within this range, two more times must be dispersed equally.
For each wind speed, the characteristic load value can be calculated as the average of the
extreme transient values at these four defined points in time (ACP, 2022). This approach
ensures that the design adequately accounts for the dynamic loading conditions that turbines
face during start-up, enhancing their structural integrity and operational reliability.
[Link] Normal shutdown (DLC 4.1 to 4.2)
Every event that causes loads on a wind turbine during the changeover from power
generation to standstill or idling circumstances is included in this design scenario. The
behavior of the control system should be used to estimate the frequency of these events. The
End of Generation (EOG) gust must begin at different times in relation to shutdown in
Design Load Case (DLC) 4.2. At least six events must be evenly distributed from 10 seconds
prior to shutdown until power production reaches 50% of its initial level.
Furthermore, at every specified point in time, a minimum of four uniformly spaced rotor
azimuth positions must be used. The mean of the severe computed loads across all durations
and azimuth points taken into consideration may be used to determine the typical load value
for each wind speed (ACP, 2022). By using a thorough approach, turbine designs are
guaranteed to be able to sustain the dynamic stresses encountered during operating changes,
improving their structural integrity and dependability.
[Link] Emergency stop (DLC 5.1)
Loads resulting from the activation of the emergency stop button must be considered in wind
turbine design. The rotor's azimuth position at the time of the fault significantly influences
the load levels, and this position should be treated as random during analysis (ACP, 2022)
[Link] Parked (standstill or idling) (DLC 6.1 to 6.4)
In this design situation, the rotor of a parked wind turbine is either in a standstill or idling
condition. Design Load Cases (DLC) 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3 utilize the Extreme Wind Speed Model
(EWM), while DLC 6.4 employs the Normal Turbulence Model (NTM).
Assuming slippage restraint in the yaw system, a wind turbine with an active yaw system
may have a yaw misalignment of up to ±15° under the stable extreme wind model or ±8°
under the turbulent extreme wind model for DLC 6.1. Without backup power for control and
yaw systems for at least six hours, DLC 6.2 anticipates an early electrical power outage
49
during a storm with high wind conditions, requiring consideration of wind direction
variations of up to ±180°.
Extreme winds and a yaw misalignment of up to ±30° for the stable model or ±20° for the
turbulent model are combined in DLC 6.3. Increases in yaw misalignment in regions of the
blades' maximum lift force should not surpass 10° when assessed using discrete values. Last
but not least, DLC 6.4 takes into account the anticipated hours of non-power production time
at varying loads that may cause major wear damage to components, including the weight of
idle blades (ACP, 2022).
By incorporating these design load cases into assessments, engineers can ensure that turbines
are designed to withstand dynamic loads during various operational scenarios, thereby
enhancing their structural integrity and reliability.
[Link] Fault conditions plus parked (DLC 7.1)
When a parked wind turbine deviates from its typical performance due to issues with the
electrical system or the turbine itself, it must be carefully examined. It is necessary to assess
critical systems for possible failures, including the pitch, yaw, and braking systems. These
fault conditions should be examined in conjunction with the Extreme Wind Model (EWM),
which is predicated on a one-year return time, for Design Load Case (DLC) 7.1. Both
turbulent and quasi-steady circumstances must be taken into account in the study, along with
adjustments for gusts and dynamic reactions.
In the event of a yaw system fault, a yaw misalignment of up to ±180° should be considered.
If discrete values are used to evaluate yaw misalignment in DLC 7.1, increments should not
exceed 10° in areas where maximum lift force on the blades occurs. For other faults, yaw
misalignment must align with the parameters established in DLC 6.1. If slippage occurs
within the yaw system at the characteristic loads determined in DLC 7.1, the worst-case
slippage scenario should be taken into account (ACP, 2022).
By comprehensively analysing these fault conditions and their impacts on turbine loading,
engineers can enhance the structural integrity and operational reliability of wind turbines,
thereby minimizing risks associated with potential failures.
[Link] Transportation, assembling, upkeep, and fixing (DLC 8.1 to 8.2)
Manufacturers are required to outline all wind conditions and design scenarios that are
expected throughout wind turbine transportation, assembly, maintenance, and repair in order
to comply with Design Load Case (DLC) 8.1. In order to ensure an adequate safety margin,
the design must take into account the highest wind conditions that might result in severe
loading on the turbine. By increasing the specified wind conditions by 5 m/s, this margin can
be reached.
All turbine states that could persist longer than a week during transportation, assembly,
maintenance, and repair are covered by DLC 8.2. This covers situations like a tower that is
only partly finished or one that is standing without a nacelle. When a tower lacks a nacelle,
precautions must be taken to avoid critical wind speeds that can cause transverse vibrations
caused by vortices; alternatively, suitable fatigue design load scenarios should be included.
During these phases, the electrical network is presumed to be disconnected. Furthermore, as

50
long as they don't include an electrical connection, steps to lessen loads under these
circumstances might be performed (ACP, 2022).
Engineers may improve wind turbines' operational dependability and structural integrity at
crucial stages of their lifetime by appropriately handling certain design load instances.

51
 Chapter 4
4.0 Analysis of Wind Turbine Failures and Risks
4.1 Failures of wind turbines
Comprehensive information about wind turbines, including possible failures, damages, and
hazards, as well as the factors impacting these concerns, was presented in the previous
chapters. The problems, hazards, and defects related to wind turbines are summarized in this
chapter along with their causes. To illustrate shortcomings and risks, information was
collected from prior occurrences; particular instances are detailed in Appendix A.
It is important to note that some fire incidents listed in Appendix A lack specified causes due
to insufficient data from sources or authorities. Examples include statements indicating that
components like the turbine engine or nacelle caught fire without adverse weather conditions
such as storms or lightning, leading to a classification of these failures as generator failures in
this study. The investigation into these failures was completed on May 4, 2022.
While the data sample is extensive and suitable for analysis, it is acknowledged that other
unidentified failures may exist. Common causes of wind turbine fires include electrical
malfunctions and mechanical failures, which can ignite flammable materials within the
turbine (GCube Insurance, 2015; Sirris, 2024). Understanding these risks is crucial for
improving safety measures and enhancing the reliability of wind energy systems.
4.1.1 USA Klickitat, Washington; wind turbine fire
A technical mismatch in the generator caused a wind turbine in a two-phase wind farm in
southern Washington to catch fire on July 19, 2019. Because of the dry, arid terrain, the fire
grew more easily, creating a large conflagration that took four days to contain. (ACP, 2022).
[in the Appendix-A, turbine number:7]

Fig.18 Wind turbine fire in USA, Washington, source [News radio 610Kona, 2019]

52
4.1.2 USA California Tehachapi; idle wind turbine blades
On May 2, 2009, a wind turbine in Tehachapi, California, experienced a fault in its gearbox,
causing the blade rotation speed to become uncontrollable. As wind speeds increased, the
turbine blades began to rotate at dangerously high speeds, posing risks to the surrounding
environment and nearby turbines. Consequently, the highway near the site was temporarily
closed for safety reasons. Due to the inability to quickly repair or shut down the turbine,
maintenance had to wait until wind conditions improved (ACP, 2022). This incident
emphasizes how crucial it is to have efficient monitoring and maintenance procedures in
place to stop risky scenarios when wind turbines are operating. [in the Appendix-A, turbine
number:8]
4.1.3 Ice accumulating on the blades of Denmark's Roedsand-2 Offshore Wind Park
The offshore wind farm Roedsand-2 on December 23, 2010, located 9 km off the coast of
Rødbyhavn, Denmark, operated at only 130 megawatts of its 207-megawatt capacity due to
cold weather. Ice formation on the turbine blades prompted a system shutdown to prevent
damage (RWE, 2024). [in the Appendix-A, turbine number:10]
4.1.4 USA Ohio Perkins; wind turbine blade fall
On November 30, 2010, officials at Perkins Schools in Ohio shut down the wind turbines on
school property following a mechanical failure. Bolts on one of the turbine blades broke,
causing the blade to detach and fall to the base of the turbine, raising safety concerns for the
area (Newsradio 610Kona, 2019). [in the Appendix-A, turbine number:15]
4.1.5 Netherland Medemblik Lely; wind farm blades fall
On December 26, 2014, authorities shut down the Lely nearshore wind farm in the
Netherlands after the rotor head and blades detached from one of its Nedwind N40/500
turbines. The hub and rotors were found approximately one meter below the water's surface,
and the area was marked with buoys to ensure safety for shipping (National Wind Watch,
2014). [in the Appendix-A, turbine number:20]

53
Fig.19 Lely Wind Farm's wind turbine blades collapsed in the Netherlands., source [National
Wind Watch, 2014]
4.1.6 Sweden Yttre Stengrund: Dismantling the Offshore Wind Farm
On February 13, 2014, wind turbines in Anglesey, Wales, caught fire due to a malfunction in
the generator caused by gale-force winds exceeding 108 mph. The extreme wind conditions
led to the turbine's ignition, posing significant risks to the surrounding area and highlighting
the vulnerabilities of wind energy systems in severe weather (New Scientist, 2014). [in the
Appendix-A, turbine number:21]
4.1.7 USA New Hampshire Balsams; wind turbine ice forming
On December 1, 2016, researchers near the 400-foot wind turbines above the proposed
Balsams ski area raised concerns about safety due to ice being ejected from the blades. They
observed ice chunks and craters up to 930 feet away. Mechanical failures could also lead to
dangerous metal fragments. Turbines are shut down when icing conditions are anticipated
(Infoplaza, 2024). [in the Appendix-A, turbine number:25]

Fig20 . Overlooking the Balsams are wind turbines, source [IndepthNH, 2016]

54
4.1.8 Belgium Offshore: Wind Farms Stop Operating Wind Turbines
On February 18, 2022, all offshore wind turbines in Belgium were shut down due to Storm
Eunice, marking the first complete shutdown since their installation. Although the turbines
were designed to withstand severe weather, authorities blocked the blades, leading to an
automatic shutdown to prevent potential damage (BBC News, 2022).

Fig 21 Belgian Offshore Wind Farm, source BBC News. (2022)

55
 Chapter-V
5.0 Statistical Analysis of Wind Turbine Failures and Risks
Data analytics involves analysing collected data to identify patterns and extract meaningful
insights, which is crucial for understanding the performance and risks associated with
onshore and offshore wind turbines. This study utilizes statistical analysis of operational data
to identify failure modes and risk situations during turbine operation, enhancing reliability
(DNV, 2023).
5.1 Data
5.1.1 Gathering and cleansing data
The dataset analysed in this study comprises 458 news reports collected from 2010 to 2023,
focusing on wind turbine failures, accidents, and collapses. This data source was created
through Google searches using specific terms such as "wind turbine failures" and "wind
turbine accidents," supplemented by a review of relevant articles and literature. Irrelevant,
repetitive, and unverifiable reports were excluded to ensure the reliability of the dataset,
which is detailed in Appendix A.
While this analysis is based on publicly available information regarding failures and risks, it
is important to note that it may not represent all incidents involving wind turbines. The
reluctance of manufacturers to share comprehensive data on accidents limits the dataset's
completeness. Nevertheless, the data collection process was conducted meticulously, ensuring
high reliability despite the potential for unrecorded failure types.
Sources were in English, as of May 2023. The dataset underwent multiple validations to
maintain quality, particularly in translating technical terms. Factors pertaining to building or
transportation are excluded from this study because its focus is on operational failures of both
onshore and offshore wind turbines.
The effort invested in expanding the dataset aimed to provide a reliable foundation for
analysing failure and risk factors associated with wind turbine operations. By compiling
detailed reports from a variety of sources, this research contributes valuable insights into the
operational integrity and reliability of wind energy systems (Leite et al., 2018; DNV, 2023).
Data on wind turbine failures were meticulously compiled from news reports, including
details on location, date, failure type, and causes, ensuring originality and scientific
reproducibility through thorough documentation (Leite et al., 2018).

56
5.1.2 Features of the data
The following characteristics are present in the structured dataset (Appendix A):
Characteristic Description
[Link] Turbine A unique number for every turbine failure

Month, Day, and Year Failure reporting date (year, month, or day)

Location of Wind The turbine's precise name and location

Turbines

Place State, province, or county where the failure happened

Nation The nation where the failure occurred

Location of Failure The section of the wind turbine that failed

Type of Failure Classification of the defect (e.g., mechanical, electrical)

Cause of Failure An explanation of the failure's cause

The Failure Effect Damage and repercussions from the turbine failure

Sort Wind turbine classification as either onshore or offshore

5.2 Analysis and Findings

The gathered information on failure rates, nation distributions, and risk variables is compiled
in this part along with graphical analysis. The distribution of failure kinds in the dataset is
shown in Figure 22.

57
 Fig.22 Failure percentages shown on a graph
The distribution of failure rates was the main focus of the first investigation, revealing that
blade and generator failures each accounted for 29% of incidents in both offshore and
onshore turbines. Structural failures followed at 24%, while lightning failures were 8%,
gearbox failures 6%, ice formation 3%, and temperature-related faults 1%. Notably, no yaw
system failures were recorded, which will be discussed in the next chapter. Table 7 provides a
detailed overview of these failure rates for further assessment.
Table.7 Failure percentages
Type of failure Failure Percentage (%)
Blade 29
General 29
Structural 24
Lightning 8
Gearbox 6
Ice forming 3
Environmental and temperature 1

Figure 23 below illustrates the percentage distribution of causes for the high rate of blade
failures

Fig.23 Percentages of causes of blade failure

58
Blade failures, comprising 29% of overall failures, are primarily caused by storms, bolt
faults, material fatigue, and cable issues.
Figure 24 below displays the percentage shares of the reasons why generators fail.

Fig 24. percentages of reasons why generators fail

According to a review of the reasons behind generator failures, electrical problems and short
circuits are responsible for 28% of failures. Storms account for 22%, mechanical issues for
11%, human error for 6%, and energy changes for 6%. Most generator failures result in fires,
highlighting significant operational risks.
The failure cause percentages for structural failures, which account for 24% of overall
failures, are illustrated in Figure 25. The analysis reveals key contributors to structural
failures, emphasizing the importance of understanding these factors to enhance the reliability
and safety of wind turbine operations.

59
 Figure 25. percentages of factors that lead to structural breakdown
The analysis of structural failure causes indicates that storms are responsible for 63% of
incidents, followed by mechanical failures at 15%, equipment failures at 8%, collisions at
4%, and human errors at 1%. Figure 26 illustrates the causes of gearbox failures, which
account for 6% of overall failures. The primary cause of gearbox failures is oil leakage,
contributing to 40%, while braking system issues and material fatigue each represent 20%.
Additionally, bearing faults account for 15%, and storm-related failures contribute 5%. These
findings underscore the critical need for improved maintenance and monitoring strategies to
mitigate risks.

60
 Fig.26 percentages of reasons why gearboxes fail
Figure 27's breakdown of failure distribution by nation reveals that the bulk of occurrences in
the dataset occur in the USA, Germany, the UK, and Canada. Given that the research was
conducted in English, it is likely that many English-speaking countries are overrepresented.
Unfortunately, expanding the search to include non-English sources was not feasible during
the study period. This limitation may affect the comprehensiveness of the dataset and
highlights the need for a more inclusive approach in future research efforts.

Figure 27. Failure distribution by nation

The United States leads with 31% of faults, followed by Germany with 24%, the United
Kingdom with 16%, Canada with 7%, and Denmark with 3%. Appendix A has more specific

61
information.

Figure 28. Failure kinds and rates by nation

Figure 29 shows the distribution ratio of the failure kinds by country based on the data that
was gathered and examined.

Table 8. Failure type percentages by nation

62
Table 8 provides a detailed examination of failure distributions by country, highlighting that
blade, generator, and structural failures are prevalent in countries with significant data,
particularly the USA, Germany, and the United Kingdom.
Another analysis focuses on failure rates by wind turbine type, revealing 29 offshore and 429
onshore turbines in the dataset. Figure 29 illustrates the corresponding failure rates for each
category.

Figure 29. Wind turbine failure rates, both onshore and offshore
Offshore wind turbine failures include 14 structural, 7 blade, and 4 generator failures, with
other types having 1 case each.

63
 Fig.30 Offshore wind turbine failure percentages
Figure 30 shows offshore wind turbine failures: structural (48.2%), blade (24.3%), generator
(13.9%), and others (3.4%).

Fig 31. Onshore wind turbine failure percentages

Figure 31 illustrates onshore wind turbine failures: generator (30.3%), blade (29.6%),
structural (21.9%), lightning (9.2%), gearbox (6%), ice (2.3%), and temperature-related
failures (0.7%).

64
Table 9 presents the causes and consequences of failures, offering insights for risk reduction
and failure rate calculations over the past decade.
Table 9. Causes and consequences of failure types
Type of Failure Cause of Failure The Failure Effect
Failure of the Blade Storm Drop
Fatigue of materials Bend
Cable malfunction Crack
Sensor malfunction break
Bolt malfunction stop functioning

Failure of the Generator An electrical malfunction Noisy functioning of the fire

Storm Put an end to operations
Variability in energy Explosion of an oil spill
A short circuit
Human error
A mechanical issue

Failure of the Gearbox Fault with the storm brake portion Blades that are idle and rotate
Material error quickly
The bearing defect Put an end to operations
Leak of oil The gearbox and fire blade
collapse.
Breakdown of the gearbox
Environmental Failure and Storms, cold temperatures, and Put an end to operations
Temperature abrupt weather changes Extension of an oil spill

Failure of Lightning - Fire Stop Function

Blades with cracks
Turbine damage

Failure of Ice Formation Temperature below Blades covered with ice

Failure of Structures Fault with the foundation Breakdown

Storm Put an end to operations
A mechanical issue Parts drop.
Human error Turbine damage to the tower bent
Faulty collision equipment Unsteady
Take out the turbine fire

65
 Chapter – VI
6.0 Summary of Findings and Future Recommendations
This chapter presents interpretations, recommendations, limitations, and measures to mitigate
failures based on the analysis results of offshore and onshore wind turbines. The study
examines operational risks and failures, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive review of
wind turbine failure data from 2010 to 2023 to validate its applicability.
Most blade failures result from storms, with additional issues like bending, cracking, and
material fatigue observed. The age of failed blades remains unknown, highlighting the
importance of aero-elastic considerations in modern turbine design. Integrating aerodynamic
and structural modelling based on site-specific climatic conditions is essential to minimize
excessive loads on large rotor diameters. Furthermore, selecting appropriate aero-elastic
materials and implementing structural health monitoring with online sensors are critical for
long blades.
Generator failures primarily stem from electrical faults, including short circuits and energy
fluctuations, often leading to fires that can damage both the turbine and the environment.
Conducting electric stability analyses can help detect these issues early. Regular maintenance
and monitoring are crucial to prevent mechanical faults and ensure the reliability of wind
energy systems (International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2023; U.S. Energy
Information Administration [EIA], 2024).
The primary causes of generator failures in wind turbines include electrical faults, such as
short circuits and energy fluctuations, as well as storms and mechanical failures. Most
generator failures lead to fires, rendering the turbine inoperable and causing environmental
damage. To mitigate these risks, electric stability analysis should be conducted across all
turbines in a wind farm to identify energy fluctuations and electrical faults. Spectral analysis
can detect winding faults by examining fault sidebands in frequency signals, while dynamic
state space models can help identify short-circuit faults in stator windings (International
Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2023). Structural failures predominantly arise from
storms, along with mechanical issues like assembly misalignment and foundation faults.
These failures can result in turbine collapses or instability. Developing aerodynamic and
structural models is essential to assess the turbine's response to excessive loads, which
requires collecting site-specific wind data to ensure designs can withstand actual conditions
(U.S. Energy Information Administration [EIA], 2024). Routine maintenance and real-time
monitoring using advanced sensors are crucial for detecting assembly faults through vibration
analysis. By implementing these strategies, the operational reliability of wind turbines can be
significantly enhanced.
Material fatigue, braking mechanism issues, and oil leakage are the main reasons why
gearboxes in wind turbines fail. These problems may cause idle blades to spin quickly before
coming to a sudden stop. Gearbox diagnostics are difficult; although vibration analysis is
frequently used to find faults, the working principles of the gearbox may make it ineffective
in some cases. Amplitude and frequency demodulation analysis using energy separation
algorithms is a viable method, which can identify wear and damage in gearboxes. Regular
expert analyses alongside routine maintenance can help prevent oil leaks and ensure the
braking system functions correctly (International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA],

66
2023). Temperature variations and ice formation also pose significant risks, particularly in
regions with extreme seasonal differences. These conditions can damage turbine components
and lubrication oils, necessitating careful selection of materials suited to local climates.
Offshore turbines face additional challenges from saltwater exposure, requiring frequent
maintenance (U.S. Energy Information Administration [EIA], 2024). Lightning strikes can
cause substantial damage; thus, establishing a robust grounding system and using surge
protection units are essential strategies to mitigate lightning effects. Increased maintenance
after storms is also recommended to maintain operational reliability.
Yaw system failures were not identified in the dataset, as these failures are often categorized
under structural or technical failures. Although such failures are rare compared to others, the
lack of specific reporting by turbine owners complicates their identification. Data analysis
reveals that offshore wind turbine failures are less frequent than onshore failures, attributed to
fewer offshore installations and the higher costs associated with installation and maintenance
(International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2023).
Generator failures are prevalent, often resulting in fires that incapacitate the entire turbine.
Unlike blade failures, which can be addressed at a cost, generator failures necessitate waiting
for fires to extinguish naturally. This study emphasizes the need for comprehensive data
collection on wind turbine failures from 2010 to 2023 to enhance understanding and
management of these issues.
The limitations of this study include a restricted timeframe for data collection and the
exclusion of non-operational failure phases. Despite these challenges, the findings provide
valuable insights for stakeholders in the wind energy sector, supporting data-driven decision-
making and fostering innovation. Establishing an international database to record all failure
incidents is essential for future research and preventive measures against wind turbine
failures (U.S. Energy Information Administration [EIA], 2024).

67
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Appendix-A
Failures Data

73