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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 2006-01-0581

Differentials Modeling for Four Wheels Drive

E. Galvagno, A. Morgando, A. Sorniotti and A. Vigliani
Politecnico di Torino

Reprinted From: Transmission and Driveline 2006

(SP-2001)

2006 SAE World Congress

Detroit, Michigan
April 3-6, 2006

400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760 Web: [Link]
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2006-01-0581

Differentials Modeling for Four Wheels Drive

E. Galvagno, A. Morgando, A. Sorniotti and A. Vigliani
Politecnico di Torino

Copyright © 2006 SAE International

ABSTRACT presented, from the point of view of both longitudinal and

lateral dynamics.
This paper deals with modeling the most commonly
used passive and active differentials, conceived for Four MODELS OF DRIVELINE
Wheel Drive (4WD) systems. The vehicle dynamics of a
4WD equipped with the modeled differentials is The first model is implemented using the Simulink®
investigated. The models presented are both based on a toolkit called Stateflow, that allows to obtain a discrete
functional approach and, according to a more detailed transition between more continuous models, relative to
analysis, based on the physical performance of the different driveline configurations. In this way it is possible
components constituting a differential. to obtain a mathematical description of the single
operating conditions and then to introduce a logic, based
INTRODUCTION on several thresholds, which enables the correct
continuous model and disables all the others. This
Two different models of driveline equipped with hybrid way to build a model particularly fits with
conventional components are presented. They will be automotive transmission requirements, which assume
integrated with the detailed models of the differentials more configurations in relation with clutch and
described in the paper. synchronizers operating condition. The model (Figure 1)
The first driveline model permits to perform basic considers four degrees of freedom, one for each of the
functions like the change of the gear ratio during a following subsystems: the motor and the flywheel ( T Mot );
maneuver. The characteristics of the clutch are given in the clutch disc, the gearbox primary shaft and the
the form of tables and the dynamics of the synchronizer
is not considered. The dynamics of the semi-axles is synchronizers ( T PS ); the gearbox secondary shaft, the
evaluated through transfer functions. The functional differential and the axle shafts ( T SA ); the hub bearings,
structure of this model permits to adopt it also for
Hardware-In-the-Loop test benches. The second the wheels and the vehicle ( TVeh ).
driveline model consists of a detailed description of the 4
behavior of the clutch and its mechanism. Also the
synchronizers are considered with a consistent level of 1 2
detail. Such second approximation model is
implemented by adopting a commercial software, 3
optimized for the simulation of the components of the
driveline. This sophisticated driveline model can be used
in co-simulation with the whole vehicle models. st
Figure 1 – The 1 approximation driveline model.
The second part of the paper describes the models of
the components of the 4WD systems evaluated. The The vehicle dynamics is described with only one d.o.f.
influence of each friction coefficient and the relative to the longitudinal translation and the
configuration of the gears on the component overall compliance of the driveline components is considered
behavior are evaluated. The equilibrium equations of with a global stiffness and damping: KDL and EDL. It is
forces and torques of the internal components of some possible to point out six operating conditions that are
of these differentials are reported. All these differential directly linked with the state of the clutch and of the
models are inserted in a vehicle model, to give origin to synchronizers; for each of these it is possible to develop
different configurations of Four Wheel Drive (4WD) a continuous dynamic model. Figure 2 shows, for
systems. A comparison is performed at different open example, the model relative to a typical phase of clutch
throttle conditions, with a large variety of steering wheel engaging or disengaging.
inputs, like step steer, double step steer, ramp steer.
Finally, evaluation criteria to analyze the results are
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CLUTCH
In the first level model the clutch behavior is represented
by a curve (Figure 4), experimentally evaluated, that
links the throw-out bearing position to the transmissible
torque. This value of the computed torque is used as a
driving torque for the gearbox input shaft in case of
slipping clutch and as an upper threshold in case of
Figure 2 – Simplified continuous model relative to a clutch engaging or engaged clutch conditions.
disengaging, with indication of the torques acting on each subsystem.

In this situation subsystems 2 and 3 are considered

rigidly connected; hence they are evaluated by a unique
equivalent rotating inertia, that at the gearbox primary
shaft becomes:
J SS J SA
J DLeq J PS   (1)
W , W , ˜ W ,,
The equations of motion, in these conditions, are:
Tq Mot  Tq Clt J Mot ˜ TMot (2)
Figure 4 - Transmissibility curve of the clutch.
Tq Clt  Tq SA J DLeq ˜ T PS (3) The more detailed model of this mechanism involves
clutch torsional stiffness, damping and the axial
TqSA  TqRe s J [Link] ˜ TVeh (4) compliance of the clutch disk. Figure 5 presents the
AMESim® model in which all the mentioned
Tq SA k DL ˜ (T SA  T Veh )  E DL ˜ (TSA  TVeh ) (5) characteristics are implemented.

The transition between one model to another is realized

by the state machine logic that chooses the correct
driveline configuration.
A more detailed driveline model was implemented using
the commercial software AMESim®. It permits to
assemble complex models by linking different basic
blocks, corresponding to linear mass, rotary load, linear
and rotary stiffness, backlash, end-stop, clutch,
synchronizer and so on. Figure 3 presents the whole
model of driveline that can run in co-simulation with a 10
d.o.f. Simulink® model of vehicle dynamics [7].

®
Figure 5 – AMESim model of the clutch.

nd
Figure 3 – The 2 approximation driveline model.
SYNCHRONIZER
The single components of the two driveline models are The basic components of a synchronizer, shown in
shortly described in the following paragraphs. Figure 6, are a central body (2) fixed to the rotary shaft,
two rings (3), a sleeve (not visible in figure) that can
ENGINE slide axially on the central body, and three rollers (4)
The input torque for the transmission system is provided radially preloaded by cylindrical springs.
by the engine block, that computes its output value on
the basis of the feedback crankshaft rotating speed and
of the throttle valve opening, through a table, containing
the essential features of the considered motor.
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describing the interaction of all its internal components,

as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7 – The detailed synchronizer model.

On the top of Figure 7 the translational dynamics of the

Figure 6 – Internal components of a synchronizer and its assembling
on the primary shaft.
described components is described, while at the bottom
the rotational dynamics is presented: the two
During a gearshift the axial movement of the sleeve, subsystems are coupled by means of the chamfer to
imposed by the driver, is transmitted to one of the two chamfer interaction and of the frictional phenomena.
rings by means of the rollers that introduce an axial Using this detailed model it is possible to highlight the
force. So the two conic surfaces of the ring and of the influence of a single parameter of the synchronizer on
idle gear to be engaged (1) enter in contact and start to the driveline behavior. For example Figure 8 shows the
drag. The friction torque that arises between the two variation of the synchronizing torque upon the increase
parts in relative motion causes the rotation of the ring of the command force applied at the sleeve.
until it reaches an end-stop condition, imposed by the
fixed rotational clearance (C) between the ring itself and
the synchronizer body. In this configuration the teeth of
the sleeve and the ring can not engage because of their
relative position, so the contact between the teeth
chamfers of the two components produces a sort of self-
aligning torque that tries to center them. At the end of
the synchronization phase, when the velocity difference
is little enough, the self-aligning torque prevails on the
friction torque and the sleeve can conclude its axial
movement and engage both with the ring and the idle
gear.
In the 1st approximation model the synchronizers are
represented as conic clutches, so the transmitted torque
Tq Sync during a gear shift is computed as a function of
the axial force FGbGear on the sleeve, the friction Figure 8 – Command force on the sleeve influence on the
synchronizing time and the peak of torque increase (from 100 N (line 1)
coefficient P between the synchronizer ring and the to 600 N (line 6)).

gear, the mean radius Rm of the conic clutch and the

conicity angle D . This is a driven torque for the MODELS OF THE DIFFERENTIALS
secondary shaft if the angular speed of the synchronizer
PASSIVE SPEED SENSING (PSS)
TPS is grater than the rotary velocity of the selected gear
The Passive Speed Sensing (PSS), shown in Figure 9,
TPSref : this is the case of an up-shift. is a passive differential that intervenes only in presence
of a velocity difference between the input and the output
P ˜ FGbGear ˜ R m shafts. This is a sort of a multi-disk clutch characterized
Tq Sync ˜ sgn TPS  TPSref (6)
sin D by the presence of a high viscosity silicon fluid between
the disks; therefore the viscous friction is the real cause
In the AMESim® model of gearbox the complex of the torque transmission. By writing the viscous torque
dynamics of the synchronizers is implemented by and introducing its expression in the dynamic equilibrium
equations it is possible to obtain a mathematical model
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of this differential, whose inputs are the angular type of ASS differential can be used also as a passive
velocities of the two shafts, while the output is the component.
resisting torque on the transmission shaft and the torque
on the rear differential. The model is implemented in
Simulink® .

Figure 9 – PSS differential. The internal disks, opportunely shaped and

constrained, allow the fluid flow in the joint and its expansion due to the Figure 11 – Section of an ASS differential: input (6) and output (12)
increase of the temperature. shafts, multi-disk clutch, two pumping pistons (4) and working piston
(5) with their rollers (2 and 3). On the right are represented the
ACTIVE SPEED SENSING (ASS) pumping (on the top) and the actuator elements (on the bottom).

An hydraulically actuated Active Speed Sensing (ASS) TORQUE SENSING TYPE 1 (TS1) AND TYPE 2 (TS2)
differential (Figure 11) is modeled in AMESim®
considering in detail the interaction between the The TS1 (Figure 12) and TS2 (Figure 13) differentials,
hydraulic and the mechanical components, as Figure 9 using a purely mechanical system based on a low
shows. internal efficiency, guarantee a constant Torque Bias
Ratio as soon as a difference of velocity income.

Figure 12 – The components of a TS1 differential.

®
Figure 10 – The AMESim model of the ASS differential. In the top of
the figure there is a multi-disk clutch (the mechanical part of the
differential) that receives its axial command force from the hydraulic
system (at the bottom) through the working piston.

The mechanical system is substantially composed by a

multi-disk clutch acting between the input shaft (see
Figure 11 (6) ) and the output shaft (12). The axial force
that involves the transfer of a frictional torque between
the two shafts is strictly linked to the difference of Figure 13 – The components of a TS2 differential.
velocity between the two shafts and it is due to the
hydraulic system. In fact the system composed by a By writing the kinematic and dynamic equations for the
cam-disk (7) and many rollers (2) induces an axial internal elements of the differential it is possible to obtain
translation of two pistons (4) whenever a relative velocity the expression of the Locking Effect and of the Torque
arises between the two axles. A regulation valve Bias Ratio as a function of the geometrical
intercepts the flow rate created by the axial movement of constructional parameters and of the friction
the two pistons and allows an accurate regulation of characteristics. The models are implemented in
pressure in the actuator piston (5). It is important to Simulink® .
highlight that the presence of a pump and a valve is not
essential for the main target of the differential and so this
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TORQUE SENSING TYPE 3 (TS3) - F is the reaction force of the adjacent planet-gear,
The most relevant difference compared with the former - N is the force exchanged with the sun-gear,
TS1 and TS2 lies in the planet-gear geometry, as shown
- B is the constrains force due to differential-housing,
in Figure 14, thus modifying the way forces are
exchanged. - TT-H is the friction torque between planet teeth and
the housing,

- TF-H is the friction torque between planet face and

the housing,

- Ff is the friction force between sun and planet teeth

in the helix direction.
Dynamic balance for the right planet gear (see Figure
15) along the previously defined axis is determined by
the following equations:

¦F x 0 B1x  Fx  N1x  F1 f ˜ cos- 0 (7)

Figure 14 –TS3 differential gears. Eight planetary gears are visible,
each engaging both with a sun-gear and with another planet-gear.
¦F y 0  B1 y  Fy  N 1 y 0 (8)
The equations of the balance of forces and torques of
the internal components of this differential are here ¦F z 0  B1z  N 1z  F1 f sin -  Fz 0 (9)
reported.
The geometrical and friction parameters considered are: ¦M x 0

- the primitive planet and sun radius ( R1 , R3 ),  Fy  N1z  F1 f sin - ˜ R1  T1T  H  T1F  H 0 (10)

- the external planet radius ( Rbs ),

where
- the arm of the friction force acting on the planet-
­T1T  H P b B1z  B1 y Rbs
gear face (yz-plane) with respect to its longitudinal ® (11)
axis ( Rb ), ¯T1F  H P b B1x Rs
- the arm of the friction force acting on the sun-gear Balance equations for the sun gears
face (yz-plane) with respect to its longitudinal axis
( Rc ), It is also necessary to express the dynamic equilibrium
equations for the sun gears that allow to describe the
- the pressure angle ( D ), interaction with the relative planet-gears, the separation
plate and the differential housing.
- the helix angle of the teeth ( - ),
Figure 16 highlights the forces exchanged by the solar
- the friction coefficient between left sun-gear and gears; the symbols have the following meaning:
planet-gears teeth ( P1 ), - T1 , T2 are the torques at the output shafts,
- the friction coefficient between right sun-gear and - F3 is the axial force exchanged by the sun-gears,
planet-gears teeth ( P 2 ), - F4 is the axial force exchanged between right sun-
gear and the differential housing,
- the friction coefficient between planet and carter
( Pb ), - TP is the friction torque due to the interaction with
the separation plate,
- the friction coefficient between the planet face and - T2H is the friction torque between the right sun-gear
differential-housing ( P 4 ), and the differential housing.
- the friction coefficient between the two sun-gear The balance equations for the left sun-gear are:
faces ( P3 ). N1x  F1 f ˜ cos -  F3 0
¦F x 0 (12)
Balance equations for a planet gear
¦M x 0 R3 N 1z  F1 f sin T  Rc P 3 F3 T1 (13)
Figure 15 highlights the forces exchanged by the planet
gears, where
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Figure 15 – Forces acting on the planet gears. The x-axis is the longitudinal axis of the differential while the y and z axes are the transversal ones.

Figure 16 – Forces acting on the sun-gears.

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Equations (12) and (13) are obtained in the simplified COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT
case of only one planet gear, but in reality each of the DRIVELINE LAYOUTS
sun-gears engages with four planet-gears; so the
equations become: The models of different 4WD layouts are compared in a
4 N 1x  4 F1 f ˜ cos -  F3 0 (14) wide variety of extreme dynamic maneuvers, to evaluate
the peculiarities of each solution. This is the same
4 ˜ R3 N 1z  F1 f sin T  Rc P 3 F3 T1 (15) method followed by [6] for the case of 2WD vehicles.

The balance equations for the right sun-gear are:

¦F x 0  4 ˜ N 2 x  4 ˜ F2 f cos -  F3  F4 0 (16)

¦M x 0 4 ˜ R3 ˜ N 2 z  F2 f sin -  TP  T2 H 0 (17)

­TP P 3 F3 Rc
where ® (18)
¯T2 H P 4 F4 Rc

Torque Bias Ratio

By linking the output torques T1 and T2 to the normal

force exchanged by the gears and by expressing the
forces with their components, it is possible to highlight
the Torque Bias Ratio for a TS3 differential as a function Figure 17 – Schemes of some configurations of the driveline layouts
of its geometrical and frictional parameters, having the tested with the described models.
following expression:
Figure 17 presents the layouts of different solutions: a) is
the scheme of the transmission including an ASS
T1 N 1z A differential in the central location, b) is the scheme of the
(19)
T2 N 2 z B  N 1z C transmission including a PSS differential in the central
location, c) is the scheme of the transmission including
where an Open differential or a torque sensing differential (TBR
= 3) in central location, d) is the scheme of the
transmission including an Open differential together with
A R3  R3 P1 tan - / cos I  Rc P 3 tan -  P1 / cos I (20)
a PSS in central location.
In the vehicle model, mass and inertia variations due to
B R3  R 3 P 2 tan - / cos I  Rc P 4 tan -  P 2 / cos I (21) the different layouts are taken in consideration. The data
used in the vehicle model belong to a middle class
C Rc P 3 tan -  P1 / cos I  Rc P 4 tan -  P1 / cos I (22) sedan, characterized by a front engine and a front wheel
driven configuration in the standard version. Active
systems, like Anti-Slip Regulator (ASR) or Electronic
N 1z / N 2 z S1 S 3 S2 S4 (23)
Stability program (ESP) are not considered. The results
of the comparisons presented in Figures 18-25 have to
§ P tan - · § P · § tan I P 2 tan - · be considered indicative of the potential of simulation
S1 R1 ¨¨1  2 ¸  P s Rs ¨¨ tan -  2 ¸¸  P b Rbs ¨¨1   ¸
© cos I ¸¹ © cos I ¹ © cos - cos I ¸¹ analysis, and not an absolute index of evaluation for
(24) each driveline layout. In fact, it is sufficient to change
some of the tuning parameters of each configuration to
tan I § tan I · (25)
S2 R1  P b Rbs ¨1  ¸  P s Rs tan - obtain consistently different performances.
cos - © cos - ¹ As a consequence, the process of modifying and testing
tan I § tan I ·
that automotive manufacturers use to evaluate different
S3 R1  P b Rbs ¨  1¸  P s Rs tan - (26) solutions can be performed at the level of PC simulation,
cos - © cos - ¹ and not on the road, at least during the first step of the
design process. Figure 18 is relative to a simulated
tan - § P · § P tan - tan I · acceleration test in high adherence conditions: the figure
S4 R1  P1  P s Rs ¨¨ tan -  1 ¸¸  P b Rbs ¨¨1  1  ¸
cos I © cos I ¹ © cos I cos - ¸¹ plots the vehicle longitudinal speed at the end of the
maneuver, characterized by the same duration for all the
(27) driveline layouts. It is evident the increased performance
related to 4WD layouts compared to the Front Wheel
Drive layout and the Rear Wheel Drive layout.
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78
60
76
50
Velocity [km/h]

74
40

Velocity [km/h]
30 72

20 70

10 68

0 66
ar

TS
t

S
on

pe

64
PS
AS

PS
Re
Fr

n-
pe

ar

TS
n
t

S
S

S
on

pe
O

PS
AS

PS
Re
Fr

n-
Figure 18 – Acceleration test in high adherence conditions: longitudinal

pe
O
speed values at the end of the maneuvers for different driveline
layouts.
Figure 20 – Acceleration test in split-P conditions: longitudinal speed
The same test, performed in low adherence conditions values at the end of the maneuvers for different driveline layouts.
(Figure 19), does not put in evidence consistent
differences between the 4WD layouts, characterized by
better performances than the 2WD vehicles. Especially
in high adherence conditions, Torque Sensing
differential seems to guarantee a more uniform
distribution of tires longitudinal slips between the two
axles, due to the very small delays in actuation even for
low values of the relative speed between the two axles.
This advantage of TS over ASS and PSS differentials is
more evident in high adherence conditions, when the
relative speed between the two axles is really limited.

60

50
Velocity [Km/h]

40

30
Figure 21 – Acceleration test in split-P conditions: body yaw
20 acceleration versus time.

10 76

0 74
72
ar

TS
t

Velocity [km/h]
S

S
on

pe

70
PS
AS

PS
Re
Fr

n-

68
pe
O

66
64
Figure 19 – Results for the same test of Figure 18, in low adherence
conditions. 62
60
The same maneuver in split-P conditions (Figure 20)
gives origin to critical results for the rear wheel driven 58
vehicle, not only in terms of longitudinal velocity, but also
r
t

nt

r
on

ea

of body yaw acceleration.

fro

re
Fr

3
3

The same split-P test is driven (Figures 21 and 22) for

TS
TS

2WD vehicles equipped with TS3 differentials (TBR =

2.07) on the driven axle. Figure 22 – Acceleration test in split-P conditions: longitudinal speed
values at the end of the maneuvers for different driveline layouts (2WD
vehicles).
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TS3 Front differential has the best performance from the ASS differential, having a control algorithm capable of
point of view of longitudinal speed; also yaw acceleration taking in account also lateral dynamics. In conclusion
should be controllable for a skilled driver. TS3 differential torque sensing differentials, used as central differentials,
on the rear axle determines an excessive level of body seem to be the best solution to solve traction problems,
yaw acceleration, provoking a dangerous oversteer. At whereas ASS differentials seem to be the best
the moment, car manufacturers prefer to obtain the compromise between longitudinal and lateral dynamics.
same results without using a self-locking differential on
the driven axle, but adopting an ESP unit acting on
10
brakes. In most cases, self-locking differentials are used
to distribute the torque between the axles, and are 8
mounted in the central location.
6

[°]
2

-2

S
n

S
S

2
nt

pe

TS
PS

PS
AS
o
Fr

n-
-4

pe
O
-6

Figure 25 – Extreme double step steer maneuver: maximum and

minimum body sideslip angle values for different driveline layouts.

CONCLUSIONS

Simulation appears to be an useful help to evaluate the

Figure 23 – Extreme step steer maneuver with gas release: body
sideslip angle versus time for different driveline layouts. performances of different Four-Wheel-Drive systems
layouts in terms of vehicle dynamics. The models
presented in the paper, especially those related to the
TS3 differential, should permit the definition of the
design criteria of these components.

REFERENCES

1. O. Garcia, K. Kargar, ‘Simulation Tool for

Transmission and Driveline Systems Design’,
SAE paper 2000-01-0832;

2. D. Danesin, P. Krief, E. Suraci, M. Velardocchia,

E. Brusa, ‘Modelling Vehicle Dynamics for
Virtual Experimentation, Road Tests Supporting
and Dynamic Control’, SAE Technical Series,
2002-01-0815;

3. S. Shih, W. Bowermann, ‘An Evaluation of

Figure 24 – Extreme double step steer maneuver with wide open Torque Bias and Efficiency of Torsen
throttle: body sideslip angle versus time for different driveline layouts. Differential’, SAE Technical Series, 2002-01-
1046;
Figures 23-25 are a comparison of the different driveline
layouts from the point of view of lateral dynamics, during 4. Morgando, A. Sorniotti, M. Velardocchia, D.
a single and a double step steer in wide open throttle Danesin, C. Girardin, ‘Influence of Driveline
conditions, to excite oversteer. In this kind of Design Parameters on Vehicle Behaviour’, SAE
maneuvers, it is fundamental to limit body sideslip angle paper 2004-01-0860;
values, in order to avoid an uncontrollable vehicle
dynamics. Figure 25 shows the minimum and the 5. T. Gassmann, J. Barlage, ’VISCO-LOCK: a
maximum value of body sideslip angle during the double Speed Sensing Limited-Slip Device with High
step steer for the different driveline layouts. The front Torque Progressive Engagement’, SAE
wheel driven car seems to be the most stable, Technical Series, 970684;
immediately followed by the 4WD equipped with the an
 Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to you by the University of Kansas (Technical reports: 1998 to Present), Sunday, August 26, 2018

6. H. Huchtkoetter, H. Klein, ‘The Effect of Various

Limited-Slip Differentials in Front Wheel Drive CONTACT
Vehicles on Handling and Traction’, SAE paper
960717. [Link]@[Link]

7. N. D’Alfio, A. Morgando, A. Sorniotti, M. [Link]@[Link]

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Control System Performance’, SAE paper 2005-
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