Egypt is a country in North Africa, on
the Mediterranean Sea, and is home to one of the oldest
civilizations on earth. The name 'Egypt' comes from
the Greek Aegyptos which was the Greek pronunciation of
the Ancient Egyptian name 'Hwt-Ka-Ptah' ("Mansion of the Spirit
of Ptah"), originally the name of the city of Memphis.
Memphis was the first capital of Egypt and a famous religious
and trade center; its high status is attested to by the Greeks
alluding to the entire country by that name. To the ancient
Egyptians themselves, their country was simply known
as Kemet, which means 'Black Land', so named for the rich, dark
soil along the Nile River where the first settlements began. Later,
the country was known as Misr which means 'country', a name still
in use by Egyptians for their nation in the present day. Egypt
thrived for thousands of years (from c. 8000 BCE to c. 30 BCE) as
an independent nation whose culture was famous for great
cultural advances in every area of human knowledge, from the arts
to science to technology and religion. The great monuments
which ancient Egypt is still celebrated for reflect the depth and
grandeur of Egyptian culture which influenced so many ancient
civilizations, among them Greece and Rome.
One of the reasons for the enduring popularity
of Egyptian culture is its emphasis on the grandeur of the human
experience. Their great monuments, tombs, temples, and artwork
all celebrate life and stand as reminders of what once was and
what human beings, at their best, are capable of achieving.
Although ancient Egypt in popular culture is often associated
with death and mortuary rites, something even in these speaks to
people across the ages of what it means to be a human being and
the power and purpose of remembrance.
THE WRITTEN HISTORY OF EGYPT
BEGINS BETWEEN 3400 AND 3200 BCE
WHEN HIEROGLYPHIC SCRIPT IS
DEVELOPED BY THE NAQADA CULTURE
III.
To the Egyptians, life on earth was only one aspect of an eternal
journey. The soul was immortal and was only inhabiting a body on
this physical plane for a short time. At death, one would meet with
judgment in the Hall of Truth and, if justified, would move on to an
eternal paradise known as The Field of Reeds which was a mirror
image of one's life on earth. Once one had reached paradise one
could live peacefully in the company of those one had loved while
on earth, including one's pets, in the same neighborhood by the
same stream, beneath the very same trees one thought had been
lost at death. This eternal life, however, was only available to those
who had lived well and in accordance with the will of the gods in
the most perfect place conducive to such a goal: the land of Egypt.
Egypt has a long history which goes back far beyond the
written word, the stories of the gods, or the monuments which have
made the culture famous. Evidence of overgrazing of cattle, on the
land which is now the Sahara Desert, has been dated to about 8000
BCE. This evidence, along with artifacts discovered, points to a
thriving agricultural civilization in the region at that time. As the
land was mostly arid even then, hunter-gatherer nomads sought the
cool of the water source of the Nile River Valley and began to settle
there sometime prior to 6000 BCE.
Naqada II pottery
Guillaume Blanchard (CC BY-SA)
Organized farming began in the region c. 6000 BCE and
communities known as the Badarian Culture began to flourish
alongside the river. Industry developed at about this same time as
evidenced by faience workshops discovered at Abydos dating to c.
5500 BCE. The Badarian were followed by the Amratian, the
Gerzean, and the Naqada cultures (also known as Naqada I,
Naqada II, and Naqada III), all of which contributed significantly to
the development of what became Egyptian civilization. The written
history of the land begins at some point between 3400 and 3200
BCE when hieroglyphic script is developed by the Naqada Culture
III. By 3500 BCE mummification of the dead was in practice at the
city of Hierakonpolis and large stone tombs built at Abydos. The
city of Xois is recorded as being already ancient by 3100-2181 BCE
as inscribed on the famous Palermo Stone. As in other cultures
worldwide, the small agrarian communities became centralized and
grew into larger urban centers.
Early History of Egypt
The Early Dynastic Period in Egypt (c. 3150 - c. 2613 BCE) saw
the unification of the north and south kingdoms under the
king Menes (also known as Meni or Manes) of Upper Egypt who
conquered Lower Egypt in c. 3118 BCE or c. 3150 BCE. This
version of the early history comes from the Aegyptica (History of
Egypt) by the ancient historian Manetho who lived in the 3rd
century BCE under the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE).
Although his chronology has been disputed by later historians, it is
still regularly consulted on dynastic succession and the early
history of ancient Egypt.
Narmer Palette [Two Sides]
Unknown Artist (Public Domain)
Manetho's work is the only source which cites Menes and
the conquest, and it is now thought that the man referred to by
Manetho as 'Menes' was the king Narmer who peacefully united
Upper and Lower Egypt under one rule. Identification of Menes
with Narmer is far from universally accepted, however, and Menes
has been as credibly linked to the king Hor-Aha (c. 3100-3050 BCE)
who succeeded him. An explanation for Menes' association with his
predecessor and successor is that 'Menes' is an honorific title
meaning "he who endures" and not a personal name and so could
have been used to refer to more than one king. The claim that the
land was unified by military campaign is also disputed as the
famous Narmer Palette, depicting a military victory, is considered
by some scholars to be royal propaganda. The country may have
first been united peacefully, but this seems unlikely.
Geographical designation in ancient Egypt follows the direction of
the Nile River and so Upper Egypt is the southern region and
Lower Egypt the northern area closer to the Mediterranean Sea.
Narmer ruled from the city of Heirakonopolis and then from
Memphis and Abydos. Trade increased significantly under the
rulers of the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt and elaborate
mastaba tombs, precursors to the later pyramids, developed
in Egyptian burial practices which included increasingly elaborate
mummification techniques.
The Gods
From the Predynastic Period in Egypt (c. 6000 - c. 3150 BCE) a
belief in the gods defined the Egyptian culture. An early Egyptian
creation myth tells of the god Atum who stood in the midst of
swirling chaos before the beginning of time and spoke creation into
existence. Atum was accompanied by the eternal force
of heka (magic), personified in the god Heka and by other spiritual
forces which would animate the world. Heka was the primal force
which infused the universe and caused all things to operate as they
did; it also allowed for the central value of the Egyptian
culture: ma'at, harmony and balance.
All of the gods and all of their responsibilities went back
to ma'at and heka. The sun rose and set as it did and the moon
traveled its course across the sky and the seasons came and went
in accordance with balance and order which was possible because
of these two agencies. Ma'at was also personified as a deity, the
goddess of the ostrich feather, to whom every king promised his
full abilities and devotion. The king was associated with the
god Horus in life and Osiris in death based upon a myth which
became the most popular in Egyptian history.
Egyptian God Osiris
A.K. (Copyright)
Osiris and his sister-wife Isis were the original monarchs who
governed the world and gave the people the gifts of civilization.
Osiris' brother, Set, grew jealous of him and murdered him but he
was brought back to life by Isis who then bore his son Horus. Osiris
was incomplete, however, and so descended to rule the underworld
while Horus, once he had matured, avenged his father and defeated
Set. This myth illustrated how order triumphed over chaos and
would become a persistent motif in Egyptian religion, mortuary
rituals, and religious texts, and art. There was no period in which
the gods did not play an integral role in the daily lives of the
Egyptians and this is clearly seen from the earliest times in the
country's history.
The Old Kingdom
During the period known as the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2613-
2181 BCE), architecture honoring the gods developed at an
increased rate and some of the most famous monuments in Egypt,
such as the pyramids and the Great Sphinx of Giza, were
constructed. The king Djoser, who reigned c. 2670 BCE, built the
first Step Pyramid at Saqqara c. 2670, designed by his chief
architect and physician Imhotep (c. 2667-2600 BCE) who also
wrote one of the first medical texts describing the treatment of
over 200 different diseases and arguing that the cause of disease
could be natural, not the will of the gods. The Great Pyramid of
Khufu (last of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world) was
constructed during his reign (2589-2566 BCE) with the pyramids of
Khafre (2558-2532 BCE) and Menkaure (2532-2503 BCE) following.
The Pyramids, Giza, Egypt
Shellapic76 (CC BY)
The grandeur of the pyramids on the Giza plateau, as they
originally would have appeared, sheathed in gleaming white
limestone, is a testament to the power and wealth of the rulers
during this period. Many theories abound regarding how these
monuments and tombs were constructed, but modern architects
and scholars are far from agreement on any single one.
Considering the technology of the day, some have argued, a
monument such as the Great Pyramid of Giza should not exist.
Others claim, however, that the existence of such buildings and
tombs suggest superior technology which has been lost to time.
There is absolutely no evidence that the monuments of the Giza
plateau - or any others in Egypt - were built by slave labor nor is
there any evidence to support a historical reading of the biblical
Book of Exodus. Most reputable scholars today reject the claim that
the pyramids and other monuments were built by slave labor,
although slaves of different nationalities certainly did exist in Egypt
and were employed regularly in the mines. Egyptian monuments
were considered public works created for the state and used both
skilled and unskilled Egyptian workers in construction, all of whom
were paid for their labor. Workers at the Giza site, which was only
one of many, were given a ration of beer three times a day and
their housing, tools, and even their level of health care have all
been clearly established.
The First Intermediate Period & the Hyksos
The era known as the First Intermediate Period of Egypt (2181-
2040 BCE) saw a decline in the power of the central government
following its collapse. Largely independent districts with their own
governors developed throughout Egypt until two great centers
emerged: Hierakonpolis in Lower Egypt and Thebes in Upper
Egypt. These centers founded their own dynasties which ruled their
regions independently and intermittently fought with each other for
supreme control until c. 2040 BCE when the Theban king
Mentuhotep II (c. 2061-2010 BCE) defeated the forces of
Hierakonpolis and united Egypt under the rule of Thebes.
THE MIDDLE KINGDOM OF EGYPT IS
CONSIDERED ITS 'CLASSICAL AGE'
WHEN ART & CULTURE REACHED GREAT
HEIGHTS & THEBES BECAME THE MOST
IMPORTANT & WEALTHIEST CITY.
The stability provided by Theban rule allowed for the flourishing of
what is known as the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE). The
Middle Kingdom is considered Egypt's 'Classical Age' when art and
culture reached great heights and Thebes became the most
important and wealthiest city in the country. According to the
historians Oakes and Gahlin, "the Twelfth Dynasty kings were
strong rulers who established control not only over the whole of
Egypt but also over Nubia to the south, where several fortresses
were built to protect Egyptian trading interests" (11). The first
standing army was created during the Middle Kingdom by the king
Amenemhat I (c. 1991-1962 BCE) the temple of Karnak was
begun under Senruset I (c. 1971-1926 BCE), and some of the
greatest and Egyptian literature and art was produced. The 13th
Dynasty, however, was weaker than the 12th and distracted by
internal problems which allowed for a foreign people known as the
Hyksos to gain power in Lower Egypt around the Nile Delta.
The Hyksos are a mysterious people, most likely from the area
of Syria/Palestine, who first appeared in Egypt c. 1800 and settled
in the town of Avaris. While the names of the Hyksos kings are
Semitic in origin, no definite ethnicity has been established for
them. The Hyksos grew in power until they were able to take
control of a significant portion of Lower Egypt by c. 1720 BCE,
rendering the Theban Dynasty of Upper Egypt almost a vassal
state.
Map of Ancient Egypt
Tina Ross (Copyright)
This era is known as The Second Intermediate Period of
Egypt (c. 1782 - c. 1570 BCE). While the Hyksos (whose name
simply means 'foreign rulers') were hated by the Egyptians, they
introduced a great many improvements to the culture such as the
composite bow, the horse, and the chariot along with crop rotation
and developments in bronze and ceramic works. At the same time
the Hyksos controlled the ports of Lower Egypt, by 1700 BCE the
Kingdom of Kush had risen to the south of Thebes in Nubia and
now held that border. The Egyptians mounted a number of
campaigns to drive the Hyksos out and subdue the Nubians, but all
failed until prince Ahmose I of Thebes (c. 1570-1544 BCE)
succeeded and unified the country under Theban rule.
The New Kingdom & the Amarna Period
Ahmose I initiated what is known as the period of the New
Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1570 - c. 1069 BCE) which again saw great
prosperity in the land under a strong central government. The title
of pharaoh for the ruler of Egypt comes from the period of the
New Kingdom; earlier monarchs were simply known as kings. Many
of the Egyptian sovereigns best known today ruled during this
period and the majority of the great structures of Egyptian
architecture such as the Ramesseum, Abu Simbel, the temples of
Karnak and Luxor, and the tombs of the Valley of the Kings and
Valley of the Queens were either created or greatly enhanced
during this time.
Between 1504-1492 BCE the pharaoh Thutmose I (Tuthmosis I)
consolidated his power and expanded the boundaries of Egypt to
the Euphrates River in the north, Syria and Palestine to the west,
and Nubia to the south. His reign was followed by
Queen Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE) who greatly expanded trade
with other nations, most notably the Land of Punt. Her 22-year
reign was one of peace and prosperity for Egypt.
Portrait of Queen Hatshepsut
Rob Koopman (CC BY-SA)
Her successor, Thutmose III (Tuthmosis III), carried on her
policies (although he tried to eradicate all memory of her as, it is
thought, he did not want her to serve as a role model for
other women since only males were considered worthy to rule)
and, by the time of his death in 1425 BCE, Egypt was a great and
powerful nation. The prosperity led to, among other things, an
increase in the brewing of beer in many different varieties and
more leisure time for sports. Advances in medicine led to
improvements in health.
Bathing had long been an important part of the daily Egyptian's
regimen as it was encouraged by their religion and modeled by
their clergy. At this time, however, more elaborate baths were
produced, presumably more for leisure than simply hygiene. The
Kahun Gynecological Papyrus, concerning women's health and
contraceptives, had been written c. 1800 BCE and, during this
period, seems to have been made extensive use of by doctors.
Surgery and dentistry were both practiced widely and with great
skill, and beer was prescribed by physicians for ease of symptoms
of over 200 different maladies.
Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus
Francis Llewellyn Griffith (Public Domain)
In 1353 BCE the pharaoh Amenhotep IV succeeded to the throne
and, shortly after, changed his name to Akhenaten (`living spirit
of Aten') to reflect his belief in a single god, Aten. The Egyptians, as
noted above, traditionally believed in many gods whose importance
influenced every aspect of their daily lives. Among the most
popular of these deities were Amun, Osiris, Isis, and Hathor. The
cult of Amun, at this time, had grown so wealthy that the priests
were almost as powerful as the pharaoh. Akhenaten and his
queen, Nefertiti, renounced the traditional religious beliefs and
customs of Egypt and instituted a new religion based upon the
recognition of one god.
AKHENATEN WAS THE FIRST RULER TO
DECREE STATUARY & A TEMPLE IN
HONOR OF HIS QUEEN INSTEAD OF
ONLY FOR HIMSELF OR THE GODS.
His religious reforms effectively cut the power of the priests of
Amun and placed it in his hands. He moved the capital from Thebes
to Amarna to further distance his rule from that of his
predecessors. This is known as The Amarna Period (1353-1336
BCE) during which Amarna grew as the capital of the country and
polytheistic religious customs were banned.
Among his many accomplishments, Akhenaten was the first ruler to
decree statuary and a temple in honor of his queen instead of only
for himself or the gods and used the money which once went to the
temples for public works and parks. The power of the clergy
declined sharply as that of the central government grew, which
seemed to be Akhenaten's goal, but he failed to use his power for
the best interest of his people. The Amarna Letters make clear
that he was more concerned with his religious reforms than with
foreign policy or the needs of the people of Egypt.
His reign was followed by his son, the most recognizable Egyptian
ruler in the modern day, Tutankhamun, who reigned from c. 1336
- c. 1327 BCE. He was originally named Tutankhaten to reflect the
religious beliefs of his father but, upon assuming the throne,
changed his name to Tutankhamun to honor the ancient god Amun.
He restored the ancient temples, removed all references to his
father's single deity, and returned the capital to Thebes. His reign
was cut short by his death and, today, he is most famous for the
intact grandeur of his tomb, discovered in 1922 CE, which became
an international sensation at the time.
Death Mask of Tutankhamun
Richard IJzermans (CC BY-NC-SA)
The greatest ruler of the New Kingdom, however, was Ramesses
II (also known as Ramesses the Great, 1279-1213 BCE) who
commenced the most elaborate building projects of any Egyptian
ruler and who reigned so efficiently that he had the means to do so.
Although the famous Battle of Kadesh of 1274 BCE (between
Ramesses II of Egypt and Muwatalli II of the Hittites) is today
regarded as a draw, Ramesses considered it a great Egyptian
victory and celebrated himself as a champion of the people, and
finally as a god, in his many public works.
His temple of Abu Simbel (built for his queen Nefertari) depicts the
battle of Kadesh and the smaller temple at the site, following
Akhenaten's example, is dedicated to Ramesses' favorite queen
Nefertari. Under the reign of Ramesses II, the first peace treaty in
the world (The Treaty of Kadesh) was signed in 1258 BCE and
Egypt enjoyed almost unprecedented affluence as evidenced by the
number of monuments built or restored during his reign.
Ramesses II's fourth son, Khaemweset (c. 1281 - c. 1225 BCE), is
known as the "First Egyptologist" for his efforts in preserving and
recording old monuments, temples, and their original owner's
names. It is largely due to Khaemweset's initiative that Ramesses
II's name is so prominent at so many ancient sites in Egypt.
Khaemweset left a record of his own efforts, the original
builder/owner of the monument or temple, and his father's name as
well.
Abu Simbel Panorama
Dennis Jarvis (CC BY-SA)
Ramesses II became known to later generations as 'The Great
Ancestor' and reigned for so long that he outlived most of his
children and his wives. In time, all of his subjects had been born
knowing only Ramesses II as their ruler and had no memory of
another. He enjoyed an exceptionally long life of 96 years, over
double the average lifespan of an ancient Egyptian. Upon his death,
it is recorded that many feared the end of the world had come as
they had known no other pharaoh and no other kind of Egypt.
The Decline of Egypt & the Coming
of Alexander the Great
One of his successors, Ramesses III (1186-1155 BCE), followed his
policies but, by this time, Egypt's great wealth had attracted the
attention of the Sea Peoples who began to make regular
incursions along the coast. The Sea Peoples, like the Hyksos, are of
unknown origin but are thought to have come from the
southern Aegean area. Between 1276-1178 BCE the Sea Peoples
were a threat to Egyptian security. Ramesses II had defeated them
in a naval battle early in his reign as had his successor Merenptah
(1213-1203 BCE). After Merenptah's death, however, they
increased their efforts, sacking Kadesh, which was then under
Egyptian control, and ravaging the coast. Between 1180-1178 BCE
Ramesses III fought them off, finally defeating them at the Battle of
Xois in 1178 BCE.
Following the reign of Ramesses III, his successors attempted to
maintain his policies but increasingly met with resistance from the
people of Egypt, those in the conquered territories, and, especially,
the priestly class. In the years after Tutankhamun had restored the
old religion of Amun, and especially during the great time of
prosperity under Ramesses II, the priests of Amun had acquired
large tracts of land and amassed great wealth which now
threatened the central government and disrupted the unity of
Egypt. By the time of Ramesses XI (1107-1077 BCE), the end of the
20th Dynasty, the Egyptian government had become so
weakened by the power and corruption of the clergy that the
country again fractured and central administration collapsed,
initiating the so-called Third Intermediate Period of Egypt c.
1069-525 BCE.
Map of the Third Intermediate Period
Jeff Dahl (CC BY-SA)
Under the Kushite King Piye (752-722 BCE), Egypt was again
unified and the culture flourished, but beginning in 671 BCE, the
Assyrians under Esarhaddon began their invasion of Egypt,
conquering it by 666 BCE under his successor Ashurbanipal.
Having made no long-term plans for control of the country, the
Assyrians left it in ruin in the hands of local rulers and abandoned
Egypt to its fate. Egypt rebuilt and refortified, however, and this is
the state the country was in when Cambyses II of Persia struck at
the Battle of Pelusium in 525 BCE. Knowing the reverence the
Egyptians held for cats (who were thought living representations of
the popular goddess Bastet), Cambyses II ordered his men to paint
cats on their shields and to drive cats, and other animals sacred to
the Egyptians, in front of the army toward Pelusium. The Egyptian
forces surrendered and the country fell to the Persians. It would
remain under Persian occupation until the coming
of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE.
Alexander was welcomed as a liberator and conquered Egypt
without a fight. He established the city of Alexandria and moved
on to conquer Phoenicia and the rest of the Persian Empire.
After his death in 323 BCE his general, Ptolemy I Soter, brought
his body back to Alexandria and founded the Ptolemaic Dynasty
(323-30 BCE). The last of the Ptolemies was Cleopatra VII who
committed suicide in 30 BCE after the defeat of her forces (and
those of her consort Mark Antony) by the Romans
under Octavian Caesar at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE). Egypt
then became a province of the Roman Empire (30 BCE-476 CE)
then of the Byzantine Empire (c. 527-646 CE) until it was
conquered by the Arab Muslims under Caliph Umar in 646 CE and
fell under Islamic rule.
Artist's Depiction of an Excavation in Egypt
Mohawk Games (Copyright)
The glory of Egypt's past, however, was rediscovered during the
18th and 19th centuries CE and has had a profound impact on the
present-day's understanding of ancient history and the world.
Historian Will Durant expresses a sentiment felt by many:
The effect or remembrance of what Egypt accomplished at the
very dawn of history has influence in every nation and every
age. 'It is even possible', as Faure has said, 'that Egypt, through
the solidarity, the unity, and the disciplined variety of its artistic
products, through the enormous duration and the sustained
power of its effort, offers the spectacle of the greatest civilization
that has yet appeared on the earth.' We shall do well to equal it.
(217)
