AGSSL 4: EPLORE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT PRODUCTION

AGSSL 4.1 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL IN PLANT

REPRODUCION
AGSSL 4.1.1 Discuss pollination in plants
AGSSL 4.1.2 Discuss the process of fertilization in plants
AGSSL 4.1.3 Describe plant propagation
AGSSL 4.1.4 Discuss methods of propagation in plant production
POLLINATION
• Transfer of the pollen from anther to the stigma.
Types of Pollination
i. Self pollination: occurs when pollen from the same flower falls on the
stigma of the same flower. Sometimes it can be pollen from the same plant
falling on the female flower on the same flower.
ii. Cross pollination: the transfer of pollen from the anthers of one flower to
the stigma of another flower of the same species. In cross pollination pollen
is usually transferred on the bodies of the insects entering the flowers or by
chance wind carrying the pollen from one flower to the next.
Mechanisms of Pollination
Insect Pollination Mechanisms
This mechanism involves insect (bee) visiting a flower for pollen and nectar,
becoming dusted with pollen from the ripe stamens and then some of the pollen
on its body adheres to the stigma of that flower or a different flower (same
species).
Wind Pollination Mechanism
When the flowers are mature, the filaments in the male flowers elongate so that
the anthers hang outside the bracts. The pollen sacs split open and pollen is
carried away in air-currents, some of it becoming trapped on the feathery style of
the female flowers. In maize plants the anthers ripen before the styles are
receptive, hence pollination is unlikely to occur between the flowers of the same
plant, while cross pollination between neighbouring plants is favoured.
Comparison between wind and insect pollinated flowers
Wind pollinated Insect pollinated
Flowers are small Large flowers/ inflorescence
Petals often green Petals brightly coloured
Anthers large and loosely attached to Anthers are not large and firmly
flexible filament so that slightest air attached to the filament and are in a
current can easily shake them. position within the petals where
insects are likely to brush against
them.
Stigma and anthers hang outside the Stigma and anthers are partly enclosed
flowers, so that they are exposed to air so that can only be reached by insects
currents. in search of nectar and pollen.
Feathery style and stigma hanging Flat, lobed, sticky stigmas inside the
outside the flower. flower.
Large quantities of pollen grains Small quantities of pollen grains
produced by the anthers. produced.
Pollen grains are smaller, smooth and Pollen grains are large, rough and
light so that is easily carried by air sticky so that are not easily blown by
currents.
 wind but can easily stick to insects’
body.
No nectar and scent Presence of nectar and scent to attract
insects

FERTILIZATION
• Fertilization is the fusion of the male and female cells or gamete to form
the zygote. In plants the male pollen grains fuse with the female ovules.
The zygote divides many times to form the embryo. Once pollination has
occurred the pollen grains absorbs nutrients from the stigma and begin to
swell up; the nucleus of the pollen divides into two; the pollen tube and
reproductive nucleus. They later give rise to two male gametes or pollen
grains. Each pollen grain develops a pollen tube which grows through the
style towards the ovary and when it reaches the ovary it enters in the small
opening called micropyle to reach the ovule. At this stage the pollen tube
bursts and pollen tube nucleus degenerates (disappear or fall over). The
two male gamete pass into the embryo sac and one of them fuses with the
ovum to produce the zygote which divides to form the embryo. The other
fuses with the secondary nucleus to form the endosperm, which serves as
food reserve in some seeds e.g. maize. In other seeds e.g. groundnuts, the
endosperm is used up before the seed is fully formed.
Fertilization in a Bean Flower
A bean flower is insect pollinated. After pollen grains have reached the stigma
and absorbed nutrients from the stigma they grow a root like structure known as
the pollen tube. This tube grows down through the style of the ovary. On reaching
the ovary it grows to one of the ovules and enters it through a hole known as the
micropyle. The tip of the pollen tube breaks open in the ovule and the male
nucleus fuses with the female nucleus there and hence a zygote is formed.

Diagram of Fertilization
Fruit and Seed Formation
After fertilization, the petals, stamen, style and stigma wither and fall off. The
ovule develops to form a seed. In this process the embryo enlarges, forming the
embryo shoot or plumule, and embryo root or radical. In the seeds of
monocotyledons the embryo gives rise to a single seed leaf or cotyledon, while
in dicotyledons, two cotyledons are formed. As seeds mature, the ovary swells to
accommodate them, forming a fruit. In the case of beans, this is a long pod called
legume.
Diagram of a Seed Structure of a Bean

PLANT PROPAGATION
Propagation is the process of increasing the number of plants of a particular
species or cultivar. There are two primary forms of plant propagation; sexual and
asexual. In nature, propagation of plants most often involves sexual reproduction
or the production of a viable seed. Therefore, sexual propagation is the
reproduction of plants by seeds. The genetic material of two parents is combined
by pollination and fertilization to create offspring that are different from each
parent.
Sexual reproduction is union of the pollen and egg, drawing from the genes of the
two parents to create a new, third individual. Sexual propagation involves the
floral parts of a plant.
Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of
gametes. Asexual propagation involves taking a part of one parent plant and
causing it to regenerate itself into a new plant. The resulting new plant is
genetically identical to its parent.

Asexual Reproduction
• The production of new plants from the vegetative parts of a parent plant
without fusing of male and female.
Advantages of Asexual Reproduction
• Each of the vegetative parts is capable of developing into a new plant.
• The vegetative parts are hardier than seedlings; they often have food
reserve to help them become established.
• Plant material is readily available to the farmer.
Types of Asexual Reproduction/ Vegetative Propagation
a. Natural Vegetative Propagation: this is whereby plants produce new
growth and form new plants from naturally. These new plants can later be
transplanted to new areas to increase the population of plants.
b. Artificial Vegetative Propagation: it is propagation of plants by means
of organs not designed for that purpose and the farmer is responsible for
establishing the new growth.
Vegetative parts that can be used:
Stem cuttings, Root cuttings, Leaf cuttings, Vegetative buds, Plant cells, Plant
tissues, Twigs/ Shoots as in grafting, Storage organs such as Sucker (banana),
Bulb (onion), Corm (cocoyam), Rhizome (ginger), Root tuber (sweet potato),
Stem tuber (Irish potatoes).
Sexual propagation- The production of new plants from seeds.
Asexual propagation- The production of new plants from vegetative parts of a
plant
Comparison between sexual and asexual propagation
Sexual propagation Asexual propagation
• Uses seeds • Uses vegetative parts
• New plants not identical to • New plants identical to parents
parents
• Quicker to raise a larger • Difficult to raise a large number
population
• Plants not affected by similar • Affected by similar pest/disease
pest/disease to parents to parent plants
• There is genetic variation in • No genetic variation in plants
plants
• Less chances of survival due to • Better chances of survival due
limited food stored in seed to more food stored in
vegetative part

Methods of artificial vegetative propagation

i. Cutting
ii. Budding
iii. Grafting
iv. Layering
v. Suckering
1. Budding
It is when uniting a vegetative bud to a seedling or mature plant.
A bud is carefully removed from one plant and inserted on the root stock of
another plant of the same species. It is commonly done in young citrus trees of
around one to two years. This enables good varieties of fruit to be budded onto
strong resistant root stock to produce a healthy strong growing tree which gives
desirable fruits.
During the process of budding, a T- shaped cut is made in the bark of a root stock
and a bud is cut into a shield shape. The bud is then carefully inserted into the T-
shaped cut. The binding tape is tightened around the bud to keep it in position but
not covering the whole bud.
The objective of budding is to get the cambium of the bud to touch the cambium
of the root stock so that a union is obtained.
Steps in budding

o a well developed vegetative bud is cut from a desired plant using a

budding knife
o the bud should have the bark with the xylem
o a t-shaped cut is made in the root stock bark about 10-20 cm from stem
base
o the bud is inserted in the t-shaped cut made
o the bud is tied using a budding tape to unite cambiums of the bud and
root stock
o the budding tape prevents excess water loss and also entry of water in
the union
o wax can be applied over the budding tape to prevent pathogen entry and
excess water loss
o after 21 day when the bud sprouts new shoots the top part is cut off and
the budding tape removed
o This method is used in citrus plants e.g. oranges, lemons

Illustration of budding

2. Grafting
Grafting involves the uniting of two cambium layers to get a fusion of growth
giving a plant with the good qualities of two different parents.
Grafting is done with two matched sections of stem. These are usually the same
type of tree and of the same thickness so as to match. The cuts are made on the
slant. A protective wax is used to cover the joint to prevent it from rooting.
Examples of plants propagated by grafting are citrus trees, tea etc.

Steps in grafting
o select desired plants of the same diameter probably vigorously growing
plant
o make a clean slanting cut on both the scion and the rootstock
o join the scion (shoot system) and the rootstock (root system) bind the
graft union with a grafting tape to prevent excess water loss and also
entry of water in the union
o apply wax over the graft union to prevent pathogen entry and excess
water loss or entry
o stake / support the plant to avoid lodging and for successful union
o after sprouting of the shoot remove the grafting tape
o used in citrus plants (oranges and lemons etc.) and in tea

Illustration of grafting

3. Cutting
4. Layering
Layering is a form of vegetative propagation where cuttings are made to form
adventitious roots while the cutting is still attached to the mother plant. The
plants are induced to produce roots when the stem part is buried in a medium
which is kept moist. The wounding of the stem part that is buried exposes the
stem cambium which give rise to roots. Once roots are formed the new plant
(layer) can be dug and transplanted to the desired location.
Layering methods:
The five basic types of layering are :
Tip layering, Simple layering, Compound (serpentine), Mound (stool), and Air
layering
How to do simple layering.
➢ Select a healthy , flexible and sufficiently long (50-60cm) branch towards
the base of the plant. The selected branch should be closer to the ground.
➢ At a distance of about 15 – 30cm back from the tip give a sharp, slanting
inward and upward cut 1.5 to 2.5cm below a node and insert a small
wood splinter.
➢ Bend the shoot gently to the ground so that the treated part can
conveniently be inserted into the soil.
➢ Cover the treated region with soil.
➢ Peg down the shoot or keep a stone of brick on the covered soil to keep
the layered shoot in place
➢ Drive a vertical stake into the soil by the side of the layered branch and
tie the terminal portion of the branch to keep it upright.
➢ Water the layered portion regularly so as to keep it moist through till root
initiation take place.

➢ After sufficient
root formation
separate the layer by
cutting just below the
rooted or Cut the
rooted branch from
the parent plant to
grow as a separate
plant.

5. Propagating using suckers/ Suckering

What are suckers?

Suckers are growths that appear from the root systems of many trees and
shrubs such as lilac & cherries. Banana and pine apple are plants
propagated using suckers.
When to propagate using suckers

Spring is the best time to propagate using suckers since this is when
plants are coming into active growth and the severed suckers will
establish themselves quickly

How to propagate using suckers:

➢ Loosen the soil around the sucker with a fork, and then carefully
expose and the lift the sucker and associated roots, being careful
not to disturb the parent plant.
➢ Using sharp secateurs or knife, sever the sucker , making sure
that it has fibrous roots on the detached portion. Replace and firm
the soil around the parent plant.
➢ Trim the sucker by removing the main root or stolon ( creeping
underground stem) up to the fibrous roots.
➢ Reduce long , leafy shoots by about half to limit drying out of the
sucker after planting and to promote bushy re-growth.
➢ Plant the sucker into fertile , free-draining soil enriched with
organic matter such as well –rotted garden compost , manure or
 leaf mould. If potting up sucker, multipurpose compost is fine to
use.
➢ Water well after firming the soil around the roots. The roots are
usually insufficient to sustain the plant without careful watering
for the first season

AGSSL 4.2 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL IN PLANT

GROWTH
AGSSL 4.2.1 Discuss the process of seed germination
AGSSL 4.2.2Carry out experiment on conditions required for seed germination
AGSSL 4.2.3 Discuss conditions necessary for plant growth
AGSSL 4.2.4 Carry experiment on conditions necessary for plant growth
AGSSL 4.2.5 Discuss the process of photosynthesis
AGSSL 4.2.6 Carry out experiment on the process of photosynthesis
AGSSL 4.2.7 Discuss the process of respiration
AGSSL 4.2.8 Discuss the process of translocation
AGSSL 4.2.9 Discuss food storage in plants
AGSSL 4.2.10 Discuss the process of transpiration
AGSSL 4.2.11 Carry out experiment on transpiration
SEED GERMINATION
The process by which seeds begin to develop into new plants.
Conditions necessary for seed germination
1. Viable seed
The seed must be living and of good quality
2. Water
Before germination can occur water must enter the seed. After
germination the young root must be kept moist.
3. Air (oxygen)
Carbohydrates, proteins or fats stored in the cotyledons or endosperm are
broken down by respiration using oxygen from the air spaces in the soil.
4. Suitable temperature
 Seeds will only germinate when conditions are warm enough. The
optimum temperature for seed germination ranges from 20oC– 25oC.

Stages of seed germination

When conditions in the soil are favourable for seed germination;
• Water enters the seed through the micropyle
• Water causes the seed to swell
• This makes the testa split open revealing the cotyledons or endosperm
• Radicle begins to grow and emerges from the testa
• Radicle grows out from the seed and then turns downwards as the first
root
• Plumule develops and begins to grow upwards to become the shoot
The energy needed for seed germination comes from the food stored in
the seed.
Types of germination
1. Hypogeal germination
Where the cotyledons remain below the ground throughout the stages
of germination e.g. maize.
2. Epigeal germination
Where the cotyledons are lifted above the ground during germination
and act as the first leaves of the newly emerged plant.

The section of the stem just above the cotyledons is called the epicotyl
and as this grows it lifts the plumule above ground so that the stem
can develop during hypogeal germination
In epigeal germination it is the rapid growth of the hypocotyl (part of
the stem below the cotyledons) which lifts the cotyledons and plumule
above the ground

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PLANT GROWTH

1. Light – plants need light energy from the sun to make their own food
2. Suitable temperature – in warm conditions plants grow normally but
when it is cold growth slows down
3. Mineral nutrients -
4. Air (oxygen, carbon dioxide) carbon dioxide from the air is needed for
photosynthesis while oxygen from the air is needed for respiration
 5. Water – dissolves mineral nutrients from the soil so that they can be
absorbed
6. Absence of harmful factors
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which green plants manufacture their own food
(carbohydrates) from sunlight energy.
Word equation
Water + carbon dioxide sunlight energy carbohydrates + oxygen
Chlorophyll
Chemical symbol equation
6H2O + 6CO2 sunlight energy C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

Requirements for photosynthesis

• Water – enters root hairs by osmosis then travels up the xylem to the
leaf.
• Carbon dioxide- enters the leaf via the stomata by the process of
diffusion.
• Sunlight- passes through the cuticle and epidermal cells until it reaches
the mesophyll layer where it will be absorbed by chlorophyll.
• Chlorophyll- produced by the chloroplasts it absorbs light energy from
the sun and converts it to stored chemical energy in carbohydrates.
Products of photosynthesis
• Oxygen- exits the leaf via the stomata by the process of diffusion OR
remains in the plant to be used for respiration.
• Glucose- remains in the leaf to be used for respiration or travels through
the phloem to places where it will be used or stored for future use.

RESPIRATION
This is the process by which all living things break down carbohydrates in the
presence of oxygen to produce energy. It is called an oxidizing reaction because
it occurs in the presence of oxygen.
Word equation
Oxygen + carbohydrates -------------- water + carbon dioxide +
energy
Chemical symbol equation
O2 + C6H12O6 -------------------H2O + CO2 +
energy
Requirements for respiration
• Oxygen - entered the plant by diffusion or was left over from
photosynthesis. It travels throughout the plant dissolved in water or in the
plant air spaces.
• Glucose - was produced by photosynthesis. It travels to all cells via the
phloem.
Products of respiration
• Water - is transported from cell to cell by osmosis then around the plant in
the xylem nad it is needed for: - Photosynthesis
- Dissolving and absorbing nutrients.
- Transporting nutrients and food.
- Transpiration to cool the plant.
- Keeps the cell turgid hence giving the plant shape.
• Carbon dioxide- remains in the plant to be used for photosynthesis or exits
the leaf via the stomata by diffusion.
• Energy- all living cells need energy. If they do not respire they die. This
energy made by respiration cannot be transported nor stored i.e. it must be
produced where ever and when ever it is needed. It is used for:
- active transport
- germination
- opening of flower buds
- cell multiplication and growth
Comparison of Photosynthesis and Respiration
Photosynthesis Respiration
Occurs only during the day Occurs day and night -24 hours/day
Takes place only in green plants Takes place in living cells
Takes place only on plants Takes place in both plants and animals
CO2 in and O2 out O2 in and CO2 out
Absorbs sunlight energy Releases chemical energy
Carbohydrates produced Carbohydrates oxidized

TRANSLOCATION
• This is the movement of dissolved food substances through the plant.
• Leaves produce carbohydrates during photosynthesis then these
carbohydrates must be transported in the phloem to various parts of the
plant.
• There are three basic types of carbohydrates;
- Sugars- the simplest and smallest carbohydrates and the only one
which is soluble.
- Starch- the second largest carbohydrates it is insoluble.
- Cellulose- a very large molecule and it is insoluble.
• Only soluble substances may be translocated hence only carbohydrates in
the form of sugars may move through the phloem.
• Only insoluble substances may be stored hence sugars must be converted
to starch or cellulose before being stored.
• A plant can easily convert sugar to starch or cellulose and vise versa as the
need arises.

FOOD STORAGE IN PLANTS

Plants Storage organ Food substance stored
Cassava, sweet potatoes Root tuber Starch, proteins, and vitamins
A,B&C
 Carrot, beetroot Swollen tap root Sugars and starch
Irish potato& yams Stem tuber Starch and proteins
Sugar cane and sweet Stems Sucrose(sugar)
reeds
Onions and garlic Bulb Sugars, starch, lipids and
proteins
Banana, tomato, apple Fruits Sugars, fats and oils and
proteins
Groundnuts, sunflower Oil seeds Lipids, proteins and
carbohydrates
Rice, maize, oats Cereals Starch, proteins and lipids
Ginger Rhizomes Starch and lipids
Coco yams Corm Starch, proteins and vitamins

TRANSPIRATION
This is the loss of water vapour from the stomata of the leaves. It is done to cool
the plant. It is also responsible for the transpiration stream. Transpiration is
controlled by the guard cells on the leaf surface.
Factors affecting transpiration rate
• Humidity- high humidity decrease transpiration and low humidity increase
transpiration.
• Temperature- high temperature increases transpiration
• Wind- increases transpiration
Transpiration stream
The xylem vessels of a plant are long hollow tubes like straws that extend from
the roots to the leaves (see Elliott page 66). Transpiration is a” force” that “sucks”
water out of the leaf. The lost water from the leaf is replaced by more water from
the xylem which in turn forces more up the xylem from the roots. A
steady”stream” of water is therefore created from the roots to the leaf. This stream
is called transpiration stream and it is the force which causes water to travel up
through the xylem in plants.
AGSSL 4.3 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL IN
CONTROLLING CROP PESTS
AGSSL 4.3.1 Describe a pest
AGSSL 4.3.2 Classify pests affecting plants
AGSSL 4.3.3 Identify weeds found in your local area
AGSSL 4.3.4 Identify insects pests according to their mode of feeding
AGSSL 4.3.5 Describe the lifecycle of a given insect pest
AGSSL 4.3.6 Control pests using appropriate methods
AGSSL 4.3.7 Use appropriate tools, implements, machinery and materials when
controlling pests with due consideration to Safety, Health and Environment
WEEDS
A weed is any plant that grows where is not wanted.
Effects of Weeds on Plants
i. Negative effects of weeds
• Weeds compete with crops for nutrients, light, moisture and space.
• They reduce yield and quality of the crop.
• They harbor pests and diseases to crop plants.
• They affect the formation and distribution of roots.
• They increase the cost of production because cash, labour and time have
to be spent in their control.
• Weeds tend to grow faster than crops and they end up shading crop
plants from sunlight hence reduce the photosynthetic ability.
• They block irrigation canal and waterways.
• The presence of weed seeds in grains reduces its value.
ii. Positive effects of weeds
• They add nutrients to the soil when they die and decompose.
• They provide a good ground cover which protects the soil against
erosion.
 • They can act as mulch to reduce evaporation.
• Some weeds are preference alternate host to crop pests and disease and
can attract pests away from crops thus helping in reducing pest and
disease problems on crops.
• During hot weather weeds help to shade soil and crops against solar
radiation.
Common Weeds found in Botswana
Common Scientific name Local name Description
name
Star grass Cynodon ductylon An annual grass
Wildstriped Cucumis myriocarpus Monyaku An annual weed
cucumber
Green Chenopodium Senkgapapane Annual weed
goosefoot carinatum
Thorn apple Datura ferox Mokhure An annual weed
Nut grass Cyperus rotundus Tlhatlha Common in irrigated
area and is a perennial
grass.
Couch grass Digitaria scalarum Motlho Most troublesome
perennial grass.
Mexican Argemone mexicana Lopero Annual weed and
poppy produces large number
of black seeds and host
most crops.
Pig weed Amaranthus Thepe Broad leave annual
thumbergii weed.
Morning glory Ipomea obscura motantanyane Annual weed
Witch weed Striga asciatica molelwane Parasitic weed with no
root hairs hence obtain
nutrients from host e.g.
maize, sorghum and
difficult to eradicate.

Classification of Weeds
Three major ways of classifying weeds are as follows:
a. Length of growing period (life cycle)
b. Morphology
c. Mode of dispersal
a. Length of growing period
• It refers to the period required by weeds to complete their life cycle i.e.
from seed germination to production. The two main categories are:
annuals, perenniasl and some are said to be biennials
i. Annual weeds
• They grow from seeds every year OR they complete their life cycle in
one year or growing season.
• They set seeds before they die.
• Examples are: witch weed, Mexican poppy, black jack, thorn apple, pig
weed etc.

ii. Perennial weeds

• They keep on growing every year
• Complete their life cycle in more than a year.
• Have food storage in roots, rhizomes/stolons.
• Examples are: couch grass, star grass nut grass spear grass, Rhodes
grass etc.
iii. Biennial weeds
• Complete their life cycle in two years.
• Example are:
b. Morphology
• It refers to structure of plant, whether its leaves are narrow or broad
leaves.
i. Narrow leaved weeds
• Monocotyledon weeds (have single cotyledon in their seeds)
 • Have thin leaves
• Leaves have parallel veins
• Fibrous roots
• Examples are: couch grass, star grass, nut grass, Rhodes grass, spear
grass etc.
ii. Broad leaved weeds
• Large leaves
• Dicotyledons (have two cotyledons in their seeds)
• Leaves have network of veins
• Majority have tap roots
• Examples are: thorn apple, Mexican poppy, black jack, pig weed etc.
c. Mode of dispersal
• Refers to ways of scattering or spreading weeds seeds from one place
to another.
• This includes:
i. Water dispersed weeds
• Flowing water spread weeds from one place to another.
• E.g. yellow nuts edge
iii. Wind dispersed weeds
• Have wing like or parachute like structures
• Produce plenty of seeds which are small, light and feathery.

iv. Animal dispersed weeds

• Some weeds seeds have spines and hooks; such seeds attach to the coat
of animals passing e.g. black jack and upright starbur.
• Some are eaten and excreted somewhere e.g. Amaranthus spp.
• Men also disperse weed seeds by cultivating weed contaminated seeds.
 v. Self explosion dispersed weeds
• Some weeds produce in pods.
• When dry, pods open with a small explosion, scattering seeds some
distance away from the plant.
• E.g. Mexican poppy and large cocklebur
vi. Weeds that disperse vegetatively
• Some weeds produce vegetatively
• Common here are the grasses which produce rhizomes and stolons.
• When these grass rhizomes or stolons get chopped up into small pieces
during tillage operations there spread and where the vegetative parts
land, new weeds will grow.
• E.g. couch grass and star grass.
Methods of Weed Control
Weed control is divided into four categories these are: biological, mechanical,
cultural and chemical control.
a. Biological Weed Control
• This involves use of living organism to control weeds. The biological
agent will be the predator of the weed.
• The agent will either kill the weed or simply limit its spread
• For example goats may be used as biological agents in controlling
certain weeds in a pasture this can be done before planting or after
harvesting.
• Some specific pests or disease organisms may be introduced in an area
where they will attack a specific weed but not harm other plants.
• Biological weed control is not common in Botswana.
i. Advantages
• Its cheap
• Reduced costs for animal feeds
• Quick and easy methods compared to mechanical and cultural methods
 • It is environmental friendly
• It is less labour intensive since all the work is done by the organism in
question
ii. Disadvantage
• Once the weed has been eradicated the agent may begin feeding on
crops.
• Finding the correct agent can be a long, costly process.
• The methods does not control weeds effectively since the organism only
feeds on the foliage therefore the weeds grow again some time.
• Where the organism has to be a breed or imported, the method might
require high expertise beyond the knowledge of the ordinary farmer.
b. Cultural Weed Control
• This is the method whereby the farmer gives the crop the most
favourable conditions to out compete the weeds.
• This involves the use of agronomic practices that have the following
effects:
- Prevents seeds of weed from germinating
- Shades/ smoothers weeds so that they will receive sunlight.
- Stimulates germination of weeds but prevents the seedling from
growing
- Gives plants an advantage to develop strongly before weeds
appear.
Examples of these practices are:
i. Early planting
• Seeds are sown early so that they can seedlings emerge and be strong
and well established before weeds can germinate. It gives the crop an
advantage over the weeds.
ii. Use of clean seeds
• Crop should not have weed seeds among the m since no one want to
sow weeds.
iii. Good crop cover
 • Correct spacing result in quick ground cover by crop foliage. This
overshadow/ smoother weeds preventing them from receiving sunlight.
Correct plant distance is better achieved by using row planting.
iv. Crop rotation
• Some weeds, mainly parasitic weeds can only grow with the host crop.
By rotating these crops with others that are not affected the weeds will
be controlled.
v. Mulching
• By covering the soil between crops with layer of mulch. Weed seedlings
are smothered and prevented from developing.
vi. Flooding
• An important method of weed control in rice cultivation. Rice plants
can respire even though the roots are covered with water, but most
weeds cannot so they will die.
vii. Cultivation (qualified)
• Has the effect of cutting the roots of weeds and disturbing their growth.
Deep ploughing, harrowing or hoeing may be done.
➢ Advantages
• Cheap
• Environmental friendly
• Does not require high expertise.
• Many of cultural methods also help control pests and disease
• Can also help maintain soil fertility.
➢ Disadvantages
• Time consuming
• Labour intensive
• Does not usually kill weeds but just limits the number.
• Some of the methods used such as flooding can only be limited to
certain crops.
c. Mechanical Weed Control
 • Involves the use of tools, implements and machines to physical remove
the weeds.
• In small areas hand weeding is done with hoes, slashers and pangas.
• In large areas ploughs and harrows are used.
i. Advantages
• It is faster than cultural method.
• Where cultivation is used, the weeds are effectively controlled since
even the roots are destroyed.
• Where tractors are used it is less labour intensive.
ii. Disadvantages
• Where hand implements are used it is more labour intensive
• Time consuming
• Need skills to operate machines.
• Where heavy machinery are used, can lead to destruction of soil
structure.
• Some machinery used such as tractors emit toxic fumes to the
atmosphere therefore cause pollution.
d. Chemical weed control
• Involves the use of chemicals called herbicides to kill weeds. They are
basic types of herbicides: selective and non selective.
➢ Selective herbicides: kill some weeds or certain weeds e.g. MCPA (kills
broad leaved weeds) and Dalapon (kills narrow leaved weeds)
➢ Non selective herbicides: kill all weeds or wide range of weeds. e.g.
Paraquat and Diquat
➢ Pre - emergence herbicides: They applied to the soil to stop the weeds
coming up or they can be sprayed on to the weeds to kill them directly. This
might be applied before the crop emerges. This is how and when the non
- selective herbicides are applied. They cannot be applied while the crops
are growing or they will kill the crops.
➢ Post emergence herbicides: this are applied after the crop emerges to kill
weeds growing in the crop. This is how the selective herbicides are applied.
 i. Advantages
• It is very quick.
• Less labour intensive.
• More effective than other methods.
• Operations like harvesting become very easy due to less interference
from weeds.
• It ensures quality produce since there is no contamination of produce
with weeds.
• It is very effective in controlling perennial, stubborn weeds that would
otherwise be very difficult to control mechanically.
ii. Disadvantages
• Some herbicides are non selective and if not used with care can destroy
unintended plans including the crop to be protected.
• Herbicides are expensive
• All herbicides are poisonous and can be dangerous if handled
carelessly.
• Technical knowledge is required.
• Herbicides pollute air and water causing deaths of other living things
such as bird and fishes including useful microbes in the soil thus
reducing soil quality
PESTS
Meaning: a pest is any organism that significantly reduces the quality and
quantity of farm produce. Pest damage to crops may take place in crop fields or
in storage.
Common examples of pests
Pest Common examples
Large mammals Baboons, monkeys
Rodents Rats, mice, moles, squirrels.
Birds Bush fowls, doves, qualea bird
 Insects Locusts, grass hopper, aphids, weevils,
termites, crickets.
Pathogens Virus, bacteria, fungi
Weeds Witch weed, black jack, thorn apple
Moluscs Slugs, snails
Mites Red spider mite, red and yellow tea mites
Nematodes (eelworms) Root – knot nematode

Classification of Pests
• Crop pests are classified according to the shape and design of their mouth
parts as well as the type of damage caused. Crop pests (insects) have been
classified into three groups namely:
a. Biting and chewing insects
thse insects have well developd mouth parts (mandibles) for chewing the leaves
of crops and thereby reducing photosynthesis, thus hindering the growth of plants
and resulting in low yields.
• Examples are: grass hoppers, beetles, leaf miners, locusts termites
b. Piercing and sucking insects
These insects have a hallow, needle like tube, or proboscis, that pierces the plant
tissue. It damages the physical structure of the plant and causes loss of ceel sap
which reduces the rate of plant growth. These insects also inject toxic saliva into
the plant, which causes lesions, and transmits plant diseases.
• Examples are: aphids, mealy bugs, scale insects.
c. Boring insects
These insect bore their way into the plant and live there while feeding on the sap.
They mak holes or tunnls in the plant, some inside roods and grains. This lowers
the quality of produce and some plants die.
• Examples are: weevils, stalk borer and American boll worm.
➢ Some important terms
➢ Metamorphosis:
• This is the term given to the changes which an insect undergoes from
moment it is hatched until it is a mature adult capable of reproducing.
Metamorphosis may be complete or incomplete.
➢ Complete Metamorphosis
• This involves four developmental stages namely: egg, larvae, pupa and
adult. Each of which is totally different from the other. Examples are: flies,
butterflies, bees, moths, stalk borer etc.

➢ Diagram of four stages

➢ Incomplete Metamorphosis
• This involves three developmental stages namely: egg, nymph and adult.
The nymph resembles the adult though they differ in size and feed on the
same food. Examples are: locusts, termites, cockroaches, aphids, etc.
➢ Diagram of three stages
a. Biting and Chewing Insects
• The mouth parts of this group are specialized to bite, cut and chew the plant
parts, hence causing damage.

i. Description of one named pest

ii. Name: Locusts
iii. Life cycle: incomplete metamorphosis
The adult female lay eggs and burry them in the soil prior to winter. When the
conditions become favourable, the eggs hatch into nymphs. The nymphs are
found in clusters feeding on leaves. As they become mature the males and
females mate, the female will then lay eggs and the cycle continue.
iv. Host crop
• Mainly cereals such as sorghum, millet and maize.
v. Damage caused
• They cut and feed on leaves of crops as well as grains.
• Stunted growth
• Poor or no yield
• Tattered leaves
• Whole plant may die.
vi. Methods of control
• Early planting
 • Burning of crop residues
• Chemical control (Malathion which is both stomach and contact poison.)
• Weed control
• Crop rotation
• Use of resistant varieties
b. Piercing and sucking insects
• The feeding mouth part is specialized to pierce plant tissues such as leaves,
stems and fruits. The mouth part is a needle like stylet which is inserted
through the leaf surface to suck out sap.
i. Description of one named pest
ii. Name: Aphids
iii. Host crop: cowpeas, maize, sorghum and beans.
iv. Life cycle: incomplete metamorphosis
• In warm humid conditions, aphids produce large numbers of young ones.
The eggs develop into nymphs inside the body of the female. The nymphs
are very similar to their adult and have six legs, compound eyes and
antennae. The nymphs feed on the juice extracted from the plant. They
undergo a series of moulting (shedding outer skin). After several days, the
aphids are capable of producing their own young. Only wingless female
are produced at first, but when they get overcrowded some female grow
wings. They enable the aphid to migrate to another plant where they can
establish a new colony by laying more nymphs.
• Aphids reproduce rapidly giving birth every 2 to 3 days hence their
population increases quickly. Towards the end of rainy season eggs are laid
covered with hard shell to avoid damage by unfavourable weather
conditions. When conditions are favourable the eggs hatch into wingless
female nymphs which will mature and start to reproduce parthenogenecally
(the eggs developing without fertilisation).
v. Damage caused
• They suck plant sap resulting in leaf curling
• They transmit disease such as cowpea mosaic virus and triteza in citrus.
• Plants will turn yellow
• Stunted growth
• Aphids produce sweet excreta as they feed and this attracts some fungi.
vi. Methods of control
• Crop rotation
• Early planting
• Weed control
• Field hygiene
• Use of resistant varieties
• Use of natural enemies
• Use of chemical such as Kombat, Dimethoate 40
• Cultural methods such as use of wood ash and applying water on the leaves
of the plant.

c. Boring Insects
These groups of insects’ pests also have the biting and chewing mouth parts.
They bore holes and make tunnels in the tissues of the plants. The most
notorious pests are stalk borer, American boll worms and weevils.
i. Description of one named pest
ii. Name: stalk borer
i. Host crop: maize
ii. Life cycle: complete metamorphosis
• The adult stage of this insect is the moth. The adults mate and female lay
eggs on the leaves of plants. As the eggs hatch into larvae, they bore into
the stalk and start eating the plant tissue. It is the larval stage or caterpillar
which causes a lot of damage to the crop.
• After few weeks the developed larvae changes into the pupa which is the
resting period before it become an adult. When conditions are favourable,
usually beginning rainy seasons the adult moth emerges from the pupa
casing and continuer the life cycle.
iii. Damage caused to plants
 • Leaf damage the larval make little holes which show up when the leaf
opens.
• The growing point get damaged
• Stunted growth
• Tunneling of stems
• Failure to flower
• Failure to set seeds and chaffy heads
• Damage grains in cobs
• Reduced yield
iv. Methods of control
• Field hygiene (burning crop residues)
• Crop rotation
• Use of resistant varieties
• Spraying the larvae with chemicals such as Dipterex, Rip cord.
• Seed treatment before planting
• Use of the natural enemies of the larvae and the moth.
• Early planting
• Weed control
d. Rodents
Rodents are family of animals with continuously growing incisors e.g. hare, mice
and rats.
Damage caused Control
• Dig up plants • Use of cats and dogs
• Eat and damage seedlings • Use of baits
• Eat up standing crops in the field • Use of metal or concrete in
storage facilities.
• Damage grains in the storage
 • Damage storage facilities
• Contaminate grains in storage by urine and
faeces

PLANT DISEASES
A disease; is a condition involving a deviation from normal health. Diseases may
cause physiological disorder or structural abnormality of a plant or any of its parts
or products that reduces the economic value of the crop its product.
Diseases caused by Infections Agents
1. Fungal disease
There are many diseases caused by fungi but for our interest we shall deal with
only one disease namely;
a. Cob and Tassel Smut (Phori)
i. Mode of infection; The fungi [spore] infect the seed, so when the seed are sown
they develop within the seedling which will carry the spores along the xylem
vessels. During tasseling the spores start to multiply rapidly on the tassel and the
cob hence the name cob and tassel smut. The disease appears as black dust spores.
ii. Harmful effects
• No cob formation
• Reduced crop yield
• Poor quality cob and grains
• In extreme cases no yield at all
iii. Prevention
• dressing seed with mercury dusts
• using certified seeds
• do not use \ sow seeds from a crop which was affected by the disease

iv. Control
• field sanitation
 • crop rotation
• proper selection of uninfected cobs during harvesting

2. Bacterial disease
There are many diseases caused by bacteria but for our interest we shall deal with
only one disease namely:
b. Bacterial Wilt of Tomatoes
i. Mode of infection; Pathogen is soil borne. The pathogen invade the xylem
vessel through a cut on the stem or even through the stoma of the plant, multiply
in the xylem tissue and transported through the whole the plant.
ii. Harmful effects
• The disease produces a slime which reduces the follow of water in the plant
resulting in wilting and often death of the plant
• No vascular tissue discoloration
• No root growth
• Reduced quality of the fruits.
• Stunted growth
• The whole plant dies
• Reduced yield
iii. Prevention
• no prevention but advice is to use certified seeds
• treating planting materials with bactericides
• sterilize or fumigate soil used in plant nurseries
iv. Control
• Crop rotation
• Burning of infected plants.
• Sterilize the soil or soil solarisation by covering the soil with plastic
sheeting to raise the soil temperature to kill the bacteria.
• Treat seed with hot water before.
 • planting resistant varieties
Viral disease
There are many disease caused by virus but for our interest we shall deal with
only one disease namely;
Maize Streak Virus
i. Transmission: caused by the virus transmitted by the leaf hopper which
sucks juice from the leaves of plants.
ii. Symptoms
• Whitish lines or streak on the leaf esp. on the xylem vessels.
• Stunted growth
• Failure to flower
• Failure to produce the cob
• Reduced yield or no yield at all.
iii. Prevention
• Field sanitation
• Spray with systemic pesticides e.g. carbaryl
• Avoid breaking plant leaves
• Plant resistant varieties
• Early planting
iv. Control
• Uproot infected crops.
PESTICIDES
• These are chemicals that control/ kill pests

a. What they Control

Name of target organism Pesticide name
• Insects • Insecticides
 • Rodents • Rodenticides
• Nematodes • Nematicides
• Fungi • Fungicides
• Ticks and mites • Acaricides
• Termites • Termicides
• Weeds • Herbicides
• Aphids • Aphicides
• Molluscs • Molluscicides
• Birds • Avicides

b. How they kill

i. Contact Pesticides
• They are sprayed directly on the body of the pest or on the plant and as the
pest come in contact with it gets killed. E.g. Malathion, Dimethoate,
Dipterex and Malasol.
ii. Systemic Pesticides
• The chemical is sprayed on the plant and is absorbed by the plant and
circulates in the plant system. When piercing and sucking pests suck the
cell sap they are killed. E.g. Aphicides and Dimethoate.
iii. Stomach Pesticides
• These are eaten up together with food and then they affect the pest from
their stomach. They cause bloating or constipation which lead to death of
the pest. E.g. Malathion and Carbaryl.

USES OF FARM CHEMICALS

a. Active Ingredients
 • It is a toxic/ active part of a farm chemical.
b. Inert Material
• It is a non- toxic part of a farm chemical, its role is to carry the active
ingredient.
c. Forms of Pesticides
i. Dust
• A dry formulation where active ingredient is a fine powder. It is used
directly on the plant or applied to the seed. E.g. Dieldrin, Lindane, Dipterex
and Blue death.
ii. Granule
• These are in form of small solid particles (2-5 mm in diameter). Used for
soil application and sometimes for foliar application. E.g. Aldrin, Furadan,
Nemagon.
iii. Fumigant
• They act in fumes/ gaseous form. They are mainly used in closed areas like
stores or houses but some can be used in soils. E.g. Phostoxin, Vapam
iv. Spray
• These are applied in liquid droplets from under pressure created by a fine
nozzle of a sprayer. They are made in form of wettable powder (WP); e.g.
Carbaryl, Gardon, water soluble liquid (WSL); water soluble powder
(WSP); emulsifiable concentrate (EC); e.g. Malathion, Dimethoate.
v. Aerosols
• A small container in which gas under pressure is used to aerate and disperse
a liquid spray through a valve. E.g. Baygon, Doom, Target montern.
d. Proper use of a Knapsack Sprayer and its Calibration
• It consists of a tank, of either plastic or stainless steel, a pump lever, an
adjustable spray nozzle with jets at
• the end of lance, on a flexible hose connected to the tank plus straps for
carrying the tank on the back.
 Diagram of a knapsack sprayer;

e. Calibration
• To calibrate is to calculate or determine the quantity of liquids/ spray
needed to cover a particular area.
• The amount of spray solution depends on:
▪ Speed at which the operator moves.
▪ Pressure in the tank
▪ Type of nozzle
▪ Method of spraying
f. Steps
• Select and determine the sample area.
• Fill the tank with a measured volume of water.
• Spray at normal speed and constant height until the spray is empty.
• If the area is not complete, fill the tank again and complete the area.
g. Formula
• Spray volume (SV) = initial water volume – final water volume
Area of test site
 • Units are litres/ m2
• final to get the quantity of spray mixture needed to spray an area;
• quantity of spray mixture= SV x area of the field / seedbed (m2)
h. Precautions taken when handling Farm Chemicals to Minimize Pollution
and Poisoning
• All chemicals should be treated with care, weather they are known to be
poisonous or not. For safe and efficient use, a number of points need to be
observed.
i. Precautions before Application
• Always wear protective clothing when working with chemicals. The
person working with dangerous chemicals should wear rubber or plastic
clothing or overalls, rubber boots. Rubber gloves and face mask to prevent
breathing in fumes and to keep spray out of the eyes.
• Always use the correct pesticide for the pest being controlled.
• Read the labels carefully, especially the safety precautions before use.
• Always use the correct dosage, manufacture’s instructions or expert advice
should be followed. Too small dose may result in poor control and too high
a dose may damage the crops.
• Do not use persistent chemicals when there are effective less persistent
alternatives.
• Avoid using pesticide if you have a cut or sore on the skin.
ii. Precautions during Application
• Always wear protective clothing when working with dangerous chemicals.
• Do not smell or taste any chemical and make sure that you donot breath in
any fumes or dust from chemicals.
• Do not spray or dust in windy conditions because the spray or dust will
blow back on to other people or fields where we do not want the chemical
to fall.
• Do not spray against the wind; otherwise the spray will blow back on to
you.
• Never eat, drink, or smoke when handling chemicals because some of the
chemicals may get into your mouth.
iii. Precautions after Application
• Never store dangerous or poisonous chemicals in any thing other than their
original containers.
• Wear protective clothing when cleaning spray equipment after use.
• If chemicals are left over after spraying or dusting, they must be returned
to the safe lockable cup board.
• Empty containers must not be burned because the smoke could carry the
poison to other places.
• Do not throw empty containers in rivers or wells because this will pollute
the water. Burry the containers deep in the ground, where the soil is dry, so
that the poison can not get in underground water.
• After spraying wash your hands, arms, head, face and feet with clean water
and soap.
• Allow the correct time to pass between spraying a crop and harvesting for
consumption.