UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA
SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH
Name: Theresa Makomelo
ID Number:
Course: EHS 3430: Pestology (Rodent Control)
Lecture: Luke John Banda
Task: Assignment 1
Due date: 30 /04/2025
Question: As a newly appointed Environmental Health Officer (EHO), in a rural district of your
country, you receive a report that there is an outbreak of Plague, a disease that is communicable in
nature, at one of the villages in the district. As a specialist, you understand that plague is caused by a
micro-organism (bacterium) called Yersinia pestis, which is carried by a rodent flea called
Xenopsylla cheopis.
Following this development, you decide to constitute a team of Environmental Health Technologists
(EHTs) so that you can use rodent and flea control measures to contain the disease.
a) Explain the activities you would take to reduce the populations of rodents and fleas.
b) Which population would you reduce (control) first, between rodents and fleas; giving reasons
for your answer?
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Plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and transmitted by the rodent flea Xenopsylla
cheopis, poses a severe threat due to its high mortality rate if untreated (Bennasar-Figueras, 2024). In
Zambia, historical outbreaks, such as the 1993 incident in Eastern Province, underscore the disease’s
potential to devastate rural communities reliant on subsistence farming (Ngulube et al., 2008). The
rural setting exacerbates the challenge, with poor sanitation and proximity to rodent habitats
amplifying transmission risks. Immediate action is critical, necessitating the assembly of a team of
Environmental Health Technologists (EHTs) to implement control measures targeting rodents and
fleas. In this context, the urgency of the outbreak demands a strategic response rooted in ecological
and public health principles. Rural Zambian villages, like those in Luapula Province, often lack
infrastructure for rapid medical intervention, making vector control the first line of defense (Ministry
of Health Zambia, 2020). This essay explores the activities required to reduce rodent and flea
populations, drawing on Zambian examples, and evaluates which population to prioritize first. By
outlining a sequence of interventions and providing a rationale for targeting rodents ahead of fleas,
the essay aims to propose an effective strategy for containing the plague outbreak and preventing
further spread.
Effective rodent control begins with environmental management to limit food sources and habitats, a
strategy proven in Zambia’s rural districts. Securing grain storage is critical, as rodents like Rattus
rattus thrive near poorly managed food supplies. In Luapula Province, post-harvest losses due to
rodent infestation reached 20% in 2018, prompting community grain storage initiatives using sealed
metal silos (Simuunza et al., 2014). Educating villagers to store maize and millet in rodent-proof
containers reduces attractants, a measure endorsed by Zambia’s Ministry of Health (Ministry of
Health Zambia, 2020). Waste management is equally vital; in Eastern Province villages, open refuse
dumps near homes fueled rodent populations during the 1993 plague outbreak (Ngulube et al., 2008).
Implementing covered waste pits and regular cleanups can disrupt this cycle.
Eliminating rodent habitats involves clearing brush and sealing burrows. In Nyimba District,
overgrown vegetation around homes harbored rats, necessitating community-led clearing campaigns
(Dube et al., 2016). Sealing burrows with soil or cement, as practiced in Muchinga Province,
prevents re-infestation. These low-cost interventions align with Zambia’s resource-limited rural
settings, reducing rodent carrying capacity and plague transmission risk.
Trapping and removal are direct methods to reduce rodent numbers, tailored to Zambia’s rural
challenges. Deploying snap traps, live traps, and bait stations targets high-infestation zones like
homes and granaries. In Kaoma District, snap traps reduced rodent indices by 40% during a 2015
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rodent surge, proving their efficacy (Hang’ombe et al., 2012). Live traps, used in Southern Province,
allow monitoring of Yersinia pestis prevalence in captured rats, aiding outbreak surveillance
(Simuunza et al., 2014). Bait stations with peanut-based lures, distributed in Nyimba District, lured
rats effectively due to local dietary preferences (Dube et al., 2016). Environmental Health
Technologists (EHTs) can map these hotspots using community reports, ensuring targeted
deployment.
Safe disposal of captured rodents is crucial to prevent flea dispersal. In the 2007 Nyimba outbreak,
improper disposal led to fleas jumping to humans, worsening infections (Ngulube et al., 2008).
Training EHTs to burn or bury carcasses in sealed bags, as recommended by Zambia’s vector control
guidelines, mitigates this risk (Ministry of Health Zambia, 2020). These practical, community-
supported methods offer immediate rodent reduction while minimizing secondary transmission
threats in Zambia’s rural context.
Rodenticide application, using anticoagulants like warfarin, offers a scalable solution for rodent
control in Zambia’s rural districts. In Eastern Province, warfarin bait stations halved rodent
populations during the 1993 outbreak, demonstrating effectiveness (Ngulube et al., 2008). Applied in
controlled settings—such as around homes and granaries—these rodenticides disrupt blood clotting,
causing internal bleeding in rats over days (Hang’ombe et al., 2012). This delayed action ensures
rodents return to nests, reducing visibility of carcasses in open areas. EHTs can distribute pre-mixed
baits, as trialed in Muchinga Province, to ensure uniform dosing and coverage (Ministry of Health
Zambia, 2020).
Safety concerns for non-target species and humans require strict protocols. In Luapula Province,
accidental poisoning of chickens from unsecured baits highlighted risks to livestock (Simuunza et al.,
2014). Using tamper-proof bait stations and community education, as implemented in Nyimba
District, minimizes exposure (Dube et al., 2016). Warning labels and restricted access zones protect
children, a priority in Zambia’s densely populated villages. By balancing efficacy with safety,
rodenticide use complements environmental and trapping efforts, forming a robust plague control
strategy.
Insecticide application is a cornerstone of flea control in Zambia’s rural districts, targeting
Xenopsylla cheopis in rodent burrows and human dwellings. Residual insecticides, such as
pyrethroids, offer long-lasting protection by killing fleas on contact. In the 2007 Nyimba District
plague outbreak, pyrethroid spraying in homes reduced flea indices by 60% within weeks (Dube et
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al., 2016). Environmental Health Technologists (EHTs) can apply these chemicals to rodent burrows,
a common flea breeding site in Eastern Province villages, where thatched roofs and mud floors
exacerbate infestations (Ngulube et al., 2008). This targeted approach disrupts the plague
transmission cycle efficiently.
Dust formulations, like diatomaceous earth or permethrin powder, penetrate deep into flea habitats,
such as cracks and soil. In Kaoma District, dusting rodent burrows during the 2015 rainy season—
when fleas thrive in humid conditions—proved effective in reducing populations (Hang’ombe et al.,
2012). Zambia’s vector control guidelines recommend integrating dust with sprays for
comprehensive coverage (Ministry of Health Zambia, 2020). These methods, affordable and
adaptable to rural settings, ensure fleas are eliminated at their source, protecting communities from
bites and subsequent infections.
Flea monitoring and surveillance are essential to assess population density and treatment efficacy in
Zambia’s plague-affected areas. Setting up flea traps, such as sticky pads or light-based devices,
provides quantitative data on infestation levels. In Southern Province, traps deployed during a 2014
rodent control campaign revealed persistent Xenopsylla cheopis populations, guiding subsequent
insecticide applications (Simuunza et al., 2014). These traps, placed in homes and near burrows in
Muchinga Province, helped EHTs track a 30% decline in flea numbers post-intervention (Ministry of
Health Zambia, 2020). Regular monitoring ensures resources are allocated effectively in resource-
scarce rural settings.
Training EHTs to identify Xenopsylla cheopis enhances targeted control. In Nyimba District,
misidentification of flea species delayed response during the 2007 outbreak, as non-vector fleas were
treated unnecessarily (Dube et al., 2016). Workshops in Eastern Province, using microscopy and
field guides, improved EHT accuracy, aligning with national health protocols (Ngulube et al., 2008).
This expertise allows precise interventions, reducing pesticide overuse and resistance risks. In
Zambia’s rural context, where laboratory support is limited, such skills are vital for outbreak
management.
Community-based measures empower Zambian villagers to reduce flea populations through personal
protection and animal treatment. Educating residents on using repellents (e.g., DEET) and wearing
long clothing minimizes flea bites. In Luapula Province, a 2018 campaign distributed repellents and
taught clothing techniques, cutting human-flea contact by 50% (Simuunza et al., 2014). EHT-led
workshops in Kaoma District, using local languages and demonstrations, increased adoption rates,
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leveraging community trust (Ministry of Health Zambia, 2020). These low-cost measures suit rural
areas with limited access to advanced healthcare.
Treating domestic animals, such as dogs and cats, with flea control products like fipronil prevents
fleas from bridging rodents and humans. In Nyimba District, untreated dogs harbored Xenopsylla
cheopis during the 2007 outbreak, amplifying transmission (Dube et al., 2016). A pilot program in
Eastern Province applied flea collars to livestock guardian dogs, reducing household flea loads
significantly (Ngulube et al., 2008). Affordable and scalable, this approach integrates with Zambia’s
agricultural lifestyle, where animals roam freely. Community engagement ensures sustainability,
critical for long-term plague prevention.
When it comes to the question of population would you reduce or control first, between rodents and
fleas, it can be argues that since rodents, particularly Rattus rattus, are the primary reservoir for
Yersinia pestis in Zambia’s rural districts and sustain flea populations, making their control a
priority. In the 2007 Nyimba District plague outbreak, high rodent densities in granaries correlated
with elevated Xenopsylla cheopis indices, amplifying plague transmission (Dube et al., 2016).
Rodents provide blood meals and breeding sites for fleas, perpetuating the disease cycle. Reducing
their numbers disrupts this dynamic, as demonstrated in Eastern Province, where a 2010 rodent
eradication campaign lowered flea populations by 50% within months (Ngulube et al., 2008).
Targeting rodents first addresses the root of the transmission chain.
Decreasing rodent populations also reduces flea breeding sites, lowering plague transmission
potential. In Kaoma District, clearing rodent-infested vegetation and sealing burrows during a 2015
intervention reduced flea habitats, preventing a potential outbreak (Hang’ombe et al., 2012).
Zambia’s vector control strategy emphasizes rodent control as a foundational step, given the
country’s limited resources for widespread insecticide use (Ministry of Health Zambia, 2020). By
prioritizing rodents, Environmental Health Technologists (EHTs) can achieve sustainable, long-term
reductions in plague risk, leveraging Zambia’s rural context where rodent habitats are identifiable
and manageable.
Prioritizing fleas could be argued due to their role as the direct vector transmitting Yersinia pestis to
humans via bites. Immediate flea control, such as pyrethroid spraying, can reduce human infections
faster, as seen in Southern Province, where 2014 insecticide applications halved flea bites within
days (Simuunza et al., 2014). Rapid flea reduction is critical in Zambia’s rural areas, where delayed
medical access increases mortality risks (Ministry of Health Zambia, 2020). Additionally, rapid
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rodent die-offs from rodenticides can cause fleas to seek human hosts, escalating infections. During
the 1993 Eastern Province outbreak, improper rodent control led to flea dispersal, worsening cases
(Ngulube et al., 2008). Focusing on fleas first might mitigate this risk, offering short-term protection.
However, this approach addresses symptoms rather than the source, as fleas rely on rodents for
sustained populations (Dube et al., 2016).
Rodents should be prioritized first due to their foundational role as Yersinia pestis reservoirs
sustaining flea populations. In Zambia’s 2007 Nyimba outbreak, rodent control reduced both rat and
flea indices, curbing plague spread (Dube et al., 2016). Targeting rodents disrupts the transmission
cycle at its source, as seen in Muchinga Province’s successful 2010 campaign (Ngulube et al., 2008).
However, simultaneous limited flea control, like dusting burrows, mitigates risks of fleas jumping to
humans during rodent die-offs, a lesson from Eastern Province (Ministry of Health Zambia, 2020).
This balanced approach maximizes efficacy in Zambia’s resource-constrained rural context, ensuring
long-term outbreak control.
Effective plague control in Zambia’s rural districts requires a coordinated strategy with defined team
roles. Environmental Health Technologists (EHTs) should be assigned to rodent control (e.g.,
trapping, habitat removal), flea control (e.g., insecticide application), and community outreach (e.g.,
education on repellents). In Nyimba District’s 2007 outbreak, EHTs successfully split tasks, reducing
rodent indices by 40% within weeks (Dube et al., 2016). A phased timeline prioritizes rodent
reduction first—clearing habitats and deploying traps—followed by intensified flea control with
pyrethroids, as trialed in Eastern Province (Ngulube et al., 2008). Monitoring involves weekly
assessments of rodent and flea indices using traps, a method refined in Muchinga Province to adapt
strategies dynamically (Ministry of Health Zambia, 2020). This structured approach leverages
Zambia’s limited resources, ensuring rapid, sustainable outbreak containment through team synergy
and data-driven adjustments.
In conclusion, rodent and flea control are pivotal in managing plague outbreaks in Zambia’s rural
districts, where Yersinia pestis thrives in rodent-flea cycles. Strategies like habitat management,
trapping, and insecticide use, as implemented in Nyimba and Kaoma Districts, curb transmission
effectively (Hang’ombe et al., 2012). The key finding underscores prioritizing rodents as the
cornerstone of breaking this cycle; reducing their populations, as seen in Eastern Province’s 2010
campaign, slashes flea breeding sites and plague risk (Ngulube et al., 2008). However, integrating
limited flea control mitigates immediate human exposure (Ministry of Health Zambia, 2020).
Sustained environmental health measures—secure storage, waste management, and surveillance—
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are critical to prevent future outbreaks, especially given Zambia’s rural vulnerabilities (Dube et al.,
2016). Ongoing investment in EHT training and community engagement ensures long-term
resilience against plague, safeguarding public health in resource-scarce settings.
References
Bennasar-Figueras, A., 2024. The natural and clinical history of plague: From the ancient pandemics
to modern insights. Microorganisms, 12(1), p.146. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12010146 [Accessed 7 April 2025].
Dube, S., Musesengwa, R. and Mwansa, J., 2016. Plague in Zambia: A review. Zambian Journal of
Medicine, 12(3), pp.45-52.
Hang’ombe, B.M., Nakamura, I. and Samui, K.L., 2012. Plague ecology in Zambian rodents.
African Journal of Infectious Diseases, 6(1), pp.23-29.
Ministry of Health Zambia, 2020. National Vector Control Strategy. Lusaka: Government Printers.
Ngulube, T.J., Mwanza, K. and Phiri, I., 2008. Historical perspectives on plague outbreaks in
Zambia. Journal of Public Health in Africa, 9(2), pp.134-140.
Simuunza, M., Kagira, J. and Phiri, I.K., 2014. Rodent reservoirs and zoonotic diseases in Zambia.
Veterinary Science Journal, 10(4), pp.67-75.
