Artificial Intelligence

Knowledge Representation

Prepared By:
Prof. Sushma Prajapati
Assistant Professor
CKPCET
Surat
Email: [Link]@[Link]
Representation Representation Representation

●Knowledge is a general term.

An answer to the question, "how to represent
knowledge", requires an
analysis to distinguish between knowledge “how”
and knowledge “that”.
l knowledge and Representation are two
distinct entities. They play a central but
distinguishable roles in intelligent system.
l Knowledge is a description of the world. It
determines a system's competence by
what it knows.
l Representation is the way knowledge is
encoded. It defines a system's
performance in doing something.
 Knowledge Representation
Formalism

Rules
Logic
Natural language
Database systems
Semantic nets
Frames
 Terms Related To Knowledge
l Objects
l Facts about objects in our world domain. e.g. car
has wheels,steering,wheels etc.
l Events
l Action that occur in our real world. e.g. rohan
drove car during surat trip
l Facts
l Truth about the real world and what we represent
l Representation of fact
l Which we manipulate
l Knowledge level
Knowledge Category
Knowledge Typology Map
Knowledge Type
Relationship among knowledge
type
 Knowledge and Representation
● Knowledge is the description of the world
− It determines a system's competence by what
it knows.
● Representation is the way knowledge is
encoded
− It defines the system's performance in doing
something
Mappings between Facts and Representation
 Representation and Mapping
l Representation mappings, there are:-

Forward representation which maps from facts to

representation.
Backward representation which maps the other
way.
l One representation of facts concerns with
natural language (particularly English)
sentences.
Example
 Approaches to knowledge
representation
● Representational Adequacy
− The ability to represent all kinds of knowledge
that are needed in the domain
● Inferential Adequacy
− The ability to manipulate the representational
structure to derive new structure
corresponding to new knowledge inferred from
old
 Contd..
● Inferential Efficiency
− The ability to incorporate additional
information into the knowledge structure that
can be used to focus the attention of the
inference mechanisms in the most promising
direction.
● Acquisitional Efficiency
− The ability to acquire new knowledge using
automatic methods wherever possible rather
than reliance on human intervention
 Knowledge representation
schemes
● Relational Knowledge
− provides a framework to compare two objects
based on equivalent attributes.
− any instance in which two different objects are
compared is a relational type of knowledge.
 Contd...
● Inheritable Knowledge
− is obtained from associated objects.
− it prescribes a structure in which new objects
are created which may inherit all or a subset of
attributes from existing objects.
 Viewing node as a frame
● Baseball-Player
● isa: Adult-Male
● bats: (Equal Handed)
● height: 6-1
● batting-average: .252
● Inferential Knowledge
− is inferred from objects through relations
among objects.
− e.g., a word alone is a simple syntax, but with
the help of other words in phrase the reader
may infer more from a word; this inference
within linguistic is called semantics.
● Procedural Knowledge
− A representation in which the control
information, to use the knowledge, is
embedded in the knowledge itself.
− e.g. computer programs, directions, and
recipes; specific use or implementation;
 Example

● A parser in a natural language has the

knowledge that a noun phrase may contain
articles, adjectives and nouns. It thus
accordingly call routines that know how to
process articles, adjectives and nouns.
 Issues in knowledge
representation
● Important Attributes
● Relationship among attributes
● Choosing Granularity
● Representing Set of objects
● Finding Right structure
 Important Attributes

● Any attribute of objects so basic that they

occur in almost every problem domain?
● Two main attributes
− instance and isa (supports property
inheritance)
 Relationship among attributes

● Any important relationship that exists

among object attributes?
● The relationship between the attributes of
an object, independent of specific
knowledge they encode, may hold
properties like:
− Inverses
− existence in an isa hierarchy
 Inverses

● This is about consistency check, while a

value is added to one attribute. The entities
are related to each other in many different
ways. The figure shows attributes (isa,
instance, and team), each with a directed
arrow, originating at the object being
described and terminating either at the
object or its value.
● There are two ways of realizing this:
− represent two relationships in a single
representation; e.g., a logical representation,
team(Pee-Wee-Reese, Brooklyn–Dodgers),
that can be interpreted as a statement about
Pee-Wee-Reese or Brooklyn–Dodger.
− use attributes that focus on a single entity but
use them in pairs, one the inverse of the other;
for e.g., one, team = Brooklyn–Dodgers , and
the other, team = Pee-Wee-Reese, . . .
.(sementic net)
 Existence in an "isa" hierarchy
● This is about generalization-specialization,
like, classes of objects and Specialized
subsets of those [Link] are
attributes and specialization of attributes.
● Example: the attribute "height" is
specialization of general attribute
"physical-size" which is, in turn, a
specialization of "physical-attribute”
 Techniques for reasoning about
values
● This is about reasoning values of attributes
not given explicitly
● Several kinds of information are used in
reasoning, like,
− height : must be in a unit of length
− age: of person can not be greater than the age
of person's parents
 Single valued attributes

● This is about a specific attribute that is

guaranteed to take a unique value.
● Example : A baseball player can at time
have only a single height and be a member
of only one team. KR systems take
different approaches to provide support for
single valued attributes.
● Back
 Choosing Granularity
● What level should the knowledge be
represented and what are the primitives ?
− Should there be a small number or should
there be a large number of low-level primitives
or High-level facts.
− High-level facts may not be adequate for
inference while Low-level primitives may
require a lot of storage
 Example of Granularity
● John spotted Sue
● This could be represented as
− Spotted (agent(John), object (Sue))
● Such a representation would make it easy
to answer questions such are
− Who spotted Sue ?
● Suppose we want to know
− Did John see Sue ?
− What will be the answer???
 Set of Objects

● Certain properties of objects that are true

as member of a set but not as individual
− Example : Consider the assertion made in the
sentences "there are more sheep than people
in Australia", and "English speakers can be
found all over the world."
● To describe these facts, the only way is to
attach assertion to the sets representing
people, sheep, and English .
● The reason to represent sets of objects is
− If a property is true for all or most elements of
a set,
− then it is more efficient to associate it once
with the set
− rather than to associate it explicitly with every
elements of the set .
● This is done in different ways
− in logical representation through the use of
universal quantifier,and
● Example: assert large (elephant)

● Remember to make clear distinction

between,
− − whether we are asserting some property of
the set itself, means, the set of elephants is
large ,
● or
− asserting some property that holds for
 Finding Right Structure

● Access to right structure for describing a

particular situation
● It requires, selecting an initial structure and
then revising the [Link] doing so, it
is necessary to solve following problems
− how to perform an initial selection of the most
appropriate structure.