Tarumanagara Interpretations

Dr Uday Dokras

References to the Dvipantara or Yawadvipa, a Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in
Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. In India's earliest epic, the Ramayana, Sugriva, the chief
of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita, but
the history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, natural resources, a series
of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and
politics. Indonesia is an archipelagic country of 17,000 to 18,000 islands stretching along the
equator in Southeast Asia and Oceania.

What’s in a Name

The name Tarumanagara was found in several inscriptions in the Western Java region dated
from circa 4th century. The Chinese chronicle also recorded the name To-lo-ma or To-lo-
mo which suggest the Chinese pronunciation of "Taruma". Tarumanagara means the kingdom of
Taruma. The name "Taruma" itself is connected to the Citarum River of West Java.
In Sundanese language, ci means water or river while tarum means indigo plant. Tarum is local
name of indigo plant that used to create the indigo dyeing pigment. However the author feels that
the word Tarumanagara comprises of 2 words in Sanskrit- Tarun (meaning Young of just
formed ) and Nagara ( meaning City ).

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If Tarumanagara was an early Sundanese kingdom in western Java, then Mataram refers to both
an ancient Hindu-Buddhist kingdom and later an Islamic kingdom (Mataram Sultanate) in
Central Java, with the name also used for a city on Lombok. And is Considered an early
Sundanese Indianized kingdom. 5th century CE, Tarumanagara was located in Western Java,
stretching from Banten to Bekasi. King Purnawarman, whose inscriptions are the earliest known
in Java, dating back to around 358 CE.

Mataram:

Ancient Mataram: A Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in the 8th century.

Mataram Sultanate: An Islamic kingdom that emerged in the 16th century, also known as
Islamic Mataram.
Location: Central Java.
Significance: The last major independent Javanese kingdom before Dutch colonization.
Mataram City: The city on Lombok, named after the historic region of Mataram in Java.

Thus Tarumanegara is the oldest recorded kingdom in western Java. It

was established about the 5th century AD, but little is recorded about the
kingdom except for a sketchy account by a Chinese traveler and several
rock inscriptions discovered near Bogor and in extreme western Java. These
sources agree that the most powerful king of Tarumanegara
was Purnavarman, who conquered neighbouring countries and built a canal
to improve irrigation. The main product of the kingdom was indigo; its
people practiced Buddhism. Chinese sources refer to the kingdom as To-lo-
ma.

History

From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished,
bringing Hindu and Buddhist influences with it. The agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and
Hindu Mataram dynasties subsequently thrived in inland Java. The last significant non-Muslim
kingdom, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom, flourished from the late 13th century, and its influence
stretched over much of Indonesia. The earliest evidence of Islamised populations in Indonesia
dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra; other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam,
which became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century.[3] For
the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences.

Europeans such as the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to
monopolise the sources of valuable nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku. In 1602, the
Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC)
and became the dominant European power by 1610. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was
formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East
Indies under government control. By the early 20th century, Dutch dominance extended to the
current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and occupation in 1942–1945 during WWII ended
Dutch rule, and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two

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days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader Sukarno declared
independence and became president. The Netherlands tried to reestablish its rule, but a bitter
armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international
pressure the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence.

Early kingdoms
Much of Indonesia, like much of Southeast Asia, were influenced by Indian [Link] the 2nd
century, through the Indian dynasties like the Pallava, Gupta, Pala and Chola in the succeeding
centuries up to the 12th century, Indian culture spread across all of Southeast Asia.

References to the Dvipantara or Yawadvipa, a Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in
Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. In India's earliest epic, the Ramayana, Sugriva, the chief
of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.
According to the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai Java had a kingdom with a capital called
Nagapuram. The earliest archaeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon
National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu statue of Ganesha estimated from the 1st
century CE was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan island. There is also
archaeological evidence of Sunda Kingdom in West Java dating from the 2nd-century, and Jiwa
Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was probably built around this time. South Indian
culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the south Indian Pallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th
centuries. and by the 5th century, stone inscriptions written in Pallava scripts were found in Java
and Borneo.

1600-year-old stone inscription from the era of Purnawarman, king

of Tarumanagara, founded in Tugu sub-district of Jakarta
A number of Hindu and Buddhist states flourished and then declined across Indonesia. Seven
rough plinths dating from the beginning of the 4th century CE were found in Kutai, East
Kalimantan, near the Mahakam River known as the Yupa inscription or "Mulavarman
Inscription" believed to be one of the earliest Sanskrit inscriptions of Indonesia, the plinths were
written by Brahmins in the Sanskrit language using the Pallava script of India recalling of a
generous king by the name of Mulavarman who donated a huge amount of alms to Brahmin
priests in his kingdom, the kingdom was known as the Kutai Martadipura Kingdom located in

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present East Kalimantan Province, believed to be the oldest and first Hindu kingdom of
Indonesia.

Tarumanagara and Sunda

One such early kingdom was Tarumanagara, which flourished between 358 and 669 CE. Located
in West Java close to modern-day Jakarta, its 5th-century king, Purnawarman, established the
earliest known inscriptions in Java, the Ciaruteun inscription located near Bogor. And other
inscriptions called the Pasir Awi inscription and the Muncul inscription. On this monument,
King Purnawarman inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his
elephant's footprints. The accompanying inscription reads, "Here are the footprints of King
Purnavarman, the heroic conqueror of the world". This inscription is written in Pallava script and
in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years. Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed
the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement
purpose. In his stone inscriptions, Purnawarman associated himself with Vishnu,
and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.

8th-century Borobudur Buddhist monument, Sailendra dynasty, is the largest Buddhist temple in
the world. /// Tarumanagara,Seal
Around the same period, in the 6th to 7th centuries (501–700 CE), the Kalingga Kingdom was
established in Central Java northern coast, mentioned in Chinese [Link] name of this
kingdom was derived from ancient Indian kingdom of Kalinga, which suggest the ancient link
between India and Indonesia.

The political history of Indonesian archipelago during the 7th to 11th (601–1100 CE) around
centuries was dominated by Srivijaya based in Sumatra and Sailendra that dominated southeast
Asia based in Java and constructed Borobudur, the largest Buddhist monument in the world. The
history prior of the 14th and 15th centuries (1301–1500 CE) is not well known due to the
scarcity of evidence. By the 15th century (1401–1500 CE), two major states dominated this
period; Majapahit in East Java, the greatest of the pre-Islamic Indonesian states, and Malacca on
the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, arguably one of the greatest of the Muslim trading
empires, this marked the rise of Muslim states in the Indonesian archipelago.

Mataram

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 Sewu temple in Special
Region of Yogyakarta/ Prambanan in Java was built during the Sanjaya dynasty of Mataram
Kingdom; it is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in Southeast Asia.
Mataram Empire, sometimes referred to as Mataram Kingdom, was an Indianized
kingdom based in Central Java around modern-day Yogyakarta between the 8th and 10th
centuries. The kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty, and later by the Sanjaya dynasty.
The centre of the kingdom was moved from central Java to East Java by Mpu Sindok. An
eruption of the volcano Mount Merapi in 929, and political pressure from Sailendrans based in
the Srivijaya Empire may have caused the move.

The first king of Mataram, Sri Sanjaya, left inscriptions in stone. The monumental Hindu temple
of Prambanan in the vicinity of Yogyakarta was built by Pikatan. Dharmawangsa ordered the
translation of the Mahabharata into Old Javanese in 996.

In the period 750 CE – 850 CE, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and
architecture. A rapid increase in temple construction occurred across the landscape of its
heartland in Mataram (Kedu and Kewu Plain). The most notable temples constructed in Mataram
are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan. The Empire had become the supreme power not
only in Java but also over Srivijayan Empire, Bali, southern Thailand,
some Philippine kingdoms, and Khmer in Cambodia

Later in its history, the dynasty divided into two dynasties based on their own religion,
the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war was unavoidable and the outcome was Mataram
Empire divided into two powerful kingdom based on region and religion. The Shivaist
dynasty of Mataram kingdom in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist
dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led by Balaputradewa. The hostility between them
didn't end until in 1006 when the Sailendran based in Srivijaya kingdom incited rebellion by
Wurawari, vassal of Mataram kingdom and sacked Shivaist dynasty's capital in Watugaluh, Java.
Srivijaya kingdom rose into undisputed hegemonic Empire in the era as the result. Yet the
Shivaist dynasty survived and successfully reclaimed the east Java in 1019 then descended
to Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga son of Udayana of Bali.

Srivijaya
Srivijaya was a kingdom on Sumatra which influenced much of the Maritime Southeast Asia.
From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and
the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.

Srivijaya was centred in the coastal trading centre of present-day Palembang. Srivijaya was not a
"state" in the modern sense with defined boundaries and a centralised government to which the

5
citizens own allegiance.[52] Rather Srivijaya was a confederacy form of society centred on a royal
heartland. It was a thalassocracy and did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of
the islands of Southeast Asia. Trade was the driving force of Srivijaya just as it is for most
societies throughout history. The Srivijayan navy controlled the trade that made its way through
the Strait of Malacca.

The territory of the Srivijaya empire. Historically, Srivijaya was one of the largest
kingdoms in Southeast Asia/The depiction of Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, the first king of
Srivijaya
By the 7th century, the harbours of various vassal states of Srivijaya lined both coasts of the
Straits of Melaka. Around this time, Srivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of
Sumatra, western Java, and much of the Malay Peninsula. Dominating the Malacca and Sunda
straits, the empire controlled both the Spice Route traffic and local trade. It remained a
formidable sea power until the 13th century. [54] This spread the ethnic Malay culture throughout
Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. A stronghold of Mahayana Buddhism,
Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia.

The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign
of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire attacked
Srivijaya cities.[56] A series of Chola raids in the 11th century weakened the Srivijayan hegemony
and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture
rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Srivijayan influence waned by the 11th century. The
island was in frequent conflict with the Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and then Majapahit.
Islam eventually made its way to the Aceh region of Sumatra, spreading its influence through
contacts with Arabs and Indian traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in
northern Sumatra converted to Islam. The last inscription dates to 1374, where a crown prince,
Ananggavarman, is mentioned. Srivijaya ceased to exist by 1414, when Parameswara, the
kingdom's last prince, fled to Temasik, then to Malacca. Later his son converted to Islam and
founded the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula.

Singhasari and Majapahit

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Archaeological remains in Trowulan, the capital city of the Majapahit

Expansion of the Majapahit empire extended to much of the Indonesian archipelago until it
receded and fell in the early 16th century./Modern illustration of Gajah Mada, a powerful
military leader, credited with bringing the empire to its peak of glory
Majapahit was the most dominant of Indonesia's pre-Islamic states. The
Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah
Mada it experienced what is often referred to as a golden age in Indonesian history, when its
influence extended to much of southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali [58] from
about 1293 to around 1500.

The founder of the Majapahit Empire, Kertarajasa, was the son-in-law of the ruler of
the Singhasari kingdom, also based in Java. After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of Java in 1290,
the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of Kublai Khan in China and he sent
emissaries demanding tribute. Kertanagara, ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, refused to pay
tribute and the Khan sent a punitive expedition which arrived off the coast of Java in 1293. By
that time, a rebel from Kediri, Jayakatwang, had killed Kertanagara. The Majapahit founder
allied himself with the Mongols against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom was
destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion.

Gajah Mada, a Majapahit prime minister and regent from 1331 to 1364, extended the empire's
rule to the surrounding islands. A few years after Gajah Mada's death, the Majapahit navy
captured Palembang, putting an end to the Sriwijaya kingdom. Although the Majapahit rulers
extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighbouring kingdoms, their focus seems

7
to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed
through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded, Muslim traders
and proselytisers began entering the area. After its peak in the 14th century, Majapahit power
began to decline and was unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca. Dates
for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 to 1520. A large number of courtiers,
artisans, priests, and members of the royal family moved east to the island of Bali at the end of
Majapahit power.

Tarumanagara in several inscriptions in the Western Java region

Tarumanagara or Taruma Kingdom or just Taruma was an early Sundanese Indianised

kingdom , located in western Java, whose 5th-century ruler, Purnawarman, produced the earliest
known inscriptions in Java, which are estimated to date from around 358 CE. The history of the
Tarumanegara Kingdom comes from a number of inscriptions dating from the 5th century AD.
The inscriptions are named based on the location where they were found, namely the Ciaruteun
inscription, the Pasir Koleangkak inscription, the Kebonkopi inscription, the Tugu inscription,
the Pasir Awi inscription, the Muara Cianten inscription, and the Cidanghiang inscription. The
inscription mentions the name of the ruling king is Purnawarman. Cidanghiang inscription (sits
further to the west at Lebak in the Pandeglang area), consisting of two lines, proclaiming
Purnawarman as the standard for rulers around the world. Jambu inscription, with a two-line
inscription in Pallava/Sanskrit, bears the large footprints of the king. The inscription translates
as:

The name of the king who is famous of faithfully executing his duties and who is incomparable
(peerless) is Sri Purnawarman who reigns Taruma. His armour cannot be penetrated by the
arrows of his enemies. The prints of the foot soles belong to him who was always successful to
destroy the fortresses of his enemies, and was always charitable and gave honorable receptions to
those who are loyal to him and hostile to his enemies
Kings after Purnawarman

Fragment of Hindu god Vishnu discovered in Batujaya

archaeological site, West Java.
Purnawarman probably is the most well-known king of Tarumanagara because he produced quite
a number of well documented inscriptions. The records about Tarumanagara's later kings were
scarce and obscure, most were known from later manuscripts and local traditions.

8
Later series of Tarumanagara kings are only known from their names, all bears the
name warman (Sanskrit: varman means "shield" or "protector") which suggests that all of them
belongs in the same dynasty.

A rather detailed information was known about King Suryawarman that ruled from 535 to 561.
King Suryawarman established a new capital city eastward and left Sundapura and its
communities to preserve their own order. Then, Sundapura become a new smaller kingdom
called Sunda Sambawa which was under control of Tarumanagara. Before the Suryavarman
reigned Tarumanagara, Manikmaya, his son in-law, in 526, left Sundapura went southeastward
and established Kendan, a new kingdom currently in Nagreg area, near modern Garut city.

Kertawarman ruled c. 561 to 628. During this period the grandson of Manikmaya,
Wretikandayun, in 612, established Galuh Kingdom, southeast of current Garut with its capital
city located in Banjar Pataruman. Kertawarman's successor, King Linggawarman ruled from 628
to 650, he however produced no male heir. Linggawarman's eldest daughter Manasih, married to
Tarusbawa, ruler of Sunda Sembawa. While the second daughter of King Linggawarman,
Princess Sobakancana, married Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, who later established
the Srivijaya kingdom.

At least seven stone inscriptions connected to this kingdom were discovered in Western Java
area, near Bogor and Jakarta. They are Ciaruteun, Kebon Kopi, Jambu, Pasir Awi, and Muara
Cianten inscriptions near Bogor; Tugu inscription near Cilincing in North Jakarta;
and Cidanghiang inscription in Lebak village, Munjul district, south of Banten.

9
The inscriptions of Taruma kingdom are the earliest records of Hinduism in the western part of
the archipelago. The geographical position of coastal West Java, which corresponds to today
modern Jakarta, is a commanding region that controls the Sunda Strait. This location is strategic
in regard to Sumatra, and also its connection to Asian continent of India and China.

The kingdom was located not far from modern Jakarta, and according to the Tugu
inscription Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River,
and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement. In his inscriptions, Purnavarman
associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins secured the hydraulic project through
ritual. Tarumanagara is believed to have existed between 358 and 669 CE in the Western Java
region, in and around modern-day Bogor, Bekasi and Jakarta, which roughly corresponds to
modern Greater Jakarta area.

The earliest known written records of Tarumanagara's existence were inscribed in stone
inscriptions. Inscribed stone is called prasasti in Indonesian. Numbers of stone inscriptions
dated from Tarumanagara period were discovered in Western Java region.

Batutulis Inscription, South Bogor, Bogor. Batutulis inscrition in 1920s

The Batutulis or Bogor inscription is an ancient Sunda Kingdom inscription dated 1533,
located at Batutulis village, South Bogor, West Java. Batutulis inscription is located in the
ancient site of the capital Pakuan Pajajaran, Batutulis means 'inscribed stone', it is this stone,
still in situ, which gave name to the village.[1] The complex of Batutulis measures 17 x 15 metres.
Several other inscribed stones from the Sunda Kingdom are also located in this location. The
inscription was written in the Old Sundanese language using the Pallava Script

The Batutulis inscriptions were created by King Surawisesa to honor and commemorate his late
father, the great king Sri Baduga Maharaja (r. 1482 – 1521) or known as Ratu Haji Pakuan
Pajajaran Sri Sang Ratu Dewata. Sri Baduga Maharaja is also known in local tradition as King
Siliwangi.

Batutulis inscription has been edited and translated by several scholars, such as Friederich
(1853), Karel Frederick Holle (1869), Pleyte (1911), Poerbatjaraka (1921) Noorduyn (1957), and

10
Aditia Gunawan and Arlo Griffiths (2021). The following reading is quoted from Aditia
Gunawan and Griffiths' edition:

Batutulis Inscription texts

1. Ø Ø vaṁ(ṅ) a‹m›(p)un· I(n)i sakakala, pr(ə)bu ratu pura:na pun·, ḍivas·tu

2. ḍyi, viṅaran· prəbu guru ḍe(va)ta p(ra)n· ḍivas·tu ḍyə ḍiṅaran· sri
3. baduga maharaja, ratu ha(j)i ḍi pakvan· pajajaran· sri sa‹ṁ› ratu ḍe-
4. vata pun· ya nu ñusuk· na pakvan· ḍyə Anak· rahyi‹ṁ› ḍeva nis·-
5. kala, sa‹ṁ› siḍa mok(·)ta ḍi gunuṁ tiga, qə‹ñ›cu rahyiṁ (n)is·kala vas·tu
6. ka‹ñ›ca:na, saṁ siḍa mok·ta ka nusa laraṁ, ya syi nu (ñ)yin· sakaka-
7. la, gugun(uṅ)an·, (ṅa)balay·,, ñyin· samiḍa, ñyin· saṁ hyi‹ṁ› talaga [va-]
8. R̥ na mahavijaya, ya syi pun·,, ØØ I saka, pañca pan·ḍa-
9. va ṅ(ə)‹m›ban· bumi Ø Ø

Translation
The English translation quoted here is by Aditia Gunawan and Arlo Griffiths (2021):

Om, pardon [any errors]. This is the memorial of his majesty the former king, inaugurated
here with the name Prabu Guru Déwata, (and also) inaugurated here with the name Sri
Baduga Maharaja, king of kings in Pakwan Pajajaran, Sri Sang Ratu Déwata. He is the
one who demarcated Pakwan here, (being) the child of Rahyang Dewa Niskala, the one
who vanished at Gunung Tiga; the grandchild of Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana, the
one who vanished to Nusa Larang. He, that one, produced the commemoration monument,

11
artificial hill, cladded [it] with stone; he produced the ritual ground (samiḍa); he produced
the holy Color Lake. Greatly victorious was he! In the year: “the five Pandawas guard the
earth” (i.e. in 1455 Śaka).

The historiography of the Taruma kingdom were mostly uncovered, acquired and constructed
from two main sources; the primary record of the stone inscriptions discovered near present-day
Bogor and Jakarta, and Chinese chronicles dated from the Sui and Tang dynasties.

Ciaruteun
inscription discovered by Tjiaroeteun river near Buitenzorg, photographed before 1900.
Ciaruteun inscription (Indonesian: Prasasti Ciaruteun) also written Ciarutön or also known
as Ciampea inscription is a 5th-century stone inscription discovered on the riverbed of
Ciaruteun River, a tributary of Cisadane River, not far from Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. The
inscription is dated from the Tarumanagara kingdom period, one of the earliest Hindu kingdoms
in Indonesian history. The inscription states King Purnawarman is the ruler of Tarumanagara.

Location and description

Ciaruteun inscription is located in Ciaruteun Ilir village, Cibungbulang district, Bogor Regency;
on coordinate 6°31’23.6” latitude and 106°41’28.2” longitude. This location is approximately 19
kilometres Northwest of Bogor city center. The location is a small hill (Sunda: pasir) which is
the confluence of three rivers: Cisadane, Cianten, and Ciaruteun. Until 19th century, the location
is reported as part of Pasir Muara, which included into the private land of Tjampéa (Ciampea),
although today it is part of Cibungbulang district.

The inscription was inscribed on a huge natural stone locally known as batu kali (river stone)
weighted eight tonnes, and measures 200 centimetres by 150 centimetres.

History

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 Ciaruteun Inscription.

In 1863 Dutch East Indies, a huge boulder of inscribed stone was spotted near Tjampea
(Ciampea) not far from Buitenzorg (Bogor). The stone inscription was discovered on the river
bed of Tjiaroeteun river, a tributary of Cisadane River. It is today known as Ciaruteun
inscription, dated from the 5th century, written in Vengi letters (used in the Indian Pallava
period) and in Sanskrit language. This is the earliest inscription that clearly mentioned the
kingdom's name — "Tarumanagara".The inscription reports Purnawarman as the most famous
king of Tarumanagara. In the same year, the discovery of this inscription was reported to the
Bataaviasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen (today National Museum of
Indonesia) in Batavia. Because of the large flood in 1893, the stone was carried away several
meters and was slightly tilted. Then in 1903, the inscription was restored to its original position.

In 1981, the Directorate of Protection and Development of Heritage and Antiquities, a

subdivision of Ministry of Education and Culture, moved the stone inscription from the river bed
into a higher location, not far from its original position. Today, the inscription is protected by
a pendopo roofed structure in order to protect the inscription from weathering and vandalism.
The replicas of the inscription are displayed in three museums; National Museum of
Indonesia and Jakarta History Museum in Jakarta, and also Sri Baduga Museum in Bandung.

The ancient letters inscribed on the Ciaruteun inscription, located in its current location at
Ciaruteun Ilir village. The text of Ciaruteun Inscription.

Ciaruteun inscription was written in Vengi script composed as a sloka poem

in Sanskrit with Anustubh metrum consists of four lines. On the end of the inscribed text, there is
a print of a pair of foot soles and shell characters (Sankha lipi).

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Transcription

Lin
Transliteration
e

1 vikkrāntasyāvanipateḥ

2 śrīmataḥ pūrṇṇavarmmaṇaḥ

3 tārūmanagarendrasya

4 viṣṇoriva padadvayam

Translation
The powerful illustrious and brave King, the famous Purnawarman (of the) Tarumanagara
(kingdom) whose (print of the) foot soles are the same (as those of) God Vishnu.
The print of foot soles symbolize the king's authority on the land where the inscription is located.
The comparison to the Hindu god Vishnu symbolizes that Vishnu was the chief deity revered by
Purnawarman, and comparing Purnawarman authority with Vishnu as the ruler as well as the
protector of the people. The utilization of footprints at that times was most probably as a sign of
authenticity, like a seal or a personal signature of today, or like a sign of land [Link]
stone inscription is written in Vengi letters (used in the Indian Pallava period) and in Sanskrit
language. This is the earliest inscription that clearly mentioned the kingdom's name
"Tarumanagara". The inscription reports the most famous king of Tarumanagara:

"The powerful illustrious and brave King, the famous Purnawarman (of the)
Tarumanagara (kingdom) whose (print of the) foot soles are the same (as those of) God
Vishnu."
Ciaruteun inscription.
It is written in the Vengi Language. Vengi or Venginadu is a historic region located in present-
day Andhra Pradesh, India spread over the Godavari and Krishna river deltas. Its capital was
located at Pedavegi, near Eluru. Vengi was a prominent city in ancient and medieval Andhra for
nearly seven centuries and served as the capital for several dynasties, including
the Salankayanas and the Eastern Chalukyas.

Mauryan and Satavahana Period

Vengi was part of Ashoka's Maurya Empire in the mid-3rd century BCE. Following the decline
of the Mauryas, the region came under the control of the Satavahana dynasty, who ruled for
nearly four centuries. The Satavahanas, established by Simuka, extended their domain to include

14
areas as far as Magadha and Bengal at their zenith. After the fall of the Satavahanas, the region
was governed by successive dynasties such as the Pallavas and Andhra Ikshvakus.

Salankayanas and Vishnukundinas

By 300 CE, the Salankayana dynasty replaced the Andhra Ikshvakus and ruled over Vengi. In
the late 5th century, the Salankayanas were annexed by the Vishnukundinas, who expanded their
control over the region.

Chalukyas of Vengi
In the early 7th century, King Pulakesin II of the Chalukyas of Badami conquered Vengi from
the Vishnukundinas and installed his brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana, as the ruler of the region.
This marked the beginning of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty, which ruled for several centuries.
The Eastern Chalukyas expanded their territory, extending their influence as far north
as Srikakulam and as far south as Nellore. The dynasty frequently faced invasions from
the Rashtrakutas and other neighboring powers.

Chola Conquest and Influence

In the late 10th century, the Chola dynasty under Raja Raja Chola I invaded Vengi to support
Saktivarman I, an Eastern Chalukya prince, against local rivals. Saktivarman was restored to the
throne in 1002 CE under the overlordship of the Cholas. Subsequent marital alliances between
the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas solidified their relationship, allowing the Cholas to absorb
Vengi into their empire during the reign of Kulothunga Chola I. Vengi remained under Chola
control until the 12th century.

Later Dynasties
Following the decline of the Cholas, Vengi came under the control of the Velanati Chodas, who
served as vassals to the Cholas. By the early 13th century, the region was incorporated into
the Kakatiya Empire. The Reddy dynasty ruled the area from 1328 until it became part of
the Vijayanagara Empire in the 15th century.

Located nearby is the Kebon Kopi I inscription, also called Telapak Gadjah stone, with an
inscription and the engraving of two large elephant footprints.

Kebon Kopi I also known as Tapak Gajah inscription

15
 Kebon Kopi I [Link] Gajah
inscription on its original location in early 20th century

Kebon Kopi I also known as Tapak Gajah inscription (elephant footprint inscription),is one of
several inscriptions dated from the era of Tarumanagara Kingdom circa 5th century. The
inscription bearing the image of elephant footprint, which was copied from the elephant ride of
King Purnawarman of Tarumanagara, which is equated with Airavata, the
elephant vahana (vehicle) of [Link] inscription was discovered in Kebon Kopi village, Bogor,
near Kebon Kopi II inscription, and named as such to differ it from this later inscription dated
from Sunda Kingdom era.

This inscription is written with Pallawa script in Sanskrit which are arranged into the form of
the Anustubh metrum Shloka, which is flanked by a pair of carved images of the elephant's foot.

Facsimile of the
inscription, based on the in situ condition in 2024.

Transcription:
~ ~ jayavisalasya Tarumendrasya hastinah ~ ~
Airwavatabhasya vibhatidam ~ padadvayam

Translation:
"Behold, here it looks like a pair of feet ...like Airavata, the elephant ride of the great Taruma
ruler in... and (?) glory"

The inscription read: These elephant foot soles, akin to those of the strong Airavata (elephant,
which God Indra used to ride), belongs to Tarumanagara King who is successful and full of
control.

16
Not only the stones testify of the existence of King Purnawarman and his Tarumanagara
kingdom, but also Chinese historical sources, since Tarumanagara maintained extended trade and
diplomatic relations in the territory stretching between India and China. The Chinese Buddhist
Monk Fa Xian reported in his book Fo-kuo-chi (414) that he stayed on the island of Ye-po-ti .
Chinese spelling of Javadvipa), most probably the western part of Java island, for six months,
from December 412 until May 413. He reported that the Law of Buddha was not much known,
but that the Brahmans (Hinduism) flourished, and heretics (animists) too.

Between the period 528 to 669, Tarumanagara sent their embassy to Chinese court. The
kingdom was mentioned in the annals of the Sui dynasty, the king of To-lo-mo -Taruma) has sent
diplomatic mission, which arrived in China in 528 and 535. It was mentioned that the kingdom is
located far south of China.

The annals of Tang dynasty also mentioned in the year 666 and 669 the envoys of To-lo-mo has
visited the court of Tang.

The history of Sunda kingdom and its predecessor (Tarumanagara and Salakanagara) is recorded
quite detailed in Pustaka Rajyarajya i Bhumi Nusantara (simply known as Nusantara), a book
within Wangsakerta manuscripts collection composed in late 17th century Cirebon. However,
currently the Wangsakerta manuscripts are generally discounted as a valid historical source
among historians, since this controversial manuscript is suspected as a fraud
containing pseudohistory.

The name Tarumanagara was found in several inscriptions in the Western Java region dated
from circa 4th century. The Chinese chronicle also recorded the name To-lo-ma or To-lo-
mo which suggest the Chinese pronunciation of "Taruma". Tarumanagara means the kingdom of
Taruma. The name "Taruma" itself is connected to the Citarum River of West Java. In Sundanese
language, ci means water or river while tarum means indigo plant. Tarum is local name of indigo
plant that used to create the indigo dyeing pigment.
History

Statue of Kali from Tanjung Priok, North Jakarta

17
Around 400 BCE to 100 CE, a prehistoric clay pottery culture was flourished in northern coastal
Western Java. This clay pottery culture is identified as Buni culture, named after its first
discovered archaeological site, Buni village in Babelan, Bekasi, east of Jakarta. Archaeologist
suggests that this culture was the predecessor of Taruma kingdom. This is affirmative regarding
its connection to Batujaya archaeological site. The ancient society that supported the Buni
culture was Indianised; absorbing Hindu influences from India, and establishing early Hindu
polity in Java.

According to the book Geographike Hyphegesis written in 2nd-century Roman Empire, a Greek
geographer Claudius Ptolemaeus mentioned about countries in the far east of the known world
then. Among others is a city called Argyre on the western edge of the Iabadiou island. Iabadiou
can be equated in Sanskrit as Yawadwipa, which corresponds to the island of Java. The
name argyre means "silver", while in local Indonesian and Sundanese language, silver is
called perak, which sound similar to the Merak port town on the western edge of Java.

Age of Purnawarman

Inscription from the era of Purnawarman, undated, founded in Tugu sub-

district of Jakarta.

Decline

The fine brickwork on the base of Batujaya Buddhist stupa in

Karawang, dated from late Tarumanagara period (5th–7th century) to early Srivijaya influence
(7th–10th century).
According to 7th century Kota Kapur inscription, Srivijaya, centred in today Palembang, South
Sumatra, launched a military expedition against Bhumi Jawa, the period coincides with the
decline of Tarumanagara. It is very likely that Tarumanagara kingdom was attacked and defeated
by Srivijaya around 686. The pretext behind Srivijayan campaign against Tarumanagara was
18
obscure, however it was probably because of Jayanasa's own claim to Tarumanagara's throne,
afterall his wife, Sobakancana, is the daughter of Linggawarman, the late king of Tarumanagara.
After this naval invasion, Tarumanegara's influence began to decline.

Devastated by Srivijayan invasion, King Tarusbawa then moved further inland to find a refuge in
the south and established a new capital near the Cipakancilan river upstream (today in
modern Bogor). It seems that he left the coastal areas of port of Sunda and Kalapa (today coastal
areas of modern Banten and Jakarta) under Srivijayan mandala's control. This capital centuries
later became the city of Pakuan Pajajaran (or shortly called Pakuan or Pajajaran). King
Tarusbawa becomes the predecessor of Sunda kings.

The Chinese source mentioned about the product being traded in Taruma, which suggests the
population made a living in hunting, mining, fishing, trade and shipping; aside of agriculture and
farming sector. The commodities being traded in Taruma was specific hunting products, such
as rhino horn, ivory and turtle shell. Gold and silver were traded too, which suggest the active
mining sector. The Tugu inscription mentioned about the construction of hydraulic projects
through the construction canals. This irrigation project suggest that the area of northern West
Java and Jakarta was transformed into irrigated rice paddies. The canals also meant as a water
management to prevent flooding that often hit the capital of Tarumanagara.

Religion

Two Vishnu statues from Cibuaya, Karawang, West Java.

Tarumanagara c. 7th-8th century. The tubular crown bears similarities with Cambodian Khmer
art.
According to the 4th century writings of Faxian, a Buddhist pilgrim from Tang China that visited
Tarumanagara in his journey to India; in the early 5th century there were three kinds of religions
adhered by the population of Taruma kingdom; i.e. Buddhism just as adhered by Faxian himself,
Hinduism, and a religion which he described as "impure" religion. The so-called "impure"
religion probably refer to native animism beliefs practiced by local population prior of Hindu-
Buddhist influence.

Hinduism was the main religion in Tarumanagara kingdom, at least among its elites ruling class.
This is based on several inscriptions dated from Tarumanagara period. For example, Tugu

19
inscription mentioned that the father of Purnawarman is titled as Rajadhiraja Guru has dug the
canal in Chandrabhaga. Purnawarman himself credited for the construction of Gomati canal. The
inscription also mentioned that King Purnawarman donated a thousand cows as gifts for
Brahmins. These rituals demonstrate the Vedic Hinduism practice. The Ciaruteun
inscription also demonstrated Vedic tradition; by equating the print of Purnawarman's soles with
the foot of Hindu god Vishnu. Both Ciaruteun and Cidanghiang inscription mention vikkranta,
which rever to Trivikrama or the "three steps" performed by of Vishnu avatar, Vamana. In
Jambu inscription, Purnavarman was equated with Indra and [Link] Vishnu statues from
Cibuaya dated from 7th century, also the Rajarsi statue discovered in Jakarta, also testified of
Hindu prevalence in Tarumanagara.

Buddhist clay votive tablets discovered at Batujaya stupa.

Buddhism was practiced in Tarumanagara as reported by Faxian in early 5th century. However,
he said there were only a few Buddhists in the kingdom. Near the north coast of West Java, earth
mounds called by locals as unur or hunur were discovered in the 1960s. The excavated earth
mounds in the Batujaya archaeological site in Karawang (within the territory of Tarumanagara)
have revealed that these earth mounds were actually red brick structures, either Candi (temples)
or stupas.

In total, archeological finds have uncovered around 30 sites (13 are of brick temples) from the
Batujaya archaeological complex. These 5th century findings are of temples, stupas, inscriptions
and moulded clay tablets recovered from 1995, 1997 and 2001. Among these tablets include a
Buddha seated on a throne, flanked by bodhissatvas and surrounded with tall stupas and topped
by parasols.[14] Besides this, a number of Buddhist votive tablets were discovered near
Blandongan temple, also in the Batujaya archaeological site, confirming a Buddhist background
of the site, and that the faith was indeed practiced in Tarumanagara.

The stratigraphy of Blandongan temple revealed several layers of cultures dated between 2nd–
12th century. This means after the fall of Tarumanagara, the Buddhist site of Batujaya was still
actively used. Which means the Batujaya temples was used between the 4th and 7th century
during the Tarumanagara period; and continued well after the 7th–10th century, possibly
under Srivijaya suzerainty.

Unlike its successor; the Sunda kingdom that still remembered in Pantun Sunda; the oral
tradition of local Sundanese-Tarumanagara was completely forgotten among local population in
West Java. It was not until late 19th century when archaeologist and historian finally deciphered
the stone inscriptions discovered near Buitenzorg and Batavia. The discovery and study of
numerous Tarumanagara inscriptions; especially those issued by King Purnawarman, had

20
uncover that this kingdom was indeed the earliest Hindu polity in western Indonesia. Together
with Kutai and Kalingga, Tarumanagara is remembered as a pioneer states that started
the historical period of Indonesia.

Tarumanagara is especially important as the historical identity for the city of Bekasi and
its surrounding area, since local historians believe that the capital of Tarumanagara was located
in or around the present day Bekasi city. The name Chandrabhaga mentioned in Tarumanaga
inscription believed was the ancient name of Bekasi—from Chandrabhaga (Sanskrit for "moon
river"), changed to Bhagasasi and finally corrupted into its present form as Bekasi.

Tarumanagara kingdom also has become the name for Tarumanagara University, a private
university based in Jakarta, established in 1959.

What is the meaning of Nagar?

In my article The Many Pur(as )of the Khmer Empire I had stated that the ancient cities had
distince and many times Sanscritized names. Today, no city in Cambodia is called a pura. But all
major cities in the ancient Empires of Angkor and many in Funan and Chenla were “puras.”In
his Journal article-Tarumanagara: What's in a name? Robert Wessing, (Journal of Southeast Asian
Studies,Vol. 42, No. 2 (June 2011), pp. 325-337 (13 pages),Published By: Cambridge University Press,
puts forth the premise/Theorey to which I do not contest respecting his opinion that “rather than
being a reference to an at best mediocre agricultural product, the
name Tarumanagara alluded to the philosophical underpinnings of
the state, the cosmic rules, including dharma, through which welfare
and tranquility were brought about for the benefit of the populace.
These rules spelled out the place of the ruler in the cosmic totality as
well as his tasks and the ways that these wee to be performed.”

Tarumanagara was the oldest kingdom in Java which stands on the west coast of Java island.
When viewed from the current map of Indonesia, its territory covered 3 provinces, starting from
Banten, Jakarta, and West Java. It reflected the socio-cultural diversity of the society who
occupy the three regions. Their legacy can be found in the collection at the Jakarta History
Museum. The collections not only preserve historical evidence from the three provinces but also
providing evidence of indigenous knowledge possessed by the people who lived in the
Tarumanagara era.( Revealing Tarumanagara Kingdom Indigenous knowledge from the Jakarta
History Museum Collections Rizki Nurislaminingsih1 , Heriyanto, Nurislaminingsih, Rizki and
Heriyanto, Heriyanto, "Revealing Tarumanagara Kingdom Indigenous knowledge from The
Jakarta History Museum Collections" (2023). Library Philosophy and Practice (ejournal). 7965.

21
Tarumanagara or Taruma Kingdom or just Taruma was an early Sundanese Indianised kingdom
[broken anchor], located in western Java, whose 5th-century ruler, Purnawarman, produced the
earliest known inscriptions in Java, which are estimated to date from around 358 CE.

Tugu inscription now displayed in National Museum, mentioned

about King Purnawarman of Tarumanagara

22
Purnawarman or Purnavarman was the 5th-century king of Tarumanagara, a Hindu Indianized
kingdom, located in modern-day West Java, Jakarta and Banten provinces, Indonesia.
Purnawarman reigned during the 5th century, and during his reign he created several stone
inscriptions.

According to these inscriptions he embarked on a hydraulic project 54 and also identified himself
to Vishnu, which indicates him and his kingdom were adhering to the Vishnuite faith. King
Purnawarman established a new capital city for the kingdom, located somewhere near present-
day Tugu (North Jakarta) or Bekasi.

His name in Sanskrit means "perfect shield" or "complete protector". Later Tarumanagaran kings
are only known from their names, all bear the name warman (Sanskrit: varman means "shield" or
"protector") which suggests that all of them belongs to the same dynasty.

Historiography

Purnawarman is the most well known ruler among Tarumanagaran kings, mostly because he
extensively created numbers of stone inscriptions, proclaiming his deeds and feats. He left seven
memorial stones with inscriptions bearing his name spread across today Jakarta, Banten and
West Java provinces. These seven inscriptions areː

1. Tugu inscription
2. Ciaruteun inscription
3. Kebon Kopi inscription
4. Jambu inscription
5. Pasir Awi inscription
6. Muara Cianten inscription
7. Cidanghiang inscription
The Tugu inscription, which is written in Pallava script and is a few years older than the
Ciaruteun inscription, is considered the oldest of all the inscriptions. There are more stones with
inscriptions from the time of king Purnawarman, some close to Bogor city. They are Muara
Cianten, Prasasti Pasir Awi, Cidanghiang, and Jambu inscriptions. Cidanghiang inscription sits
further to the west at Lebak in the Pandeglang area, consisting of two lines, proclaiming
Purnawarman as the example for rulers around the world. Jambu inscription, with a two-line
inscription in Pallava and Sanskrit, bears the large footprints of the king. The inscription
translates as:

The name of the king who is famous of faithfully executing his duties and who is incomparable
(peerless) is Sri Purnawarman who reigns Taruma. His armour cannot be penetrated by the
arrows of his enemies. The prints of the foot soles belong to him who was always successful to
destroy the fortresses of his enemies, and was always charitable and gave honorable receptions to
those who are loyal to him and hostile to his enemies.
The Wangsakerta manuscript, which experts believe to be a 20th-century forgery, notes in parwa
II sarga 3 (page 159 – 162) that under the reign of King Purnawarman, Tarumanagara held
control over 48 small kingdoms with area stretching from Salakanagara or Rajatapura
23
to Purwalingga (current city of Purbalingga in Central Java Province). Traditionally Cipamali
river (Brebes river) was the border between Sunda and Java. However, this claim is not reliable
because the Wangsakerta manuscript is not an authentic historical source.

Pur means a town or settlement. Why the suffix pur has been translated as …PURA is not
understandable. It shows lack of knowledge of Sanskrit or other related [Link],
for instance, had the earliest pur..Simhapura (605-757) Virapura (757-875) Indrapura (875–982)
and without the suffix towns such as Vijaya (982–1471) Kauthara polity (757–1653) Panduranga
polity (1471–1832).
Archaeological excavations at TraKieu (Simhapura), a early Lam Ap/Champa site, show that the
common assumption of Lam Ap as a merely "Indianized" polity is rather irrational and
fundamentally misunderstanding. Instead, evidence gathered from excavations displays a
fascinating, dynamic history of the early stages of formation of the Cham civilization, with
artifacts reflect cross multicultural influence and trade connections between early Champa with
ancient Eurasian powers such as the Han Empire, the Gupta Empire, the South Indian Pallava
dynasty, and the Mediterranean. The Gupta and Pallavaofcourse were Hindu Kingdoms in what
is today the territory of India.
The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman, who reigned from 380 to 413.
At MỹSơn, King Bhadravarman established a linga called Bhadresvara, whose name was a
combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva. The worship of the
original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued through the centuries
that followed. Moreover, Bhadravarman's third inscription (C. 174, c. 4th–5th century AD)
at TraKieu, which renders Old Cham, is the oldest surviving text of any Southeast Asian
language. The authorities of king Bhadravarman might have spanned from nowadays Quảng
Nam to ChợDinh, PhúYên, near the ĐàRằng river.

TràKiệu was the first capital city of the Hindu Champa Kingdom, then named Simhapura, from
the 4th century to the 8th century CE. The site has been known to the western world since the
late 19th century Today nothing remains of the ancient city except the rectangular
ramparts. BửuChâu or jade hill overlooks the site and is known as the citadel of the Simhapura.
There are also signs of a border wall for the ancient city, though it is currently unknown if this
was for defense, hierarchical segregation, irrigation, or something else entirely.
TràKiệu also has two main ceramic phases: the first consists of basic ceramics for household use
and roof tiles marked with textile impressions. The second phase brings about the iconic roof
tiles with faces on them. There are two main theories about why the faces start appearing on the
tiles: the first is that Hinduism had such a strong influence that workers at TràKiệu began carving
faces into roof tiles. The second theory is that there was an Indian mask maker who introduced
and popularized the face motifs as this style of decoration on roof tiles.

24
Stone image of the god Visnu on display at the Museum of Cham Sculpture. (Da Nang) This Visnu gives
further evidence to the Hindu face motif theory.

At MỹSơn, the name Campā occurs in the first time on a important Cham inscription code
named C. 96 dating from metaphysically year 658 AD

Consolidation under Prakasadharma and the Simhapura dynasty

Ruins of the MỹSơn Sanctuary

In 653, king Prakasadharman (r. 653–686) ascended the crown as Vikrantavarman I of Champa
in Simhapura (TraKieu). He was a descendant of kings Gangaraja (r. 413 -?) and Rudravarman
I (r. 527–572). This lineage was known as the Gangaraja dynasty or the Simhapura dynasty. He
embarked a series of campaigns to subdue other Chamic kingdoms in the south, and by 658 AD
the kingdom of Champa (campādeśa) stretching from QuảngBình province in the north to
present-day NinhHòa city, KhánhHòa province in the south, was unified under one ruler for the
first time
Prakāśadharma organized the kingdom into administrative units known as viṣaya (district.
However, viṣaya also can be synonymous with dominion, kingdom, territory, region). At that
time there were two know districts: Caum and Midit. Each of them had a handful number
of koṣṭhāgāras – 'storage', could be understood as the source of stable income to upkeep the
worship of three gods. They could be rice fields, storehouses, and less likely treasures.
[52]
Prakāśadharma built numerous temples and religious foundations at MỹSơn. One structure is

25
amazing decorated was dedicated to the Ramayana's author Valmiki by the king, resembling a
theme from the wedding of Sita in the Ramayana.
Prakāśadharma dispatched four diplomatic missions to the court of the Tang Empire in 653, 654,
669, and 670. Envoys and tributes were regularly sent to China by previous kings. The seventh
century saw Champa or Linyi from the eyes of the Chinese, became the chief tributary state of
the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms of Kokuryo in the Northeast and Baekje in the
East — though the latter was rivaled by Japan.
Religious foundations at MỹSơn
By the second half of the 7th century, royal temples were beginning to appear at MỹSơn. The
dominant religious practice was that of the Hindu god Shiva, but temples were also dedicated
to Vishnu. Scholars have called the architectural style of this period MỹSơn E1, in reference to a
particular edifice at MỹSơn that is regarded as emblematic of the style. Important surviving
works of art in this style include a pedestal for a linga that has come to be known as the MỹSơn
E1 Pedestal and a pediment depicting the birth of Brahma from a lotus issuing from the navel of
the sleeping Vishnu.

Stone pedestal of a temple with an Apsara dancer and a Gandharva musician (TràKiệu style)

In an important stone inscription dated 657, found at MỹSơn, King Prakasadharma, who took on
the name Vikrantavarman I at his coronation, claimed to be descended through his mother from
the Brahman Kaundinya and the serpent princess Soma, the legendary ancestors of the Khmer of
Cambodia. This inscription underlines the ethnic and cultural connection of Champa with the
Khmer Empire, its perennial rival to the west. It also commemorates the king's dedication of a
monument, probably a linga, to Shiva. Another inscription documents the king's almost mystical
devotion to Shiva, "who is the source of the supreme end of life, difficult to attain; whose true
nature is beyond the domain of thought and speech, yet whose image, identical with the universe,
is manifested by his forms."
Temporary pre-eminence of Kauthara
Kathur means Hard and Cruel in Sanskrit. Katha means narrative or story. Kathura also means
head-quarters in Harnavi. What exactly was the pronounciation of Kathura and did it lead to
another (second) name with pur as the suffix is not [Link] city of Pandurang means
In the 8th century, during the time when the Chinese knew the country as "Huanwang", the
political center of Champa shifted temporarily from MỹSơn southward to the regions of
Panduranga and Kauthara,centered around the temple complex of Po Nagar near
modern NhaTrang that was dedicated to the indigenous Earth goddess Yan Po [Link] 774,
raiders from Java disembarked in Kauthara, burned the temple of Po Nagar, and carried off the

26
image of Shiva. The Cham king Satyavarman (r. 770–787) pursued the raiders and defeated them
in a naval battle. In 781, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po Nagar, declaring that he had regained
control of the area and had restored the temple. In 787, Javanese raiders destroyed a temple
dedicated to Shiva near [Link] is the name of Shiva and is a manifestation. He is
generally considered as a manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar, Krishna.

Purs in FUNAN

Even earlier to the Chams were cities suffixed with Pur in Funan (perhaps a Chinese
transcription of pnom, “mountain”) which was the first important Hinduized kingdom in
southeast Asia. It covered portions of what are now Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia.
Vyādhapura, (Sanskrit: “City of the Hunters”), capital city of the ancient Hindu kingdom of
Funan, which flourished from the 1st to the 6th century ad in an area that comprises modern
Cambodia and Vietnam.
Some scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the
word Funan. It is often said that the name Funan. Later Han pronunciations represents
a transcription from some local language into Chinese. For example, French scholar Georges
Coedès advanced the theory that in using the word Funan, ancient Chinese scholars were
transcribing a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning
"mountain").
However, the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a
mistranslation of the Sanskrit word parvatabùpála in the ancient inscriptions as equivalent to the
Khmer word bnaṃ and a mis-identification of the King Bhavavarman I mentioned in them as the
conqueror of Funan. It has also been observed that in Chinese the
character 南 (pinyin: nán, Vietnamese: nam) is frequently used in geographical terms to mean
"South"; Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of Southeast
Asia, such as Annam.
Thus, Funan may be an originally Chinese word, and may not be a transcription at all. Jacques
proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names, such as >
[Link],
[Link],
[Link] and
[Link], which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the
region and give a more accurate idea of the geography of the ancient Khmer regions than the
names Funan or Zhenla are unknown in the Old Khmer language.
INDIANIZATION of FUNAN

Gupta and Pallava Dynasties: It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society,
including various ethnic and linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization
advanced more rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava

27
dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire. The only extant local writings from the period of
Funan are paleographic PallavaGrantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava dynasty, a
scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia. These
inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the Funanese.
Funan may have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient Indian texts. Among the Khmer
Krom of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants of ancient
Funan, the core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of Southeast Asia
including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, Malaya, Sumatra
and other parts of Indonesia.
In December 2017, Dr VongSotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, discovered a Pre-
Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of Kampong Speu Baset District, which he
tentatively dated to 633 CE. According to him, the inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi
was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription, translated, read: “The great King Isanavarman is full of
glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is
the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their heads”
The Capital City of Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter).

On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern Cambodian
town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory on
a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" (特牧, pinyin: Tèmù);
Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer word "dalmāk", which
he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other scholars on the grounds that
"dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".
On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern Cambodian
town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory on
a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" (特牧, pinyin: Tèmù);
Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer word "dalmāk", which
he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other scholars on the grounds that
"dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".
On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

28
  One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern Cambodian
town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory on
a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" (特牧, pinyin: Tèmù);
Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer word "dalmāk", which
he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other scholars on the grounds that
"dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter."
PUR of ANGKOR

Hall, K. R. (2019). In his book Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast
Asia. United States: University of Hawaii Press talks about Suryavarman I who established
diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India (Tamilnadu) around 1012.
Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a present to the Chola Emperor RajarajaChola I. It seems that the
Khmer king Suryavarman I requested aid from the powerful Chola
Emperor RajendraChola against the Tambralinga kingdom
And during his reign, 47 cities (known as 47 pura) were under the control of Khmer Empire.
Some of these names would never be known and some difficult to find on the knowledgebase of
the Internert. Angkor. ('Capital city'), was also known as Yasodharapura :यशोधरपुर in
Sanskrit, and was the capital city of the Khmer Empire. The city and empire flourished from
approximately the 9th to the 15th centuries.

 Hariharalaya. (early 9th cent.) The dwelling plave of HARI(Shiva)

 Lingapura: Koh Ker (9th cent.).Koh Ker is the modern name for an important city of the Khmer
empire. In inscriptions the town is mentioned as Lingapura (city of lingams) or ChokGargyar (translated
as city of glance, or as iron tree forest).
 Yasodharapura(Angkor) (928–944)

Names in ancient Sanskrit of Khmer cities and sites have been changed to Khmer or Cambodian
language today:

 Phnom Kulen.
 Preah Khan of Kampong Svay.
 BengMealea.
 The Ancient City of Koh Ker.
 BanteayChhmar.
 PrasatPreahVihear.
 Kompong Thom: SamborPreiKuk.
 Oudong.

1. Sambalpur,

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 2. Berhampur,
3. Rairangpur,
4. Subarnapur,
5. Nagpur
6. Kanpur
7. Jamshedpur and many more far too many in fact.

In fact the word Pur and the word Nagar which means CITY is Sanskrit are inter-changeable but
the fact is that historically when one name was given it was seldom changed because it created a
geographic entity and point of reference where travellers could travel to and remember those
days people travelled by horses, on foot or other animals( including humans).

The modern name Angkor Wat, alternatively NokorWat, means "Temple City" or "City of
Temples" in Khmer. Angkor meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the
word nokor, which comes from the Sanskrit/Pali word nagara (Devanāgarī: नगर). And Wat is
the word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit/Pali vāṭa (Devanāgarī: वाट), meaning
"enclosure".
Khmer cities are cities that can be founded by the Khmer civilization in Civilization VI and its
expansions. The first city founded is the Capital, and the names of future cities are chosen at
random from the list below.

The names listed are default names; players can change their cities' names if they choose.

List of cities

City Name Notes

Capital-

Angkor Thom

Cities

Largest religious monument in the world; "City" version of Angkor

Angkor Wat
Wat

Hariharalaya Capital of the Khmer Empire

Yaśodharapura Second capital of the Khmer Empire

Mahendraparvat
Ancient Khmer city
a

Vimayapura Khmer city in Thailand

Indrapura 9th century capital of Champa, modern Quảng Nam, Vietnam

Lingapura Khmer kingdom created by Jayavarman IV

PreahVihear Temple in PreahVihear province

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 Bhavapura Former capital of Chenla state

KompongSvay Buddhist temple in PreahVihear province

NagaraJayasri City mentioned in the Preah Khan temple

Vyadhapura Earliest capital of the Funan Kingdom

Chaturmukha Modern Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia

Dviradapura Site of Prithivindravarman's rule

Rajavihara Original name of Ta Prohm

Amarendrapura Capital during Jayavarman II's rule

Phanom Rung Historical park in Thailand

Iśvarapura Shaivite temple also known as BanteaySrei

Muang Tam Temple complex in Thailand

Angkor Borei Possible Funan capital

BanteayKdei Buddhist temple in Angkor

Phetchaburi Province in Thailand

Chaiya District in Thailand

Isanapura Capital of the Chenla Kingdom

Pre Rup State temple of Khmer king Rajendravarman

BengMelea Archaeological site in Angkoe

Lavodayapura Khmer for Lobpuri, capital of Lobpuri province

Shrestapura Capital of the Chenla and Champa kingdoms

Aninditapura Former Khmer capital

NOKOR WAT

/ˈnɑːɡər/ (Indian English) a town, a city, an area in a city, or a suburb (= an area where people
live that is outside the centre of a city)
According to Monier Williams (1899), “नगर”, in A Sanskrit–English Dictionary, […], new
edition, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, OCLC 458052227, page 525. And also Mayrhofer,
Manfred (1992–2001), “nágara-”, in EtymologischesWörterbuch des
Altindoarischen [Etymological Dictionary of Old Indo-Aryan] (in German), volume II,
Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, page 5

Etymology

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Borrowed from Sanskrit नगर (nágara). Doublet of -नेर (-ner).
Noun
नगर • (nagar) m (Urdu spelling ‫)نگر‬
1. city, town synonym ▲
तुमकिस नगर सेआएहो? ― tumkis nagar se āeho? ― What city do you come from?
Synonym: शहर (śahar)

Sanskrit
Etymology
Tedesco derives the word from a dissimilating Prakritization of an unattested
compound *नृगर (*nṛgará, “gathering of men”), from नृ (nṛ) + *गर (gara). It is likely the
ultimate source of similar words in Dravidian; compare Old Tamil 𑀦𑀓𑀭𑁆 (nakar, “house,
palace, temple, city”), Telugu నగరు (nagaru, “palace”). Southworth derives the word from
Proto-South Dravidian *nakar.
Noun]
नगर • (nágara or nagará) n

1. town, city
Declension
Adjective
नगर • (nágara)

1. urban
Descendants

 SauraseniPrakrit: 𑀡𑀬𑀭 (ṇayara)

o Old Gujarati: नयर (nayara)
 Gujarati: નેર (ner)
o Hindi: -नेर (-ner)
 → Assamese: নগৰ (nôgôr)
 → Bengali: নগর (nogor)
 → Burmese: နဂိုရ် ([Link]); နဂရ ([Link].)
 → Dhivehi: ‫( ަނަގުރ‬nagaru)
 → Gujarati: નગર (nagar)
 → Hindi: नगर (nagar)
 → Khmer: នគរ (nɔkɔɔ)
 → Kannada: ನಗರ (nagara)
 → Lao: ນະຄອນ (nakhǭn)
 → Lü: ᦓᦅᦸᧃ (nkoan), ᦓᦅᦟ (nkl)
 → Malayalam: നഗരം (nagaraṃ)

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 → Malay: negara (‫)نݢارا‬
o Indonesian: negara
 → English: negara
 → Marathi: नगर (nagar)
 → Middle Khmer: [Term?] (“ʼaṅgara”)
o Khmer: អង្គរ (ʼɑngkɔɔ)
 → Nepali: नगर (nagar)
 → Newar: नगर (nagara)
 → Old Gujarati: नगर (nagara)
 → Old Javanese: nagara
o Javanese: ꦤꦒꦫ (nagara) → ꦤꦼꦒꦫ (negara)
o → Balinese:
 → Old Tamil: 𑀦𑀓𑀭𑁆 (nakar)
o Tamil: நகர் (nakar)
 Pali: nagara
 → Sinhalese: නගරය (nagaraya)
 → Tamil: நகரம் (nakaram)
 → Telugu: నగరము (nagaramu)
 → Thai: นคร (ná-kɔɔn)
 → Urdu: ‫( نگر‬nagar)

Vata

1) Vāta (वात) refers to one of the three Doṣas (tridoṣa), representing the “airy element” of the
human body. It is also known as Vāyu. It is used throughout Ayurvedic literature such as the
Caraka-saṃhitā and the Suśruta-saṃhitā. The three doṣas are three bodily humors, which when
in balance, sustain perfect human health. According to Dṛḍhabala, Vāta-doṣa is situated in
the basti (pelvic region). The quantum of Vāta-doṣa fluctuates during old age, the last period of
day and night and after the food is digested. It also fluctuates according to the different seasons:
during summer (grīṣma) it accumulates, during monsoon (varṣā) it aggrevates and during
autumn (śarada) it pacifies. It is important to keep track of these fluctuations in order to prevent
seasonal disorders.
2) Vaṭa (वट) is a Sanskrit word referring to a type of vegetable. Certain plant parts of Vaṭa are
eaten as a vegetable (śāka), according to Caraka in his Carakasaṃhitāsūtrasthāna (chapter 27), a
classical Ayurvedic work. The plant is therefore part of the Śākavarga group of medicinal plants,
referring to the “group of vegetables/pot-herbs”. Caraka defined such groups (vargas) based on
the dietic value of the plant. Botanical synonyms of the plant
include: Maeruaarenaria and Niebhuriaarenaria.
Source: Wisdom Library: Raj Nighantu
1) Vaṭa (वट) is the name of a tree (Baḍa) that is associated with the Nakṣatra (celestial star)
named Maghā, according to the second chapter (dharaṇyādi-varga) of the 13th-century Raj
Nighantu or Rājanighaṇṭu (an Ayurvedicencyclopedia). Accordingly, “these [trees] are

33
propounded in Śāstras, the secret scriptures (śāstrāgama). These pious trees [viz, Vaṭa], if grown
and protected, promote long life”. These twenty-seven trees related to the twenty-seven
Nakṣatras are supposed to be Deva-vṛkṣas or Nakṣatra-vṛkṣas.
2) Vaṭa (वट) refers to one of the three doṣas (the other being Kapha and Pitta), according to the
second chapter (dharaṇyādi-varga), verses 67-68. Accordingly, “the substances, which
alleviate vāta, are good digestive and appetizers. Similarly, a drug which alleviates kapha, is also
appetizer and slightly digestive stimulant. But, a drug reducing the action of pitta, is not a good
digestive. A substance which is heavy (guru), śīta, vīrya and anti-pitta, will aggravate vāta-doṣa.
Similarly, a substance which is light, uṣṇa, vīrya, anti-vāta, will alleviate kapha and
increase pitta-doṣa”.
Source: Google Books: Exploring Mantric Ayurveda
Vata – Wind or Gas, composed of Ether and Air (see Tridosha).
Source: Google Books: Essentials of Ayurveda
Vāta (वात).—The word ‘vāta’ is derived from the verb-root ‘vā’ meaning ‘to move’, ‘to inform’
and ‘to impel’ which are the natural actions of Vāta. Enthusiasm, respiration, movement, normal
transportation of dhātus (‘nutrients’), proper elimination of excrete—these are the normal
functions of Vāta. All motions, transportation, and electromagnetic activities are controlled
by vāta.
Causes of aggravation:—Vāta is aggravated by intake of rough, bitter, astringent and pungent
substances, fasting, suppression of natural urges, physical exertion, excessive cold, wasting
of dhātus, mental worry, keeping awake in night, in early rains, old age, last phase of day and
night, and after the food is digested.
Symptoms:—Aggravation of Vāta gives rise to pain in abdomen, pain, stiffness, contraction and
heaviness in the body, blackish stool, emaciation, loss of sleep, roughness in skin, instability of
mind, irregularity of digestion, abnormal taste and dryness in mouth.
Treatment:—Vāta, Pitta and Kapha should be treated with eliminative therapy (known as
‘pañcakarma’). Thereafter they should be pacified with prescribed measures relating to diet, drug
and activity. Vāta is pacified, like a friend, with sneha (soothing-unctuous substances), intake of
sweet, sour and salty items, sudation, rest, sleep and exhilaration.
Source: Google Books: A Practical Approach to the Science of Ayurveda
Vāta (वात).—One of the three biological humors (tridoṣa).—Vāta is connected to prāṇa or the
life-force and is the prime manifestation of prāṇa in the body. The factors that generate motion
and vitality in the body constitute vāta-doṣa. Vāta is the originator of all movements in the body.
It governs all nervous functions, controls the mind, senses and motor organs.
Vāta is also responsible for stimulation of digestive juices and enzymes that break down and
digest food. The empty spaces in all channels (srotas) of the body are constituted by vāta.
Each of the five types of vāta have different places of origin and different actions, which are
responsible for different ailments:

1. prāṇa (located in the head, chest and brain)

2. udāna (located in the throat and lungs),
3. samāna (located in the stomach and intestinal tract),
4. apāna (located in the colon, lower abdomen and organs of the pelvic region),

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 5. vyāna (permeates the entire body especially the heart)

Source: Easy Ayurveda: Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Symptoms

Vata can be kept at bay by not consuming foods which are not cold, dry, stale, rich in spices,
bitter and astringent tastes, avoiding cold breeze, excessive sex, vigil and exercise, keeping away
from anxiety, fear and stress, managing rainy season etc – This will prevent the further
degeneration process of tendons and nerves.
Source: Cogprints: Concepts of Human Physiology in Ayurveda
Concept of ‘Vāta’: All functions of nervous system in human body are represented through
‘Vāta’ in Ayurveda. In general, the functions ascribed to ‘Vāta’ are: Control and coordination of
different parts of the body, initiation of all movements, regulation of psychological processes,
initiation of all activities of sense organs, transmission of different sensations, production of
speech, secreto-motor functions in the gut, expulsion of wastes from the body and control of
respiration (Caraka-saṃhitāSūtrasthāna 12/8).
Vāta is divided into five sub types –

1. Prāṇa-vāta,
2. Udāna-vāta,
3. Vyāna-vāta,
4. Samāna-vāta
5. andApāna-vāta.

Source: Hand book of domestic medicine: Basic principles of Āyurveda

The word ‘Vāta’ is derived from the verb ‘Vā’ which means Gati (motion). This Doṣa is
responsible for all the movements in the body. It is of 5 types viz,

1. PrāṇaVāyu,
2. UdānaVāyu,
3. SamānaVāyu,
4. VyānaVāyu
5. andApānaVāyu.

Source: Shodhganga: Dietetics and culinary art in ancient and medieval India
Vaṭa (वट) refers to Ficusindica (or banyan) and is mentioned in a list of potential causes for
indigestion in the 17th century Bhojanakutūhala (dravyaguṇāguṇa-kathana), and is commonly
found in literature dealing with the topics of dietetics and culinary art, also known
as Pākaśāstra or Pākakalā.—A complete section in Bhojanakutūhala is devoted for the
description of agents that cause indigestion [viz., vaṭa (Ficusindica or banyan)]. These agents
consumed on a large scale can cause indigestion for certain people. The remedies
[viz., paryuṣitodaka or vesavāra] for these types of indigestions are also explained therewith.
Source: Ancient Science of Life: Vaidyavallabha: An Authoritative Work on Ayurveda
Therapeutics
Vaṭa (वट) or Raudrajaṭā refers to Ficusbenghalensis, and is the name of a medicinal plant dealt
with in the 17th-century Vaidyavallabha written by Hastiruci.—The Vaidyavallabha is a work
which deals with the treatment and useful for all 8 branches of Ayurveda. The text
35
Vaidyavallabha has been designed based on the need of the period of the author, availability of
drugs (viz., Vaṭa) during that time, disease manifesting in that era, socio-economical-cultural-
familial-spiritual-aspects of that period Vaidyavallabha.
Source: Ancient Science of Life: Botanical identification of plants described in MādhavaCikitsā
Vaṭa (वट) refers to the medicinal plant Ficusbengalensis L., and is used in the treatment
of atisāra (diarrhoea), according to the 7th century Mādhavacikitsā chapter 2. Atisāra refers to a
condition where there are three or more loose or liquid stools (bowel movements) per day or
more stool than normal. The second chapter of the Mādhavacikitsā explains several preparations
[including Vaṭa] through 60 Sanskrit verses about treating this problem.
The plant Ficusbengalensis L. (Vaṭa) is also known as Nyagrodha according to both the
Ayurvedic Formulary and the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.
Source: Shodhganga: Edition translation and critical study of yogasarasamgraha
1) Vāta (वात) refers to “rheumatism” and is one of the various diseases mentioned in the 15th-
century Yogasārasaṅgraha (Yogasara-saṅgraha) by Vāsudeva: an unpublished Keralite work
representing an Ayurvedic compendium of medicinal recipes. The Yogasārasaṃgraha
[mentioning vāta] deals with entire recipes in the route of administration, and thus deals with the
knowledge of pharmacy (bhaiṣajya-kalpanā) which is a branch of pharmacology (dravyaguṇa).
2) Vaṭa (वट) refers to the medicinal plant known as “Ficusbenghalensis Linn.” and is dealt with
in the 15th-century Yogasārasaṅgraha (Yogasara-saṅgraha) by Vāsudeva: an unpublished
Keralite work representing an Ayurvedic compendium of medicinal recipes. The
Yogasārasaṃgraha [mentioning vaṭa] deals with entire recipes in the route of administration, and
thus deals with the knowledge of pharmacy (bhaiṣajya-kalpanā) which is a branch of
pharmacology (dravyaguṇa).
Source: Shodhganga: Portrayal of Animal Kingdom (Tiryaks) in Epics An Analytical study
Vaṭā (वटा) refers to a kind of bird and is a synonym (another name) for the Hawk/Falcon
(Śyena), according to scientific texts such as the Mṛgapakṣiśāstra (Mriga-pakshi-shastra) or “the
ancient Indian science of animals and birds” by Hamsadeva, containing the varieties and
descriptions of the animals and birds seen in the Sanskrit Epics such as the Ramayana and
Mahabharata.
ASTROLOGY of the land on which ANGKOR STANDS

Like a tiny seed flourishing into a giant banyan tree the history of the Angkor Wat, is an
extraordinary story of human commitment and divine grace. The mandir land Angkor Wat
as a temple complex not individual mandir,is located on a site measuring 162.6 hectares
(1,626,000 m2; 402 acres). The historic story of its creation was started at the behest of the
Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura (which was then the
capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Angkor Wat combines
two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture:
1. the temple-mountain and the later
2. galleried temple.
3. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology:

36
It is situated in a 4 sided plan twithin a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer
wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At
the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor
Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is
admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the
numerous devatas adorning its walls
The original name of the temple was VrahViṣṇuloka or ParamaViṣṇuloka meaning "the sacred
dwelling of Vishnu".The literal translation of the name Ankur Vat in Sanskrit(अकुंरवट) is
"Temple of Blossoms" or "Temple of Flower Buds" Ankur has its origin in Sanskrit.
Meaning:Flower, blossom; Sprout, sapling.

Acquiring Land for Angkor Wat or Borobudur

The Kings of Khmer Suryavarman was the absolute master of all lands and this meant that
to build a mandir the land had to be acquired for construction. Since the Khmers believed in
Astrology the kings would surely have got the match made for his stars and those of the key
personnel. I do that here in India today. I am going to form a Private Limited Company to
further research and development in Astrology and Vasty and the first thing I did with the
potential partners (Directors) was to match their horoscope with mine to see if we get along.

37