Chapter 7

Spatial Data Management, Analysis,

and Modeling in GIS: Principles
and Applications

G. P. Obi Reddy

Abstract Recent advances in spatial data development and management in the

framework of geographic information system (GIS) have created a new era in the
field of land resource management. Spatial database generally refers to any set of
data describing the semantic and spatial properties of real-world phenomena.
Manual digitization of paper maps, existing digital datasets, satellite remote-
sensing imageries, global positioning system (GPS), field surveys, internet, etc.
are the promising data input sources for spatial data development in GIS. Geo-
graphic information, attribute information, and display information are the three
important types of information embedded in digital maps. Relational database
management system (RDBMS) is the most effective and efficient data storage
and management model in spatial database generation and management in GIS.
Geographic analysis in GIS facilitates the study of various processes by developing
and applying suitable models. The objective of geographic analysis is to transform
data into useful information to satisfy the requirements or objectives of decision-
makers. GIS provides tools and methods for the integration of different data into a
format to be compared and analyzed. Analysis models comprise simple user-
defined views to complex stochastic models, like suitability analysis, network
analysis, optimization, allocation, etc. Geometric modeling has immense potential
in generating buffers, calculating areas and perimeters, and calculating distances
between features. Spatial analysis in GIS helps to identify trends on the data, create
new relationships from the data, and view complex relationships between datasets
to make better decisions. Vector and raster overlay operations are two different
types of overlays in GIS depending upon data structures. GIS provides different
ways in which the information can be presented once it is analyzed and processed
by GIS.

Keywords Spatial database · Overlay analysis · RDBMS · Spatial data analysis ·

Spatial data modeling

G. P. O. Reddy (*)
ICAR-National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning, Nagpur, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 127

G. P. O. Reddy, S. K. Singh (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Land Resources
Mapping, Monitoring and Management, Geotechnologies and the Environment 21,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78711-4_7
128 G. P. O. Reddy

7.1 Introduction

Spatial information is always related to geographic space. The handling of spatial

data usually involves the process of data acquisition, storage, analysis, and output.
Creation of spatial database in geographic information system (GIS) has become a
very effective tool to aid and facilitate management decision-making (Burrough
1987). A collection of files that are used for complex information organization is
called a database. In recent times, GIS is being widely used as spatial analysis tool
for effective and efficient means of data generation and management, analysis, and
display (Reddy 2012; Reddy et al. 2016, 2017). The true value of GIS can only be
realized if the proper tools to collect spatial data and integrate them with attribute
data are available. Data used in GIS often come from many types and are stored in
different ways. Manual digitization of paper maps, existing digital data, remote-
sensing satellite imagery, GPS, internet, etc. are promising data input sources for
development of digital databases in GIS. Before generation of any spatial data, one
has to understand the available data types, data analysis procedures, and their
capabilities in GIS to get realistic outputs. Geospatial database management system
has advantage over the conventional database systems as it is optimized to store and
query data that is related to objects’ location, including geometrical features (points,
lines, and polygons).
GIS provides tools and methods for the integration of different databases into a
format to be compared and analyzed. Spatial analysis is a vital part of GIS and can be
used for many applications like site suitability, natural resource monitoring, envi-
ronmental disaster management, etc. Spatial modeling infers the use of spatial
characteristics and methods in manipulating data. The use of GIS spatial modeling
tools in several resource activities has helped to quantify processes and define
models for deriving analysis products. Spatial data analysis and modeling in GIS
can make calculations that are too tedious to do manually, and the output of analysis
and model provides digital data that is useful for many kinds of applications. They
can be used to reveal patterns and trends in data that may not be otherwise apparent,
and such information helps the decision-makers and planners to make decisions.
Vector, raster-based analysis functions and arithmetic, logical, and conditional
operations can be used based on the recovered derivations. The raster data model
has become the primary spatial data source for analytical modeling with GIS. The
raster data model is well suited to the quantitative analysis of numerous data layers.
To facilitate these raster modeling techniques, most GIS softwares employ a separate
module specifically for cell processing. The advance and efficient technique like
“spatial data mining” is available to find out the knowledge from huge geospatial
dataset for extracting unknown spatial relationship, trends, or patterns, not stored
explicitly in spatial database (Shekhar et al. 2003). In spatial classification, methods
such as decision trees, artificial neural network, remote sensing, and spatial auto-
7 Spatial Data Management, Analysis, and Modeling in GIS: Principles. . . 129

regression could be used to find out the group of spatial objects together (Goyal et al.
2017).

7.2 Database in GIS

Database in GIS should be viewed as a representation of model of the real world

developed for any speicific application. GIS technology utilizes two basic types of
data, i.e., spatial data (coordinate and projection information for spatial features) and
attribute data (characteristics about spatial data).

7.2.1 Spatial Data

Spatial data describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features.
Spatial data can be point, line, polygon, or pixel. Spatial data includes location,
shape, size, location, and orientation. Spatial data is usually stored as coordinates
and topology. Spatial database is often updated, accessed, manipulated or analysed
by using appropriate tools of GIS.

7.2.2 Attribute Data

Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data, and it describes characteristics of

the spatial features. These characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in
nature. Attribute data is stored in the form of tables, and it is a database component
that contains a series of rows and columns, where each row, or record, represents a
geographic feature—such as a parcel, power pole, highway, or lake—and each
column, or field, describes a particular attribute of the feature—such as length,
depth, area, etc. Tables are stored in a database—for example, INFO, Access,
dBASE, FoxPro, Oracle, or SQL Server. From a table, one can identify features
with particular attributes and select them on the map. Over time, attribute data can
also update to reflect changes to geographic features, for example, creating a new
subdivision in the district boundary, and subsequently it also reflects in the
attribution table.
130 G. P. O. Reddy

7.3 Spatial Data Relationships in GIS

7.3.1 Geo-Relational Database Model

The geo-relational approach involves abstracting geographic information into a

series of independent layers or coverages, each representing a selected set of closely
associated geographic features (e.g., roads, land use, river, settlement, etc.). Each
layer has the theme of a geographic feature, and the database is organized in the
thematic layers. With this approach users can combine simple feature sets
representing complex relationships in the real world.

7.3.2 Topological Data Structure

Topology is the spatial relationship between connection and adjacent coverage

features. Topological relationships are built from simple elements into complex
elements: line, points, and areas. Topology is defined as the mathematical procedure
for explicitly defining spatial relationships between the data (connectivity or adja-
cency of points or lines in a GIS). The topological data structure logically determines
exactly how and where points and lines connect on a map by means of nodes. The
computer stores such information in various tables of the database structure. In
digital maps or GIS, topological data structures provide additional intelligence for
manipulating, analyzing, and using the information stored in a database. The order of
connectivity defines the shape of an arc or polygon. Storing information in a logical
and ordered relationship, missing information is readily apparent, data are stored
efficiently, and large datasets can be processed quickly.

7.4 Attribute Database Models in GIS

Data within a GIS environment are stored with attribute databases. A database is a
collection of information about things and their relationships to each other. A variety
of different data models exist for the storage and management of attribute data. The
most common attribute database models are tabular, hierarchical, network, and
relational and object oriented.

7.4.1 Tabular Model

The simple tabular model stores attribute data as sequential data files with fixed
formats, for the location of attribute values in a predefined record structure. It lacks
7 Spatial Data Management, Analysis, and Modeling in GIS: Principles. . . 131

any method of checking data integrity, as well as being inefficient with respect to
data storage, e.g., limited indexing capability for attributes or records, etc.

7.4.2 Hierarchical Model

The hierarchical database organizes data in a tree structure. Data is structured

downward in a hierarchy of tables. The data is stored as records, which are connected
to one another through links. A record is a collection of fields, with each field
containing only one value. Several records or files are hierarchically related with
each other, and a set of links connect all record types in a tree structure. The
advantages of hierarchical model are high speed of access to large datasets and
eases of updating. However, the disadvantage is that linkages are only possible
vertically but not horizontally or diagonally. Further, it is oriented for datasets that
are very stable, where primary relationships among the data change infrequently or
never at all. The quadtree, that is used to access a small part of a large raster image or
map area, is a type of hierarchical model. The records at different levels in hierar-
chical model are shown in Fig. 7.1.

7.4.3 Network Model

The data in the network model are represented by collection of records, and relation-
ships among data are represented by links, which can be viewed as pointers. Any
record in the network model can be linked to any other. This model allows for

Fig. 7.1 Hierarchical model shows the records at different levels

132 G. P. O. Reddy

Fig. 7.2 Records and relationships in network model

children to have more than one parent. The vector mode is more suited to network
analysis than the raster model. Records and relationships in network model are
shown in Fig. 7.2.

7.4.4 Relational Database

The relational data model is conceived as a series of tables, with no hierarchy nor any
predefined relations. Each table is identified by a unique table name and is organized
by rows and columns. Each column within a table also has a unique name. Columns
store the values for a specific attribute. Rows represent one record in the table. In a
GIS each row is usually linked to a separate spatial feature. Accordingly, each row
would comprise of several columns, each column containing a specific value for that
geographic feature. The relation between the various tables should be made by the
user. This is done by identifying a common field in two tables, which is assigned as
the flexibility than in the other two data models. However, accessing the database is
slower than with the other two models.
Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) follows relational database
model and make it possible to pose complex queries, produce statistical summaries
and tabular reports of attribute data. It also has the ability to make map analyses,
often combining elements from many layers (Eastman 1992). Due to its greater
flexibility, the relational data model is used widely in all GIS systems. Relational
database model has simplicity in organization and data modeling and flexibility in
joining tables in an ad hoc manner. This model has efficiency of storage data and
minimized redundant data.
7 Spatial Data Management, Analysis, and Modeling in GIS: Principles. . . 133

7.4.5 Object-Oriented Model

The object-oriented database model manages data through objects. An object is a

collection of data elements and operations that together are considered a single
entity. The object-oriented database is a relatively new model. This approach has
the attraction that querying is very natural, as features can be bundled together with
attributes at the database administrator’s discretion. This model uses functions to
model spatial and nonspatial relationships of geographic objects and the attributes.
The model generates objects, classes, and superclasses through classification, gen-
eralization, association, and aggregation. This approach holds many operational
benefits with respect to geographic data processing in GIS.

7.5 Spatial Database Query

The selective display and retrieval of information from a database are among the
fundamental requirements of GIS. The ability to selectively retrieve information
from GIS is an important facility. Database query simply asks to see already stored
information. Basically there are two types of query in GIS: they are query by
attribute and query by geometry. The procedure followed in query by attribute and
query by geometry in GIS is shown in Fig. 7.3. The attribute database, in general, is
stored in a table with a unique code linked to the geometric data. This database can
be searched with specific characteristics. However, more complex queries can be
made with the help of SQL. GIS can carry out a number of geometric queries. There
are five forms of primitive geometric query: viz., query by point, query by rectangle,
query by circle, query by line, and query by polygon. More complex queries can be
developed, which uses both geometric and attributes search criteria together.

Fig. 7.3 Query by attribute and query by geometry in GIS

134 G. P. O. Reddy

7.6 Analysis of Geographic Data

The heart of GIS is the analytical capabilities of the system. What distinguish the
GIS system from other information systems is its spatial analysis functions. Geo-
graphic analysis facilitates the study of real-world processes by developing and
applying models. The analysis functions use the spatial and nonspatial attributes in
the database to answer questions about the real world. Geographic analysis facilitates
the study of real-world processes by developing and applying models. Such models
illuminate the underlying trends in geographic data and thus make new information
available. In data analysis the most common operations carried out by GIS are
database query, map algebra, and distance- and context-related analysis. The objec-
tive of geographic analysis is to transform data into useful information to satisfy the
requirements or objectives of decision-makers. Spatial analysis helps to identify
trends in the data, create new relationships from the data, and view complex
relationships between datasets to make better decisions. In data analysis, the most
common operations carried out by GIS are database query, map algebra, and
distance- and context-related analysis. Buffer zone creation and reclassification are
some of the important techniques in geographic analysis.
Buffer Zone Creation Distance operator in GIS is an example for analysis of
geographic data by using buffer zone creation. It shows the proximity or nearness
from any point, line, or polygon. Using these operations, the characteristics of an
area surrounding in a specified location can be generated. This kind of analysis is
called proximity analysis and is used whenever analysis is required to identify
surrounding geographic features. The buffer operation generates polygon feature
types irrespective of geographic features and delineates spatial proximity.
Reclassification Reclassification is a method of changing the attribute values
without altering the geometry of the map. In fact it is a database simplification
process that aims at reducing the number of categories of attribute data layer.
Accordingly, features adjacent to one another that have a common value will be
treated and appear as one class. Reclassification is an attribute generalization tech-
nique. After reclassification, the common boundaries between polygons with iden-
tical attribute values are dissolved and rebuilt the topology.

7.7 Overlay Analysis

Overlay analysis is an operation in GIS for superimposing the multiple layers of

datasets that represents different themes together for analyzing or identifying rela-
tionship of each layer. What distinguishes the GIS system from other information
system is its spatial analysis functions. The analysis functions use the spatial and
7 Spatial Data Management, Analysis, and Modeling in GIS: Principles. . . 135

nonspatial attributes in the database to answer questions about the real world. Spatial
analysis in GIS includes all of the transformations, manipulations, and methods,
which can be applied to geographic data to add value to them, to support decisions,
and to reveal patterns and anomalies that are not visible in raw data. In the overlay
analysis, new spatial datasets are created in GIS by merging data from two or more
input data layers. In overlay analysis, topological overlay, spatial overlay, and
criterion-based overlay techniques are important. Based on data structures, vector
overlay and raster overlay are the two important overlay techniques.

7.7.1 Topological Overlay

Topological overlay is an analysis procedure for determining the spatial coincidence

of geographic features. Append, union, identity, intersect, update, clip, split, and
erase are some of the important topological overlay techniques.
• Append: Appending is used to merge together multiple datasets that represent the
same thematic data but are contiguous.
• Union: A topological overlay of two polygon coverages, which preserves features
that fall within the spatial extent of either input datasets, i.e., all features from both
coverages are retained.
• Identity: This operation overlays polygons and keeps all input layer features and
only those features from the analysis layer that overlap the input layer. The
resultant layer has the same spatial features as that of the input layer. In the
case of polygon overlays, the number of polygon in the output layer will always
be larger in number than the input layer.
• Intersect: The topological integration of two spatial datasets that preserves fea-
tures that fall within the spatial extent common to both input datasets. The
resultant layer will keep those portions of the first input layer features, which
fall within the second input layer polygons.
• Update: It replaces overlapping parts of the input layer with features from the
update layer.
• Clip: It creates a new map that includes only those features of the input layer that
fall within the area extent of the clip map. The input layer may be points, lines, or
polygons, but the clip layer must be polygon layer. This operator is used to extract
a smaller dataset from a larger dataset.
• Split: It divides the input coverage into two or more coverages. A series of clip
operation can be performed, and each resultant layer contains only those portions
of the input layer that are overlapped by the polygon satisfying the specified
criteria.
136 G. P. O. Reddy

• Erase: This feature can be used to erase polygons, lines, or points from the input
features in GIS. A line-erase feature can be used to erase lines or points from the
input features; a point-erase feature can be used to erase points from the input
features.

7.7.2 Spatial Overlay

In spatial overlay analysis, two or more themes can be combined to form a new
spatial feature (both geometric and attribute features are combined). Spatial overlay
is accomplished by joining and viewing together separate datasets that share all or
part of the same area. The result of this combination is a new dataset that identifies
the spatial relationships. Three types of overlay can be performed: polygon-polygon,
line-polygon, and point-polygon.
• Polygon-on-polygon overlay: This process merges overlapping polygons from
two input layers in GIS to create new polygons in an output layer. The result of a
polygon-on-polygon overlay is an output layer containing new polygons with
merged attributes (i.e., those attributes from each of the two overlapping poly-
gons). In this overlay, it is necessary to keep in mind that area should be common
to input features.
• Line-in-polygon overlay: Polygon features of one input layer can be overlaid on
lines (arcs) of another input layer in GIS. A line can be made up of many
segments, line-in-polygon analyses, and therefore identifies which polygon
(if any) contains each line or line segment. The result of a line-in-polygon overlay
is a new layer containing lines with additional attributes (i.e., those attributes of
the polygon within which the line falls).
• Point-on-polygon overlay: Point features of one input layer can be overlaid on
polygon features of another input layer in GIS. Point-in-polygon analyses identify
the polygon within which each point falls. The result of a point-in-polygon
overlay is a set of points with additional attributes (i.e., those attributes of the
polygon which the point lies within). This kind of overlay operation can be used
to calculate number of points located in each of the polygon.
During the process of overlay, the attribute data associated with each feature type
id merged. The resulting table will contain both the attribute data. The process of
overlay will depend upon the modeling approach the user needs. One might need to
carry out a series of overlay procedures to arrive at the conclusion, which depends
upon the criterion (Fig. 7.4).
7 Spatial Data Management, Analysis, and Modeling in GIS: Principles. . . 137

Fig. 7.4 Polygon-on-polygon overlay: difference between a topologic overlay and a graphic
over plot

7.7.3 Overlay Based on Data Structure

Based on data structures, vector overlay and raster overlay are the two overlay
techniques in GIS.

7.7.3.1 Vector Overlay

The vector overlay, however, is far more difficult and complex and involves more
processing. In simple vector overlay, the layers were overlaid without assigning any
weightage either for layer or classes. Weighted overlay is a technique for applying a
common scale of values to diverse and dissimilar input to create an integrated
analysis. Geographic problems often require the analysis of many different factors.
The weighted overlay process reclassifies values in the input rasters onto a common
evaluation scale of suitability or preference, risk, or some similarly unifying scale.
The input rasters are weighted by importance and added to produce an output raster.
The weighted overlay process accepts only discrete rasters (integer values) as input.
138 G. P. O. Reddy

Fig. 7.5 Typical vector

overlay procedure in GIS

Continuous rasters should and must be reclassified to discrete rasters before they can
be used. The typical vector overlay procedure performed in delineation of landforms
by integrating contours, drainage, waterbodies and settlements, slope, and land
use/land cover is shown in Fig. 7.5.
During vector overlay, map features and the associated attributes are integrated to
produce new composite maps. Logical rules can be applied to how the maps are
combined. Vector overlay can be performed on different types of map features: viz.,
polygon-on-polygon overlay, line-in-polygon overlay, and point-on-polygon
overlay.
There are some difficulties in geographic analysis, which includes lack of
required datasets. Maintenance of spatial relationships in the input datasets is also
important to get the accurate areas and shapes in outputs. Inherent uncertainties in
the datasets due to scale are also another difficulty in integrated analysis. When using
the spatial datasets from different sources, it is difficult to make data sources
compatible easily. Selection of suitable model for the analysis of specific objective
is also important to get the desirable outputs. The data file produced as a result of
polygon overlay may be considerably larger than the original because lines have
been split into smaller segments and new nodes and polygons have been created.

7.7.3.2 Raster Overlay

Raster overlays are relatively simple compared to their vector counterparts and
require much less computational power (Burrough 1983). In raster overlay, the
7 Spatial Data Management, Analysis, and Modeling in GIS: Principles. . . 139

pixel or grid cell values in each map are combined using arithmetic and Boolean
operators to produce a new value in the composite map. The maps can be treated as
arithmetical variables and perform complex algebraic functions, and it is called as
map algebra. Despite their simplicity, it is important to ensure that all overlain rasters
are coregistered (i.e., spatially aligned), cover identical areas, and maintain equal
resolution (i.e., cell size). If these assumptions are not met, the analysis will either
fail, or the resulting output layer will be flawed (Chrisman 2002). The mathematical
raster overlay is the most common overlay method. As an example, the rasters of
digital elevation model (DEM), satellite data, plan curvature, profile curvature, and
total curvature overlaid using raster overly model in GIS to delineate the distinct
landforms in part of Katol tehsil of Nagpur district, Maharashtra, Central India is
shown in Fig. 7.6.
Weighted overlay process reclassifies the values in the input rasters onto a
common evaluation scale of suitability or preference, risk, or some similarly unify-
ing scale. The input rasters are weighted by importance and added to produce an
output raster. The weighted overlay process accepts only discrete rasters as input.
Continuous rasters should and must be reclassified to discrete rasters before they can
be used.
In raster overlay, if two grids are aligned and have the same grid cell size, then it
is relatively easy to perform overlay operations. A new layer of values is produced
from each pair of coincident cells. The values of these cells can be added, subtracted,
divided, or multiplied, the maximum value can be extracted, mean value can be
calculated, a logical expression can be computed, and so on.

Fig. 7.6 Typical raster

overlay procedure in GIS
140 G. P. O. Reddy

7.7.4 Overlay Analysis with Logical Operators

The concept of map logic can be applied during overlay. Logical operators are based
on point-by-point or cell-by-cell analysis. The most important of this group is the
overlay analysis. In the raster-based analysis, either the logical or arithmetic oper-
ators are used. The logical operators are Boolean functions. There are basically four
types of Boolean operators: viz., OR, AND, NOT, and XOR. Basic arithmetic
operators in raster overlay operations are addition, subtraction, division, and
multiplication.

7.8 Spatial Modeling

Spatial modeling is an analytical process conducted in conjunction with a GIS in

order to describe basic processes and properties for a given set of spatial features.
The objective of spatial modeling is to be able to study and simulate spatial objects or
phenomena that occur in the real world and facilitate problem solving and planning.
Due to the inherent complexity of the world and the interactions in it, models are
created as a simplified, manageable view of reality. Spatial models help to under-
stand, describe, or predict how things work in the real world. There are two main
types of models: representation model, which represents the objects in the landscape,
and process model, which simulates processes in the landscape. Set of analytical
procedures simulates real-world conditions within a GIS using their spatial relation-
ships of geographic features. Geometric modeling (generating buffers, calculating
areas and perimeters, and calculating distances between features), coincidence
modeling (topological overlay), and adjacency modeling (pathfinding, redistricting,
and allocation) are three important categories of spatial modeling functions that can
be applied to geographic features within a GIS.

7.8.1 Representation Models

Representation models try to describe the objects in a landscape. The way represen-
tation models are created in a geographic information system (GIS) is through a set
of data layers. These data layers will be either raster or feature data. Raster layers are
represented by a rectangular mesh or grid, and each location in each layer is
represented by a grid cell, which has a value. Cells from various layers stack on
top of each other, describing many attributes of each location. The representation
model attempts to capture the spatial relationships within an object and between the
other objects in the landscape. Along with establishing the spatial relationships, the
7 Spatial Data Management, Analysis, and Modeling in GIS: Principles. . . 141

GIS representation model is also able to model the attributes of the objects. Repre-
sentation models are sometimes referred to as data models and are considered
descriptive models.

7.8.2 Process Models

Process models attempt to describe the interaction of the objects that are modeled in
the representation model. The relationships are modeled using spatial analysis tools.
Since there are many different types of interactions between objects, process model-
ing is sometimes referred to as cartographic modeling. Process models can be used to
describe processes, but they are often used to predict what will happen if some action
occurs. Some process models are simple, while others are more complex. A process
model should be as simple as possible to capture the necessary reality to solve your
problem. Even more complexity can be added by adding logic, combining multiple
process models.
There are many types of process models to solve a wide variety of problems. A set
of conceptual steps can be used to build a model. Some include surface modeling,
distance modeling, hydrologic modeling, suitability modeling, etc. Suitability
modeling in GIS helps to find out the optimum locations. Distance modeling helps
to find out the distance like what is the minimum distance between the two areas.
Buffering is the best example for distance modeling. In buffering process, it creates
buffer polygons to a specified distance around the input features. An optional
dissolve can be performed to remove overlapping buffers. Using these operations,
the characteristics of an area surrounding in a specified location are evaluated. This
kind of analysis is called proximity analysis and is used whenever analysis is
required to identify surrounding geographic features. The buffer operation will
generate polygon feature types irrespective of geographic features and delineates
spatial proximity. Hydrologic modeling helps to find out the directions like water
flow in hydrological analysis. Surface modeling helps to find out the different level
of information like what is the pollution level for various locations.

7.9 Conclusions

In development of spatial databases in GIS, often data, comes from different formats
and sources like manual digitization and scanning of aerial photographs, remote-
sensing satellite imageries, paper maps, and existing digital datasets. GIS provides
tools and methods for integration of different data into a format to be compared and
analyzed. In data analysis, query, map algebra, and distance- and context-related
analysis are the most common operations carried out in GIS. GIS-based spatial
142 G. P. O. Reddy

analysis includes the transformations, manipulations, and methods to analyze the

database and the anomalies that are not visible in raw data. In GIS simulation
modeling, a set of analytical procedures helps to simulate real-world conditions
within a GIS using their spatial relationships of geographic features. Spatial model-
ing is a vital part of GIS and can be used for many applications like site suitability,
natural resource monitoring, environmental disaster management, etc.

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