SRI SHANMUGHA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Approved By AICTE, Accredited by NAAC, Affiliated to Anna University)

Tiruchengode – Sankari Mani Rd, Pullipalayam, Morur (PO), Sankari (Tk), Salem 637304.

AI8712 – RENEWABLE ENERGY LABORATORY

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ENGINEERING

Anna University - Regulation: 2017

B.E AGRICULTURE ENGINEERING – VII SEMESTER

AI8712 –RENEWABLE ENERGY LABORATORY

 SRI SHANMUGHA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Approved By AICTE, Accredited by NAAC, & Affiliated to Anna University)
Tiruchengode – Sankari Mani Rd, Pullipalayam, Morur (PO), Sankari (Tk), Salem 637304.

RECORD NOTE BOOK

REG NO.

Certified that this is a bonafide observation of Practical work done by

Mr/Ms/Mrs……………………………………of the……………………………………
Semester………………………………………………. Branch during the Academic
year……………in the………………………………laboratory.

Staff – in – Charge Head of the Department

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
 All the students are instructed to wear protective uniform and shoes before

entering into the laboratory.

 Before starting the exercise, students should have a clear idea about the

principles of that exercise

 All the students are advised to come with completed recorded and corrected

observation book of previous experiments, defaulters will not allowed to do their

experiment.

 Don’t operate any instrument without getting concerned staff member’s prior

permission.

 All the instruments are costly. Hence handle them carefully, to avoid fine for

any breakage.

 Almost care must be taken to avert any possible injury while on laboratory work.

In case, anything occurs immediately report to the staff members.

 One student from each batch should put his/her signature during receiving the

instrument in instrument issue register.

 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Page Mark Faculty
[Link] Date Name of the Experiments
No Obtained Signature
 AI8712 RENEWABLE ENERGY LABORATORY
OBJECTIVE:
To gain the practical knowledge on various renewable energy gadgets.
EXPERIMENTS:
1. Characterization of biomass – proximate analysis
2. Determination of caloric value of fuels – solids and gases
3. Design of KVIC / Deenbandhu model biogas plant
4. Study of UASB biomethanation plant
5. Performance evaluation of agro based gasifier
6. Purification of biogas – CO2 and H2S removal
7. Study on pyrolysis unit – Biochar, Charcoal and Tar making process
8. Testing of biogas/producer gas engines
9. Study on briquetting and Stoichiometric calculations
10. Determination of BOD and COD
11. Testing of solar water heater
12. Testing of natural convection solar dryer
13. Study on Solar power and I-V Characteristics
14. Testing of solar photovoltaic water pumping system
 EXPERIMENT: 1 CHARACTERIZATION OF BIOMASS – PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
Aim:
To determine the proximate composition of given feedstock such as moisture content, volatile
matter, fixed carbon and ash.
Apparatus required:
Hot air oven, Muffle furnace
Materials required:
Biomass, Petri dish and Silica crucible with lid
Procedure:
i. Moisture content
• Take a petri dish and weigh it (W1).
• Weigh 5 g of sample in petri dish (W2) and keep it in the hot air oven at 105 ± 3°C.
• At an hour interval, weigh the sample kept in oven and note down the readings. Repeat
this until obtaining the constant weight (W3).
Moisture content (%db) = W3 – W2 / W3
Moisture content (%wb) = W3 – W2/ W2
Total solids (%) = 100 – MC (%)
ii. Volatile matter
• Switch on the muffle furnace and allow the temperature to reach 650°C
• Weigh the dried sample (W1) in a silica crucible and cover with lid (W2).
• Keep the sample (W2) in muffle furnace at 650°C for six minutes and again at 750°C for
another six months.
• Remove the silica crucible from the muffle furnace and note down the weight (W3).
• Loss in weight of the sample was found out and volatile matter was calculated as,
( )
Volatile matter (%) = x 100
( )

iii. Ash content

• Weigh the moisture free sample in anopen silica crucible
• Switch on the muffle furnace and keep the weighed sample at 600°C for an hour.
• Allow the sample to cool and check for the presence of carbon. If any carbon particle is
found in the sample, heat it for another 30 min in the muffle furnace at the same
temperature until the observance of greyish white colour ash.
• Note down the final weight.
 • The residue left in the silica crucible is the amount of ash present in the sample. It can be
calculated as,
( )
Ash content (%) =
( )

iv. Fixed carbon

Difference between the 100% and sum of the volatile matter and ash percentage of the bone
dried sample is termed as fixed carbon content.
Fixed carbon (%) = 100 – (VM + Ash) (%)

Result:
i. Moisture content of the sample = _____ %
ii. Volatile matter of the sample = _______ %
iii. Ash content of the sample = ________ %
iv. Fixed carbon content of the sample = __________ %
 EXPERIMENT: 2 DETERMINATION OF CALORIC VALUE OF FUELS – SOLIDS
AND GASES
Aim:
To determine the gross and net calorific value of biogas using Junker’s and Boy’s gas
calorimeter
Apparatus required:
Junker’s gas calorimeter
Materials required:
Biogas, Match box and water
Calorific value
It is the total quantity of heat liberated, when a unit mass (or volume) of the fuel is burnt
completely.
Higher or Gross calorific value
It is the total amount of heat produced, when one unit of the fuel has been burnt completely
and the products of combustion have been cooled to room temperature.
Net / Lower heating value of Biogas
It is the net heat produced, when mass / volume of the fuel is burnt completely and the
products are permitted to escape.
Difference between the gross (higher) and net (lower) heating value is the latent heat of
vaporization of water vapour formed by combustion.
Junker’s gas calorimeter
Procedure:
• Connect the water inlet and outlet hose to calorimeter. Place the thermocouples through
rubber cock at water inlet and outlet, one each at exhaust gas and gauge glass.
• Turn on the water mains by opening the control knob of the gas calorimeter setting “ON”.
Adjust water supply in such a way that there will be only a small amount of overflow of
excess water to sink. By this the air bubbles inside the water circulating will be let out.
• Remove burner from the calorimeter.
• Open the outlet gas flow control valve slowly. Allow the gas to pass through the governor
and gas flow meter and allow needle for three-four revolutions as indicated by the
flowmeter.
• Light the [Link] air regulator sleeves and the gas tap to get a non-luminous flame.
• Clamp the burner keeping it to the top most position.
 • Adjust the flow of water to get a temperature difference of 12 to 15°C between the water
inlet and outlet temperatures.
• Allow the indicator provided for the water outlet temperature to indicate a steady
temperature.
• Keep the measuring jar beneath the swinging water outlet tube and swing the water outlet
arm to measure the water flow with known time and rotate back to drain.
• Simultaneously, count the number of revolutions made by gas flow meter pointer with
respect to time for 1 or 2 revolution i.e., to find the volume of gas consumed during the
test period.
• Immediately note the temperatures of water inlet and outlet as well as gas flow meter
keeping the water flow and gas flow.
• Repeat the experiment thrice or four times and take average of the readings and calculate
the calorific value of gas using the following formula:

Gross Calorific value of = VwxCpx(T2 – T1)

biogas (Cv) Vg
Where,
Vw– Volume of water (l)
Vg – Volume of gas (l)
Cp – Specific heat of water (KJ kg K-1)
T1 – inlet water temperature (°C)
T2 - outlet water temperature (°C)
Net / Lower heating value of Biogas
Mass of water condensed in kg from 1 m3 of gas = m/V
Latent heat of steam per m3 of gas = x 587

m x 587
LHV (kCal/m3) = GCV –
V
 Junkers gas calorimeter
Observation table
Replication V W t1 t2 M GHV LHV,
Sample
No. (m3) (kg) (s) (s) (kg) (cal/m3) (cal/m3)

Result:
 EXPERIMENT: 3 DESIGN OF KVIC / DEENBANDHU MODEL BIOGAS PLANT
Aim:
To design KVIC and Dheenbhandu biogas plant for household and community level
applications.

1. Design of KVIC biogas plant

Gas production : 0.04 m3/kg of cow dung
Retention Time : 30 – 60 days (Assume: 40 days)
Diameter to Height : 0.5 – 0.75
Slurry requirement : 50 kg per m3
Weight of slurry
Volume of the digester = x Retention time
Density
(Weight of slurry = equal quantity of dung and water)
Actual volume
Actual Volume of the digester should have 10% additional volume which indicates the
headspace.
Actual volume= Digester volume+ 10% of the Digester volume
= π r2 H
D
With the assumption of D/H, calculate r and H (H =0.5)
D D
πr2 H = π H = Actual digester volume
2 2
0.5 H 0.5H
πx H = Actual digester volume
2 2
Find out the diameter and height from the above equation.
Gas storage
Assume 20 cm gap between drum and wall,
∴ Diameter of the gas holder (d) = Diameter of digester (D) – 0.2 m
Find the diameter of the gas holder (d).
Actual gas produced = Weight of dung x 0.04 = m3 / day
Volume of gas holder = 50% of the gas production = m3
π
Volume of gas holder = 4 d2 h

Substitute (d) and find out h.

Design the drum dimensions and Draw the KVIC biogas plant.
Example:
A village consists of 98 families with five members in each family. Village survey report
gives the following information about cattle. Design a community biogas plant to meet out the
cooking and lighting requirements.
Cows = 102 No.
Oxen = 124 No.
Buffalo = 52 No.
Pig = 2 No.
Total = 280 No.
Gas required for cooking/ person / day = 0.227 m3
Gas required for lighting 100 cp. Lamp/h = 0.126 m3
Each family is allotted with a lamp, which would burn 2 h daily.
Solution
i. Calculate the total quantity of dung available
Cow dung = 10 kg / day / cow
Total cow dung = 10 x 102 = 1020 kg / day
Ox = 12 kg / day / ox
Total dung from oxen = 12 x 124 = 1488 kg / day
Buffalo = 15 / day / buffalo
Total dung from buffalo = 15 x 52 = 780 kg / day
Pig = 2 kg / day / pig
Total dung from pig = 2 x 2 = 4 kg / day
Total quantity of dung available = 1020 + 1488 + 780 + 4
= 3296 kg/day = 3300 kg
ii. Gas generation
Gas produced from 1 kg of cow dung = 42 L = 0.04 m3
Calorific value of the biogas / m3 = 4700 kcal(with burning efficiency of 60 %)
Density of slurry = 1090 kg / m3
Total gas produced / day = 42 x 3300
= 138600 L / day = 138.6 m3 / day
It is advisable to design for the minimum gas generating capacity i.e., 138.6 m3 / day
iii. Gas requirement
a. Total gas required for cooking
(There are 490 people) = 0.227 x 490 = 111. 23 m3
Gas required for lighting / day [40 W lamp two hours daily burning per connection] for 98
families = 2 x 0.126 x 98= 24.69 m3
Total gas required for cooking and lighting = 111.23 + 24.69 = 136.92 m3
The gas produced is 138.6 m3/day (Assume all the cattle dung is available)
Surplus gas = 138.6 – 136.92 = 1.68 m3
It can be used for 5 street lamps
Gas required = 5 x 0.252 = 1.16 m3
Rest (1.68 – 1.16) = 0.52 m3, can be accounted for leakage etc.
iv. Estimating the dimensions of digester
For the sake of convenience in distribution we can have 4 digesters.
3300
Quantity of dung for each digester = ---------= 825 kg
4
Weight of (dung + H2O)
Volume of the daily charge = --------------------------------
Density of slurry
825 + 825
= --------------- = 1.51 m3
1090
Digester volume = Volume of the daily charge x Retention time
= 1.51 x 30 = 45.3 m3
Actual digester volume = 1.1 x 45.3 = 49.83 m3

π
Volume of gas holder = D2 H
4

Considering D =H
H
πx H = 49.83 m3
2 2

H = 3.93 m
Height of the digester = 3.93 m = 4m
Diameter of the digester = 3.93 m = 4 m
v. Estimating the dimensions of gas holder
Volume of the gas to be retained by the gas holder = (825 x 0.04) /2 = 16.50 m3
∴ Diameter of the gas holder (d) = Diameter of digester (D) – 0.2 m
= 4 – 0.2 m = 3.8 m
16.50 = 0.785 d2 h = 0.785 (3.8)2 h
h = 1.455 m = 1.5 m
Total volume of the slurry = volume fed in total dung + vol. of water
= 3300 + 3300 = 6600 kg
2. Design of Dheenbandhu model biogas plant
Dheenabandhu model offers reduction in the overall construction cost, elimination of the loss
of biogas through inlet chamber and maximum utilization of digester volume to make the
operational HRT close to the design HRT.
Important design aspect of this model is that due to its spherical shape, surface area become
minimum, requiring less construction materials and lesser the cost. This design essentially
consists of segments of two spheres of different diameters joined at their bases. A safe distance is
provided between the inlet and outlet to prevent the possible short circuiting of fresh slurry. The
entire structure could be considered as an integrated unit of digester (bottom portion) and gas
storage chamber. While the base diameter to rise of arch ratio is kept at 5:1 for the bottom of the
unit and the top dome is a hemisphere.
Capacity of biogas plant – 2 m3
Retention time – 40 days
Density of slurry – 1000 kg/m3
Gas production/kg of dung – 0.04 m3
Cow dung required to produce 2 m3 of biogas – 50 kg
Daily slurry fed into the plant = 100 kg (50 kg cowdung + 50 kg of water)
weight of slurry
Volume of digester = x Retention time
Density of slurry
100
= x 40
1000

V = 4 m3
V = V1 + Vh – V3
V1 + Vh – V3 = 4
Assume,V1 = V3
∴Vh = 4
2
πR$ = 4
3
 R = 1.24 m; R = 1.2 m
Assume,
'.)
h1 = D/5= = 0.48 -
*

Volume of dome,
D2 H1 2
V1 = π h1 . + /
8 6

(2.4)2 (0.48)2
V1 = π x 0.48 . + /
8 6
V1 = 1.14 m3
Actual,
' '
Vh = πR$ = $ π (1.2)$
$

Vh = 3.61 m3
Substitute the values of Vh& V1 in
V = V1 + Vh – V3
4 = 1.14 + 3.61 – V3
V3 = 0.759 m3
1 '.)
Let h2 = ).' = ).'

h2 = 0.57m
A = R = 1.2 m
A = h2 + h3= 0.57 + h3
h3 = A – 0.57 = 1.2 – 0.57 = 0.63 m
Let us consider that gas storage volume as 1/3 gas produced per day.
2
V3 – V4 = $ x 2 = 0.67

V4 = 0.754 – 0.67
V4= 0.08 m3
1 '.)
Let h4 = 3
= 3
= 0.3 m

d2 h4 2
V4 = π h4 . + /
8 6
d2 (0.3)2
0.08 = π x 0.3 . + /
8 6
 d2 (0.3)2
0.085 = +
8 6
d = 0.74 m
Storage Volume = 0.67 m3
l x bx h = 0.67
Assume l = 1.5b
1.5 b x b x h = 0.67; 1.5 b2h = 0.67
h = h3 – h4 = 0.63 – 0.3 = 0.33m
1.5 x 0.33 x b2 = 0.67
b = 1.16 m
l = 1.74m; b = 1.16 m; h = 0.33 m

Result:
 EXPERIMENT: 4 STUDY OF UASB BIOMETHANATION PLANT
Aim:
To design anup flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor for waste water treatment.
Design:
The physico-chemical characteristic of the sludge bed is an important factor in deciding the
biomethanation capacity of the reactor. The amount of daily deposition of sludge depends on the
characteristics of raw wastewater. Design of the reactor is as follows:
1. Total sludge production
i. New VSS produced by BOD removal
(Assume the yield coefficient as 0.1 g VSS / g BOD removed)
New VSS produced in BOD influent BOD (mg l-1) x BOD removal (%) x Yield
removal (mg l-1) = coefficient (g VSS / g BOD removed)

ii. Non-biodegradable residue of the VSS coming in the inflow is,

Non-degradable residue (mg l-1) = VSS (mg l-1) x(1 – degradable fraction)

iii. Ash received in the inflow can be calculated as

New ash received in the inflow = TSS (mg l-1) – VSS (mg l-1)
(mg l-1)

Sum of the above three components gives the total sludge produced per day
Total sludge produced = New VSS produced in BOD removal (mg l-1) +
(kg day-1) Non – degradable residue (mg l-1) +
Ash received in the inflow (mg l-1)

2. Solid retention time

Solid retention time of a system depends on the characteristics of the wastewater.
45678 9:7;6<6= 5> ?8:@AB CDB?B;6 <; 6ℎB DB7F65D (GA)
Solid retention time (days) = H:7;6<6= 5> ?8:@AB DB-5IB@ CBD @7= (GA/@7=)

Average concentration of sludge in the blanket (kg

m-3) x
 Effective depth of sludge blanket (m) xEffectiveness
coefficient (%)xHydraulic retention time (h)
Solid retention time (days) = Total quantity of sludge produced (mg l-1)

3. Hydraulic retention time

SRT x total quantity of sludge produced x 24
Hydraulic retention time = Average concentration of sludge in the blanket
xEffective depth of the sludge blanket x
Effectiveness coefficient

4. Up flow velocity
The liquid upflow velocity in the reactor is directly related to reactor height. In a conventional
UASB system, the average daily value of liquid upflow velocity for domestic wastewater should
not exceed 0.7 m h-1 (Lettinga and Hulshoff Pol, 1991).

Up flow velocity (m h-1) = Reactor height (m)

Hydraulic retention time (h)
5. Area of reactor
Consider the reactor of cylindrical in shape,
Flow rate (m3/h)
Cross sectional area of reactor (m2) = Up flow velocity (m/h)

6. Diameter of the reactor

K
Reactor area (m2) = ) xD2

Result:
 EXPERIMENT: 5 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF AGRO BASED GASIFIER
Aim:
To study the working principle of rice husk gasifier and to test its performance
Apparatus of the unit:
Balance, measuring jar, thermometer, watch etc.,
Description of gasifier
1. Function : For thermal applications in small scale industries
2. Specification
Rice husk consumption rate : 6 – 8 kg/h
Thermal efficiency : 55 – 60 %
Gas yield : 10 – 12 m3/h
Power required for blower : 0.2 kW
Thermal capacity : 10,000–15,000 kcal/h

All Dimensions are in mm Open Core Agro Residue Gasifier

Components of Open core Gasifier
1→ Reactor
2 → Burner
3 → Tar collecting bottle
4 → Bottom lid
5 → Grate
6 → Tie rods
3. General information :
The 4.5 kW downdraft open core rice husk gasifier consists of two cylindrical drums of
300 mm and 370 mm diameter, joined with flange at the top and fitted with a grate and a lid at
the bottom. A 0.2 KW electrical motor run blower sucks gas, produced from the plant and
supplies to the burner. A gas cooling and cleanup system was provided in between the reactor
and the burner.
4. Cost of unit : Rs. 25,000
5. Cost of operation : Rs.30/h
6. Salient features :
Thermal applications of rice mills can be suitably met out with thermal efficiency
of 55 to 60%
Compared to diesel system about Rs.300/day can be saved
Observations
The gasifier can be ignited from bottom. A bed of ignited charcoal (0.5 kg.) to a depth of
50 mm is placed over the grate. Then the biomass is dumped over the red-hot charcoal. A white
gas emanates and it is ignited.
1) Mass of water taken (m) kg
2) Initial temperature (t1)
3) Final temperature (t2)
4) Loss in weight of water (∆ m) kg
5) Mass of fuel used in kg
6) Initial time T1
7) Final time T2
CALCULATIONS
Known values
Specific heat of water (S) = 1 k. cal./kg
Latent heat of water (L) = 540 k. cal./kg
Calorific value of firewood = 4271 k. cal./kg
Heat output HO = ms∆t + L ∆m
Heat input Hi = (mass of fuel used x calorific value of fuel) + (mass of charcoal x calorific value
of charcoal)
Thermal efficiency η = HO/ HI
Power output rating PR = f Cvη/860
Where, f = quantity of fuel burnt kg/h.
Cv = calorific value of fuel k. cal/kg
η = Thermal efficiency of the stove.

RESULTS:
Thermal efficiency of gasifier burner system

Power Rating of gasifier burner system

[Link].6. PURIFICATION OF BIOGAS

Biogas is a promising source of renewable energy and has now become

an important area of research. Biogas contains CH4, CO2, H2S, CO and N2O.
methane gives heating value to biogas. Scrubbing is the isolation of CO2, H2S
and nitrogen oxides from biogas. The compression ignition engine run on biogas
free of CO2 and trouble free, develop higher horse power, has least repair and
maintenance problems and provide better service life. Its cooking efficiency
improves as cooking gas. Unit volume of scrubbed biogas has less CO2 and high
CH4 which promotes heating value of calorific value.

Different methods of purification

1. Water spray method
The purifying unit is made up of emptied kerosene drum. A water spray
boom arrangement is provided from the top of the drum. Water is applied through
the spray boom from the top water connection from an overhead tank and the
biogas is allowed to move through this passage. Due to the pressurized action of
water molecules on biogas, the CO2 content of biogas was reduced from 40% to
8%.

2. Sweep diffusion process

Sweep diffusion is a technology in which one of the gases from binary fluid
can be separated by the process of diffusion arising from differential physical
properties of the component. Two concentric tubes are placed such that the inner
one is perforated with a center to pass steam. Biogas comprising of CO2 and CH4
is passed through the annular space between the concentric cylinders in a
counter flow direction. The steam having affinity for CO2 which is heavier in
density is in the vicinity of biogas which is separated by sharp clustered orifices
of capillary nature. This creates a situation where the different viscosity causes a
variable velocity flow under laminar condition resulting in the CO2 being swept
along the steam flow and thereby of biogas results in.
The quantum of separation is influenced by both velocity of flow of both
the fluids as well as the velocity difference between each. The fluid pressure
difference is influenced by the relative area of cross section of the two cylinders
besides the characteristics of the fluid flow. The concentration gradient between
the inner and outer fluids in conjunction with the coefficient of concentration that
is confronted during the fluid mixing is also vital in regulating the diffusion.

Fig. Water Spray Boom Arrangement

3. Scrubbing tower

Galvanized iron sheet of 22 gauge of 1 m length and 0.2 m width was

taken. It was rolled to form a cylinder of 1 m length and internal diameter of 0.2
m. But joints were made at the joining surface. Brazing was done along the
joining surface to make the joints leak proof. Similarly, 6 cylinder of same
dimensions were made and jointed mouth to mouth by flanges and bolts. The top
and bottom end were conical. The maximum and minimum diameters of conical
cylinder were 0.2 and 0.1 m respectively. The top end had 2 openings, one for
the entry of water and other for the exit of scrubbed biogas. Exit point was
concerned with sampling system by rubber tube. The bottom end of the tower
rested on a stand. This end also had 2 openings, one for the entry of raw biogas
and the other for exit of wash water. A compressor with pressure gauge was
used in between the source of raw biogas and scrubbing tower. The through the
energy meter. A rotometer was used near the entry point of raw biogas into
scrubbing tower. A pump was used to fill the scrubbing tower with water. The
power requirement of the pump was 0.186 kW.
 The rotameter maintains the constant flow of biogas at 5 m. the water
level in the scrubbing tower was kept constant. The tower had provision for
continuous entry and exit of water. CO2 was absorbed by water and gas coming
out of tower was scrubbed gas. Scrubbed biogas then passed to a vacuum pump
having an outlet with a cock for opening and closing, cycle tubes were used for
taking the samples.

Fig. Schematic View of Scrubbing Tower

Conclusion

Gain in energy was proportional to pressure. With the increase in pressure

– gain in energy also increase. Since the pressure increased, the scrubbing of
biogas, this envisaged higher calorific value of scrubbed biogas and resulted in
higher gain of energy. The curve followed the following equation.

Y = 1.793367 x + 2279
Where Y = gain in energy in kJ/m3 and
X = pressure, kPa
EXPERIMENT: 7 STUDY ON PYROLYSIS UNIT – BIOCHAR, CHARCOAL AND TAR
MAKING PROCESS
 EXPERIMENT: 8 TESTING OF BIOGAS/PRODUCER GAS ENGINES
Utilization of biogas
Biogas being a very clean and good quality fuel, so it can be utilized for following purposes as:
Biogas for cooking purposes
Biogas provides a clean and efficient fuel for the kitchen, a special biogas burner (stove)
other than L.P. burner is used for cooking purposes. It consists of nozzle, an air inlet, mixing
chamber and fire sieve element. The nozzle is a hollow tube made of glass, metal, plastic or
bamboo. As biogas passes through the nozzle, air is allowed to be drawn into the mixing
chamber. For obtaining desired flame temperature, nozzle adjustment is done by trial and error.
Biogas stoves normally operates at gas pressure of 7.5 to 9.0 cm of water column. Brightness and
combustibility of gas can be maintained as 10:1. Combustibility of gas is maximum when flame
is blue. Biogas cannot be burnt on LPG/Natural gas stoves as its nozzle is very small and would
permit very little flow of gas.
Biogas can burn if the end of the discharge line is lighted, but this is inefficient and the
heat release rate is low due to improper mixing of the air and fuel. The aim of designing a burner
is to provide good mixing of air and fuel, to increase-the volumetric heat release rate, the
combustion efficiency and heat transfer efficiency. The burner should ensure that the three T’s of
combustion are satisfied-temperature, turbulence and time. A good burner will help to produce
intense temperature, regulate air supply, regulate the fuel supply and provide mixing of fuel and
air. The air to fuel ratio in a burner can be adjusted by cutting the air supply and observing the
flame. If incomplete combustion is observed, the air supply should be increased. Excess air
should also be avoided as this lowers the combustion temperature and consequently some
unburnt gas will flow out defeating the very purpose of excess air.
Biogas stoves should have the following characteristics:
1 Inlet channels should be smooth to reduce the resistance to flow of gas and air;
2 Spacing and size of air holder should be sufficient.
3 Volume in the channel where the gas and air mix should be large enough to allow
complete mixing;
4 Gas jet holes should not be too large but should allow easy passage of the mixed gas and
air;
5 The appliance should be simple, economical and easy to make.
6 While designing a biogas stove the following characteristics of the biogas are to be
considered.
 7 Composition of biogas (generally 60% methane and 40% carbon dioxide).
8 Pressure of the gas (8.75 - 10 cm water column).
9 Flame velocity.
The following rules should be observed while designing the biogas stove:
1 Air must be thoroughly mixed with gas before it reaches the flame ports and should flow
near the gas jet, ideally with a venturi (In the absence of sufficient air there is a smell
from burning gas).
2 Total area of the flame ports should be between 8-200 times the area of the gas jet. It may
be noted that biogas stoves have large flame port diameters than stoves using LPG.
3 Distance from the flame ports to the surface of the cooking pot should be between 2.5 cm
and 3.0 cm.
4 Supports for cooking pots should not prevent air from getting to the flame.
5 To allow cross-lighting from one flame port to the next, the distance between flame ports
should not be more than 2.0 cm.
6 For corrosion-resistance properties, cast iron is better than mild steel.
Given below are the specifications for a 0.45 m3 per hour common biogas stove for domestic use
Jet size 2.25 mm dia
Area of jet. 3.98 mm2
Flame port size 6.0 mm dia
Number of ports 20
Total area of ports 565 mm2
Ratio of jet area to flame port area 1:142
Length of gas mixing pipe 20 mm
Diameter of gas mixing pipe 20 mm
Sustainability of flame is another important test to adjust the air to fuel ratio. If the flame does
not sustain but is put off when the match stick is removed, it can be concluded that either the air
supply or the fuel supply is in excess.
Design of biogas burners
A scheme diagram of the biogas burner is shown in Fig. 11.1. It consists of (i) an orifice for
injecting the biogas (ii) an adjustable air port for air entry (iii) a chamber of thorough mixing of
gas and air and (iv) ports for exit and burning of gas-air mixture.
The diameter of the orifice can be obtained by the equation.
Q = 3.6 CdA0 [2g (pw/pg)hg]1/2
Where Q = gas flow rate (lit/hr)
Cd = coefficient of discharge (about 0.6)
A0 = area of the orifice (cm2)
g = acceleration due to gravity (981 cm/sec2)
pw = density of water (1000 kg/m3)
pg = density of gas (1.128 kg/m3)
hg = pressure of the gas (cm.w.g.)
For gas pressures of 5-10 cm. w.g., the orifice area per unit flow rate (A0/Q) can be calculated to
be about 0.01 mm2 hr/lit. For higher pressures the above formula can be used.
Two 8 mm dia holes with an adjustable check-nut over them should be provided immediately
after the orifice for air entry.
The mixing chamber should be about 15-20 cm. long. For high pressures, the length should be
increased. The total area of the flame ports should be about 300 times the orifice area for proper
flame propagation. Thus the diameter of each hole can be decided once the total number of holes
is fixed. A total of 12 holes should be reasonable. The distance of the flame ports to the base of
the utensil should be about 2.5 cm.
For cooking purposes, the following types of biogas burners can be used :
KVIC design burners
KVIC designed burners (utility type and deluxe biogas burners) are made of cast iron with
injectors made of gun metal (Fig. 7.2). These two types of burners consume 0.45 m3 of gas per
hour which are adequate for 1-2 member and 5-6 member family, respectively. Initial pressure of
gas in gas holder and burners vary from plant to plant. While designing these burners, initial
pressure of gas in gas holder is assumed as 8.8 cm water column and in burner, between 7.6 cm
and 8.3 cm water column. KVIC has also designed biogas burners for commercial use (for
Dhabas, Hostel Messes etc), which are shown in Fig. 7.3.
Tin burners
These burners though not very efficient are made of tin to which gas is supplied from base
pipelines (Fig. 11.4). Perforations are provided at upper portion of the tin to enable the gas to
spurt out for burning. A number of small sized stones are kept outside to facilitate improved air
and gas mixing. Tin burner can be embedded inside the earthern ‘chulah’ to suit flat bottomed
and round bottomed cooking vessels.
Biogas as a lighting fuel
Biogas can be fed into any gas lamp using a mantle for lighting. Biogas lamp consists of nozzle,
an air inlet, mixing chamber, mantle and glass globe. In biogas lamp, when gas is burnt, mantle
of the lamp glows which causes lighting. Mantle in biogas lamp is similar to one used in a
‘Coleman’ or propane lamp. Mantle is normally made of Ramie fibre (which is also used in
making glass cloth and liner) and is coated with thorium nitrate solution. While burning, the
Ramie fibre reduces to ash forming a layer of thorium dioxide which emits dazzling white light
at high temperatures. Nozzle of this burner is of the size of a needle point having 0.5 to 0.7 mm
diameter. The other end of the nozzle is connected to gas supply hose which is linked to a biogas
plant. Biogas emerges out from the nozzle at very high temperature forming low pressure area
around it. As biogas passes through the nozzle, air is allowed to be drawn into the mixing
chamber to freely mix with it. Brightness of biogas lamp mainly depends on factors like gas
pressure, and relative proportion of gas and air which is about 1:10 and thoroughness in mixing.
For achieving bright intensity, nozzle needle to be adjusted by trial and error. Low gas pressure
causes poor light intensity, but higher pressure though it improves brightness but tends to lower
mantle-life. Biogas lamps can be either suspended (hanging type) or put on table (standing type).
As weight of biogas is almost half as that of air and as hot air flows upwards, brightness of a
standing biogas lamp is somewhat greater than that of a hanging type. Biogas lamps are
generally designed to produce 100 candle power (C.P.) and consume 0.11 to 0.15 m3 biogas per
hour.
In India, the biogas lamps are designed with single or double mantles. Both single and double
mantel types can be further classified as internal or external types. An internal mantle lamp has a
simple cover and is designed to produce 100 candle power (C.P.) which is equivalent to light
intensity of 60 watts electric bulb. An external single mantle lamp has an outside protective
cover to safeguard it from rain and wind and is also capable to produce same light intensity of
100 candle power. Designs of these two lamps are shown in Fig. 11.5 which works at gas
pressure of 7.0 to 8.5 cm water column. A double mantle lamp can also be of both internal and
external type. The internal type is fitted with a simple cover and can produce upto 100 candle
power. The two mantle external type is equipped with a special cover to protect it from rain and
wind and is also capable to produce 100 candle power (C.P.).
As for the starting sequence of the lamp, after opening gas cock and regulator, mantle is lit to
light the lamp. Lamp can be turned-off by operating the gas cock. Regulator is adjusted for
achieving requisite brightness. For preventing the possibility of any hazard, the lamp should be
lit by bringing the match-stick close to the mantle either via the hole in the base of glass globe or
via the reflector after opening it.

Biogas for running dual fuel engines

Biogas as an engine fuel offers several advantages, biogas being a clean fuel causes smokeless
combustion and reduced contamination of engine oil. It also reduces deposits on piston and
combustion chamber. As gas needs is considerable, large capacity biogas plants are needed to
supply gas for running IC (Internal Combustion) engines. It is to be noted that, even a 5 H.P.
engine for 8 hourly operation requires gas supply from a biogas plant of 15 m3/day capacity.
Community biogas plants with a gas output of 50 m3 per day are generally used to drive biogas
fuelled electricity generating sets.
Normal consumption rate of biogas for running IC engines is 0.45 to 0.54 m3/hour/H.P. or 0.60
to 0.70 m3/hour kW if used for power generation. Biogas pressure is found to vary from 2.5 to
10.0 cm water column. If an engine consumes 0.50 m3 of biogas/hour/H.P., then quantity of
engine consumes 0.50 m3 of biogas/hour/H.P., then quantity of gas needed for running a 10 H.P.
engine for 10 hour operation per day becomes.
= (0.50 m3/hour/H.P.) x 10 x 10 = 50 m3.
Norms of biogas consumption for operating different capacity engines on dual-fuel are given in
Table 8.1. These ratios are based on 8 hourly operation with 75 per cent plant efficiency with
biogas consumption rate being 0.257 m3/H.P./ hour having 50 per cent diesel replacement with
biogas, although replacement of diesel can be as high as 80 per cent.
Table 8.1 Rates of biogas consumption for operating different capacity engines on dual-fuel
Biogas consumption Capacity of plant to supply
S. No. Engine rating H.P.
(m3/day) biogas (m3/day)
1. 5 360 480
2. 10 720 960
3. 15 1080 1440
4. 20 1440 1920
During the operation of an diesel engine, it is noted, when the piston moves downward during
first stroke, then the inlet value opens and the fresh air is filled in the cylinder which enters
through the air cleaner. In the second stroke, the piston moves upwards, then both the valves are
closed and the air which is already entered in the cylinder is being compressed upto the ratio
17:1. Due to this compression, temperature of air is very much raised. After that the diesel is
being injected into this hot air which catches fire and the piston again moves downward due to
the high pressure of air. In the fourth stroke, the exhaust valve opens and the fuel gases are
exhausted outside due to upward movement of the piston. Thus it is very clear from the operation
of diesel engine that small quantity of diesel should be must for ignition. Due to this reason, a
dual-fuel engine is first started with diesel fuel only. After it has attained normal running for
some time, biogas choke is opened to admit gas into the combustion chamber. Biogas
combustion can be controlled by adjusting the choke. In a steady engine operation, dual-fuel
achieves nearly 75 per cent saving in diesel consumption. For stopping dual-fuel engine, biogas
choke should be stopped first followed by throttle.
To run diesel engine on biogas, the biogas pipe is joined with the air cleaner of the engine to
prepare the mixture of biogas and air. In the first stroke of the piston, the engine sucks biogas
and air and it catches fire after injecting the diesel by the nozzle. A special and simple instrument
shown in Fig. 8.2 can also be used to prepare the mixture of biogas and air and is joined with the
diesel engine at modified inlet. The control of biogas is being done with the help of gate valve
attached to this instrument.

Methane, the lightest organic gas, has two fundamental drawbacks to its use in heat engines: it
has a relatively low fuel value and it takes nearly 34450kPa pressure to liquefy it for easy
storage, (2.48 m3 of methane gas can be converted to 4.55 litre of liquid methane). So a great
deal of storage of methane is required for a given amount of work. For comparison, propane
liquefies around 1722.5kPa.
Modified petrol engines
A petrol engine can be modified to run on biogas by drilling a hole in the carburetor near the
choke. A tube is then inserted which is connected to the gas through a control valve. The engine
is to be started on petrol and then switched on to run on biogas only.
In some cases, gas is admitted into the inducted air through a cam operated valve. A
governor controlled disc regulates the quantity of gas admitted in accordance with the engine
output. The governor also throttles the air supply so that the gas air mixture is within the ignition
limits.
Typically a 4-stroke single cylinder 1 BHP engine running at 1800 rpm needs a biogas
supply line of 9 mm diameter and gas pressure of 50 to 100 mm of water. The power developed
is 85% of the older rating. The gas consumption is 0.51 m3/h at full load and air to fuel ratio is
5.83 :1 at full load and 5.75:1 at normal load. The engine dissipates more heat than a
conventional engine and the cooling system must be preferably water cooled.
Modifications
The conversion of SI engine for operation on biogas includes provisions for the entry of
biogas , throttling of intake air and advancing the ignition timing. Biogas can be admitted to a
stationary SI engine through the intake manifold and an air flow control valve can be provided
on the air cleaner pipe connecting the air cleaner and carburetor for throttling of intake air. In this
case the intake air is required to be manually throttled in the initial stage.
Modified diesel engines (The dual fuel engine)
A diesel engine can be easily converted to run on 80 to 90% biogas and 20% to 10%
diesel by feeding the gas in between the air intake and the engine. After the engine is started on
diesel oil, the gas valve is opened gradually and the engine’s governor automatically reduces the
intake of diesel oil. Since the compression of the gas-air mixture is not sufficient to produce the
temperature required for ignition, there is no danger of pre-ignition.
CI engine can operate on dual fuel and the necessary engine modifications include
provision for the entry of biogas with intake air, advancing the injection timing and provision of
a system to reduce diesel supply.
The entry of biogas and mixing of gas with intake air can be achieved by providing a
mixing chamber below the air cleaner which facilitates thorough mixing of biogas with air before
entering into the cylinder. The arrangements largely used in stationary engines commercially
available in India. The capacity of mixing chamber may be kept equal to the engine displacement
volume. The pilot injection of diesel in the cycle is required to be advanced for smooth and
efficient running of engine on dual fuel.
Biogas for electricity generation
Biogas can be used to produce electricity by coupling a dual-fuel engine to an
asynchronous generator. Based on results of several studies carried out. 1 kWh of electricity can
be generated from 0.75 m3 of gas which can light 25 electric bulbs of 40 w rating whereas 0.75
m3 of gas if directly burnt can light only 7 biogas lamps for one hour. Hence it is advantageous to
first generate electricity and then light larger number of electric bulbs. In China asynchronous
generators of 3, 3.5 and 7.5 kW rating coupled to biogas-based IC engines are commonly used.
However, electricity generation from biogas is economical only when gas is supplied by large
community plants but it requires high initial capital investment. Decentralized power systems
can be cost-effective especially when they minimize transmission and distribution costs. For
cost-effective system, unit cost of biogas-based electricity should be less than supplied by the
electricity boards.
Biogas in boilers and water heaters
Biogas successfully fueled the boiler that heated the digester chamber. Preliminary tests
were made of its usefulness as fuel for a household-type water heater and for operating spark-
ignition and compression-ignition internal-combustion engines.
The gas-fired cast-iron boiler was of commercial manufacture, of a type that would normally be
fueled with LP gas. Several changes were required to prepare the unit for fueling with biogas:
1 The diameter of the nozzle orifice was increased. The heating value of biogas is only 30
per cent that of LP gas and only 60 per cent that of natural gas, and line pressures were
less with biogas than with LP gas. Consequently, the diameter of the burner nozzle
orifices was enlarged approximately 70 per cent of biogas utilization.
2 Air supply to the burner was decreased. The air-inlet ports had to be almost completely
closed, which required special covers for the air inlets.
3 Moisture was removed. A system of cooling and heating the gas in combination with
condensate traps facilitated delivery of the gas to valves and orifices without risk of
condensation in these narrow channels. pressure-regulator valves were kept warm to
prevent condensation.
4 An independent fuel source (LP gas) was used for the pilot light. This was because the
quality and supply of biogas may not be totally reliable. The pilot light required
approximately 0.45 kg LP gas per day.
5 A 40-gal (150-liter) water heater was operated experimentally, using biogas as fuel. This
test indicated that a gas consumption of 40 liter/min of water from 10 to 65°C. This
corresponds to a thermal efficiency of 65 per cent, compared to a rated efficiency of 70
per cent. Further adjustment of the burner would probably improve its performance when
fueled with biogas.
Since well-adjusted and fully loaded boilers and other water-heating devices may be
assumed to have 70 per cent efficiency on biogas, as well as on other gaseous fuels, the fuel
consumption for a water heater can be calculated from the relationship that 3.2 m3 of biogas 62
MJ will heat 190 liter of water from 50 to 10 to 65°C. In a home-heating system, 5.2 m3/h of
biogas would give a rated (input) heating capacity of 29 kW.
Biogas use in stationary power plants
Biogas can be used in both spark ignition engines and compression ignition engines. The
choice of the engine depends on the following factors:
(a) If the gas supply is assured, a S.I. engine can be used.
(b) If the gas supply is not assured, a C.I. engine with dual fuel operation can be used. This
engine can run completely on diesel when gas is not available.
Biogas can be used in stationary power plants in the following modes :
(i) In a spark ignition engine by using a higher compression ratio with magneto ignition and
modifying the carburetor system.
(ii) In a compression ignition engine with gas injection and pilot diesel injection. This requires
biogas at high pressure. This is not generally used.
(iii) As a dual engine with diesel and biogas. Also dual fuel engine with petrol and biogas can be
used, but this require relatively greater modifications.
(iv) In dual fuel gas turbines.
The following points be noted:
(a) Purification of gas by separation of H2S prevents corrosion. Removal of H2S prolongs engine
life. Exhaust would be free of sulphur compounds.
(b) Removal of CO2 by scrubbing the gas through lime water improves the calorific value by
30% on volume basis. Volumetric efficiency would improve and also higher specific output can
be obtained.
(c) Gas burn carburetor for controlling intake of gas and air would be preferable.
(d) Regulation of engine cooling water flow rate would be desirable as the engines dissipate
more heat than conventional engines.
(e) Use of biogas receiver bag for maintaining a constant pressure and flow rate may be
considered. This consists of a cylindrical tube of 300 mm length and 75 mm diameter with a half
return valve on the outlet side and a wire netting ball at the constriction point of cylinder outlet
tube.
(f) Slow speed engines should be preferred.
(g) Ignition/injection timing advance to be set optimally.
Biogas in gas turbines
The main advantage of the use of gas turbines is that the capital cost is considerably lower
compared to reciprocating engines-particularly when used aircraft engines whose normal flying
duty is over are utilized. There are additional advantages of easy installation, modular
maintenance, quick starting and reliable operation. National Aerospace Laboratory has studied
the applications of Rolls Royee ‘Dart’ Engines used by IAF and Indian Airlines to provide
mechanical energy for 1.0 to 2.5 MW electrical generators. These can be operated on dual fuels
[biogas + diesel or kerosene]. This approach seems to be promising.
The production of electrical energy only by biogas fuel is not economical. However,
cogeneration with I.C. engine connected with a generator and with waste heat recovery would be
economical. The waste heat recovered can be cycled for digester heating.
Biogas in refrigerators
Biogas can be used in absorption refrigeration system without any problems as long as assured
gas supply for burner is available. For a Refrigerator of 230 litres capacity, the biogas
consumption will be approximately 0.044 m3/l.
Particular problems also arise with biogas operated refrigerators. The composition of biogas
varies substantially from day to day. The gas pressure fluctuates excessively with the amount of
gas stored even in a floating drum plant. Special, stable-burning jets are therefore needed-
especially if the refrigerator is thermostatically controlled and the flame burns only when
required. On every ignition there is a risk of the flame going cut. Gas will then discharge without
burning. The gas supply must therefore automatically be cut off if the flame goes out.
Small scale dairies handling 500 litres of milk per day seems to be feasible units for the rural
setup. It is assumed that water is available in abundance and cooling of the milk from
pasteurizing temperature of about 70°C to, say, 35oC can be done with the available cold water.
Heat to be removed by water (taking the specific gravity and specific heat of milk as 1.03 and
0.95 ) is 500 x 1.03 x 0.95 x 35 = 17124 kcal.
For a raise in temperature of water of 5oC, the amount of water necessary = 17124/5 = 3425 kg.
Taking [Link] for cooling, the required water flow rate = 3425/4 = 856 kg/hr.
For a 10m delivery head of water and a pump efficiency of 50%, the shaft HP required for the
circulation pump = 856 x 10/(60x4500x0.5) = 0.06.
To cool the milk from 35oC to 3oC heat to be removed
= 500 x 1.03 x 0.95 x (35 - 3) = 15656 kcal.
Assuming 30% heat loss actual heat to be removed at the evaporator = 20 353 kcal.
Considering 8 hrs. operating time the refrigerating capacity needed
= 20353/(8x60x50) = 0.848 tons.
For a 3 m x 3m x 3m walk in cold storage the approximate cooling required would be 0.6 tons of
refrigeration.
Total cooling capacity needed for the dairy = 1.448 tons. Hence the engine power needed for the
dairy plant is approximately 2 hrs. Biogas out put needed for a dual fuel diesel engine for the
above purpose = 4 m3/day. For a spark ignition engine running totally on biogas the gas out put
needed is 6.4 m3/day. This would necessitate output from over 15 cattle heads.
 EXPERIMENT: 9 STUDY ON BRIQUETTING AND STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
Densification
Biomass densification represents a set of technologies for the conversion of biomass into
a [Link] technology is also known as briquetting and it improves the handling characteristics of
thematerials for transport, storing etc. This technology can help in expanding the use of
biomassin energy production, since densification improves the volumetric calorific value of a
fuel, reducesthe cost of transport and can help in improving the fuel situation in rural areas.
Briquetting isone of several agglomeration techniques which are broadly characterized as
densificationtechnologies. Agglomeration of residues is done with the purpose of making them
denserfor their use in energy production.
Advantages
• The process increase the net calorific value of material per unit volume
• End product is easy to transport and store
• The fuel produce is uniform in size and quality
• Helps solve the problem of residue disposal
• Helps to reduce deforestation by providing a substitute for fuel wood.
• The process reduce/eliminates the possibility of spontaneous combustion waste
• The process reduces biodegradation of residues
Disadvantages
• High investment cost and energy input to the process
• Undesirable combustion characteristics often observed e.g. poor ignitability, smoking,
etc.
• Tendency of briquettes to loosen when exposed to water or even high humidity weather
Densification Process
There are four basic steps involved in the densification process namely, collection of raw
materials, preparation of raw materials, compaction and Cooling and Storage.
Collection of raw materials
In general, any material that will burn, but is not in a convenient shape, size or form to be
readily usable as fuel is a good candidate for briquetting.
Preparation of raw materials
The preparation of raw materials includes drying,size reduction, mixing of raw materials
in correct proportion, mixing of raw materials with binder etc.
Drying
The raw materials are available in higher moisture contents than what required for
briquetting. Drying can be done in open air (sun), in solar driers, with a heater or withhot air.
Size reduction
The raw material is first reduced in size by shredding, chopping, crushing, breaking,
rolling, hammering, milling, grinding, cutting etc. until it reaches a suitably small and uniform
size (1 to 10 mm). For some materials which are available in the size range of 1 to 10mm need
not be size reduced. Since the size reduction process consumes a good deal of energy, this should
be as short as possible.
Raw material mixing
It is desirable to make briquettes of more than one raw material. Mixing will be done in
proper proportion in such a way that the product should have good compaction and high calorific
value.
Compaction
Compaction process takes place inside the briquetting machine. The process depends on
the briquetting technology adopted.
Binding Mechanisms of Densification
In order to understand the suitability of biomass for briquetting, it is essential to know
thephysical and chemical properties of biomass which also influence its behavior as a
[Link] properties of interest include moisture content, bulk density, void volume and
thermalproperties. Chemical characteristics of importance include the proximate and ultimate
analysis,and higher heating value. The physical properties are most important in any description
of thebinding mechanisms of biomass densification. Densification of biomass under high
pressurebrings about mechanical interlocking and increased adhesion between the particles,
formingintermolecular bonds in the contact area. In the case of biomass the binding mechanisms
underhigh pressure can be divided into adhesion and cohesion forces, attractive forces between
solidparticles, and interlocking bonds. High viscous bonding media, such as tar and other
molecular weight organic liquids can formbonds very similar to solid bridges. Adhesion forces at
the solid-fluid interface and cohesionforces within the solid are used fully for binding. Lignin of
biomass/wood can also be assumedto help in binding in this way. Finely divided solids easily
attract free atoms or molecules fromthe surrounding atmosphere. The thin adsorption layers thus
formed are not freely [Link], they can contact or penetrate each other. The softening
lignin at high temperature andpressure conditions form the adsorption layer with the solid
portion. The application of externalforce such as pressure may increase the contact area causing
the molecular forces to transmithigh enough which increases the strength of the bond between
the adhering partners. Anotherimportant binding mechanism is van der Waals’ forces. They are
prominent at extremely shortdistances between the adhesion partners. This type of adhesion
possibility is much higher forpowders. Fibres or bulky particles can interlock or fold about each
other as a result forminginterlocking or form-closed bonds. To obtain this type of bond,
compression and shear forcesmust always act on the system. The strength of the resulting
agglomerate depends only on thetype of interaction and the material characteristics.
Binding Agent
A binding agent is necessary to prevent the compressed material from springing back and
eventually returning to its original form. This agent can either be added to the process or, when
compressing ligneous material, be part of the material itself in the form of lignin. Lignin, or
sulphuric lignin, is a constituent in most agricultural residues. It can be defined as a thermo
plastic polymer, which begins to soften at temperatures above 100°C and is flowing at higher
temperatures. The softening of lignin and its subsequent cooling while the material is still under
pressure, is the key factor in high pressure briquetting. It is a physico-chemical process related
largely to the temperature reached in the briquetting process and the amount of lignin in the
original material. The temperature in many machines is closely related to the pressure though in
some, external heat is applied.
Usually high pressure processes will release sufficient lignin to agglomerate the briquette
though this may not be true for all for all materials. Intermediate pressure machines may or may
not require binders, depending upon the material whilst low-pressure machines invariably require
binders.
Densification techniques
Densification essentially involves two processes, the compaction under pressure of loose
material to reduce its volume and to agglomerate the material so that the product remains in the
compressed state. Raw materials for densification include waste from woodindustries, loose
biomass and other combustible waste products. On the basis of compaction,the densification
technologies can be divided into
• High pressure compaction
• Medium pressure compaction with a heating device
• Low pressure compaction with a binder.
 In all these compaction techniques, solid particles are the starting materials. The
individualparticles are still identifiable to some extent in the final product. Briquetting and
extrusion bothrepresent compaction i.e., the pressing together of particles in a confined volume.
If finematerials which deform under high pressure, are pressed, no binders are required.
re The
strengthof such compacts is caused by van der Waals’ forces, valence forces, or interlocking.
Naturalcomponents of the material may be activated by the prevailing high pressure forces to
becomebinders. Some of the materials need binders even un
under
der high pressure conditions.

Fig. Binding mechanisms

At present two main high pressure technologies: ram or piston press and screw extrusion
machines, are used for briquetting. While the briquettes produced by a piston press are
completely solid, screw press briquettes on the other hand have a concentric hole
hol which gives
better combustion characteristics due to a larger specific area. The screw press briquettes are also
homogeneous and do not disintegrate easily. Having a high combustion rate, these can substitute
for coal in most applications and in boilers.
Piston press densification
A reciprocating piston pushes the material into a tapered die where it is compacted and
adheres against the material remaining in the die from the previous stroke. A controlled
expansion and cooling of the continuous briquette is allowed in a section following the actual
die. The briquette leaving this section is still relatively warm and fragile and needs a further
length of cooling track before it can be broken into pieces of the desired length.
In mechanical systems, the pis
piston
ton gets its reciprocating action by being mounted
eccentrically on a crank-shaft
shaft with a flywheel. The shaft, piston rod and the guide for the rod are
held in an oil-bath.
bath. The moving parts are mounted within a very sturdy frame capable of
absorbing the veryy high forces acting during the compression [Link] most common drive of
the flywheel is an electric motor geared down through a belt [Link] piston top is normally
shaped with a protruding half-spherical
spherical section in order to get better adherence of the newly
compressed material to that formed in the previous stroke. The most common type of briquette
press features a cylindrical piston and die with a diameter ranging from 20
20-125
125 mm. The die
tapers somewhat towards the middle and then increases again before the end. The exact form of
the taper varies between machines and biomass feedstock and is a key factor in determining the
functioning of the process and the resulting briquette quality.

Fig. 1. Piston press densification

The merits and demerits off this technology are

• There is less relative motion between the ram and the biomass hence, the wear of the ram
is considerably reduced.
• It is the most cost-effective
effective technology currently offered by the Indian market.
• Some operational experience has now been gained using different types of biomass.
• The moisture content of the raw material should be less than 12% for the best results.
• The quality of the briquettes goes down with an increase in production for the same
power.
• Carbonization of the outer layer is not possible. Briquettes are somewhat brittle.
Screw Press densification
In the screw press technology, the biomass is extruded continuously by a screw through a
taper die which is heated externally to reduce the [Link]
Material is fed continuously into a
screw which forces the material into a cylindrical die, which is often heated to 250-300°C
250 to
raise the temperature to the point where lignin starts flowing and pressure builds up smoothly.
Briquettes produced from
rom screw press are often of high quality than piston
piston-press
press unit but the
power requirement per tonne of briquette produced is also high.
The merits and demerits of this technology are
• The output is continuous and the briquette is uniform in size.
 • The outer surface of the briquette is partiallycarbonized facilitating easy ignition and
combustion. This also protects the briquettes from ambient moisture.
• A concentric hole in the briquette helps in combustion because of sufficient circulation of
air.
• The machine runs very smoothly without any shock load.
• The machine is light compared to the piston press because of the absence of reciprocating
parts and flywheel.
• The machine parts and the oil used in the machine are free from dust or raw material
contamination.
• The power requirement of the machine is high compared to that of piston press.

Fig 2. Conical screw press densification

Table. Comparison of piston press and screw press densification

Piston press Screw Press
Optimum moisture content of
10-15% 8-9%
raw material
Wear of contact parts low in case of ram and die high in case of screw
Output from the machine In strokes Continuous
Power consumption 50 kWh/ton 60 kWh/ton
Density of briquette 1-1.2 gm/cm³ 1-1.4 gm/cm³
Maintenance high Low
Combustion performance of
not so good very good
briquettes
Carbonisation to charcoal not possible makes good charcoal
Suitability in gasifiers not suitable Suitable
Homogeneity of briquettes non-homogeneous homogeneous
Result:
 EXPERIMENT: 10 DETERMINATION OF BOD AND COD
Aim:
To determine the biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand of waste water.

1. Determination of Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand of Waste Water

Biochemical oxygen demand
Biological Oxygen Demand is used to designate the oxygen consuming capacity of a liquid
which is a measure of the level of degradable organic matter present. It can be measured by
incubating a sample of the liquid in a sealed container and the amount of oxygen consumed in a
definite interval of time (20°C/5 days) is measured. A high BOD represents a large amount of
degradable organic matter in the sample.
Apparatus required:
300 ml BOD bottles, 250 ml conical flasks, BOD incubator, burette, pipette and measuring
cylinders etc.
Reagents required:
0.025 N sodium thio-sulphate solution, Concentrated sulphuric acid, Manganese sulphate
solution, Alkaline iodide azide reagent, Starch Indicator, Phosphate Buffer, Ferric chloride,
Calcium Chloride solution
i. Standard 0.025 N Sodium Thiosulphate solution
Prepare standard 0.1N stock solution of sodium thiosulphate by dissolving 24.82 g in 1 l of
distilled water. For preservation, add 3 drops of chloroform. Prepare 0.025 N sodium
thiosulphatesolution by taking 250 ml of above stock solution and diluting it to 1000 ml.
ii. Concentrated sulphuric acid
iii. Manganese Sulphate
Dissolve 400 g of MnSO4 to 1litre of distilled water.
iv. Alkaline iodide-azide reagent
Dissolve 500 g of NaOH and 150 g of potassium in distilled water. Add 10 g of NaNO3 in 40
ml water. Dilute to 1 litre.
v. Starch Indicator
Take 0.5 g of starch. Prepare paste with distilled water. Make 100 ml with water and boil by
stirring. Cool it.
Procedure
• Take pure water in a glass container (about 5 l) and bubble compressed air for 2 days to
attain saturation.
• Add 1 ml each of manganese sulphate, phosphate buffer, ferric chloride and calcium
chloride solution for each litre of water.
• If the wastewater is not expected to contain sufficient bacteria population, add 2 ml of
settled sewage for 1000 ml of water.
• Neutralize the sample.
• Take the sample and blank in twoBOD bottles. Keep these bottles in incubator at 20°C
for 5 days.
• Take the sample and blank separately in two BOD bottles for determination of initial DO
as given below.
• Add 2ml MnSO4 and 2 ml alkaline iodide-azide reagent. Dip the pipette below the liquid
surface. Allow to stand for 5 minutes.
• Add 2 ml of concentrated H2SO4 in the same way. Mix it properly and allow to stand for
5 minutes.
• Take 200 ml of clear solution in conical flask. Add 2 ml of starch indicator. The colour
becomes deep blue.
• Titrate with standard N/20 sodium thiosulphate solution till the colour changes to
colourless.
DO can be estimated using the following formula
Burette reading x Normality of sodium thiosulphate x 8000
Dissolved oxygen in mg/L=
Volume of sample
If, Do DO of sample on 0th day
D1 DO of sample on 5th day
Co DO of Blank on 0th day
C1 DOof Blank on 5th day
BOD (mg/lit) = (Do-D1) – (Co-C1) x Dilution factor
Observation:
Run down sodium thiosulphate in Burette
Dilution
S. No. Content Do D1 Co C1
factor
0th day 5th day 0th day 5th day
1 Blank Nil
2 Sample
3 Sample
4 Blank Nil

Calculation:
2. Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical Oxygen demand
Chemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of oxygen equivalent of organic matter in the sample
that is susceptible to oxidation by strong chemical oxidant.
Principle:
Most of the organic matter is destroyed in boiling mixture of chromic and sulphuric acid. The
purpose of running blank is to compensate for any error that may result because of presence of
extraneous organic matter in the reagents.
Apparatus required:
COD reflux apparatus - 500 ml flat bottom flask with ground glass joints and condensers,
pipette, burette and measuring cylinders etc.
Reagents Required:
i. Standard 0.25 N potassium dichromate(K2Cr2O7)solution
Dissolve 12.259 g of pure K2Cr2O7 in distilled water and dilute to 1 l. Add 120 mg of
sulphuric acid.
ii. Sulphuric acid-Silver sulphate reagent
Add 5.5 g of AgSO4 to 1 Kg of Concentrated H2SO4 and keep the same overnight.
iii. Standard 0.1 N Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate Solution
Dissolve 30 g of pure ferrous ammonium salt in distilled water. Add 20 ml of concentrated
H2SO4 and dilute to one litre.
iv. Ferroin indicator
Dissolve 1.485 g of 1-10 Phenanthralinemonohydrate with 0.695 pure FeSO4.7H2O in
distilled water. Dilute to 100 ml. This indicator is commercially available.
v. Concentrated H2SO4
Procedure
• Take three COD reflux flask; one of the reflux flasks is for blank and others for sample.
• Add 20 ml of sample in a reflux flask (if required dilute to suitable degree) and add 0.4 g
of H2SO4. Mix thoroughly.
• Add 10 ml of 0.25 N K2Cr2O7. Drop some pumice stone and slowly add 30 ml of
concentrated silver sulphate- sulphuric acid solution.
• Mix the contents thoroughly and connect the flask to condenser. Reflux for 2 hours at
150°C.
 • Cool and wash down the condensers. Dilute the mixture to 150 ml by adding distilled
water.
• Add 3 drops of Ferroin indicator and titrate with N/10 Ferrous Ammonium sulphate
solution till the colour changes from green to wine red. Note the end point.
• Perform the same procedure with 'Blank' using distilled water instead of sample.

The chemical oxygen demand of the given sample can be estimated using the following formula
(V1-V2) X Normality of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate X 8000
COD (mg/l) =
Volume of Sample

If the sample is diluted, COD in mg/l = COD as above x Dilution factor

(For example if dilution is 10% i.e. 10 ml of sample in 90 ml of distilled water. Then

COD in mg/l = 520x10 = 5200 mg/l).
Observation:
S. ml of Ferrous Ammonium sulphate rundown
Sample volume (ml)
No Sample (V1) Blank (V2)
20 ml
20 ml

Calculation:
Result
Biological oxygen demand and Chemical oxygen demand of the wastewater is __________
mg/l and ___________ mg/l, respectively.
Ex. No: 11 Experiment on performance of Flat Plate Collector –
Date: Thermosyphonic mode solar water heater (FPC & ETC)

Aim :
Evaluation of ULFR and  in Thermosyphonic mode of flow with fixed and variable Input
parameters.

Equipments required :
 Solar water heater with thromoshipon mode (solar thermal training system)
 Pyranometer
 Anemometer
 Magnetic D
 Halogen lamps with movable frame for artificial source of heat

Experimental set-up :

Fig. [Link] of experimental setup of solar water heater

Theory:
A typical flat-plate collector consists of an absorber plate in an insulated box together with
transparent cover sheet(s). Work and properties of different components of a flat plate collector
 Absorber plate: It is a flat conducting plate to which the tubes, fins, or passages are attached It
may be a continuous or discrete plate. The plate is usually coated with a high absorptance and
low emittance layer.
 Cover plate: One or more sheet of glass or other radiation - transmitting material forms the
cover plate. The cover plate serves two purposes, minimization of convective heat loss and
blocking of IR radiation.
 Heat removal passages: These are tubes, fins, or passages which conduct or direct the stream
of water from the inlet to the outlet of the collector.
 Headers or manifolds: These are the pipes to admit and discharge water that is meant to
be heated.
 Insulation: Insulations such as Rockwool or Glass wool are fitted in the back and sides of the
collector to prevent heat loss from the collector.
 Casing: The casing surrounds the aforementioned components and protects them from dust,
moisture and any other material.
In the following figure schematic diagram of a typical flat-plate collector is shown with
different parts at their proper locations.
Table 3.1: Overall Specifications of the system
Components Specification Remarks
Water heating Collector area: 0.716 m2 Tank capacity: 50 L Collector: Flat plate collector. To collect and
system (Collector transfer heat Tank: non pressurized
and water tank) aluminum tank.
To store water
Halogen system Halogen fixture’s area: 0.72 m2 Number of Halogen: To supply the required intensity
halogen lamp: 21 Power 150 W each on the collector.
Regulator: 5000 W Regulator: To adjust the intensity at the
desire level
Radiation meter Range: 0 to 1999 W/m2 Power Supply: DC To measure the radiation level on the
collector
Water pump Power supply: AC To lift water upto the desired level.
Power 0.5 hp To facilitate the forced mode operation.
Water flow meter Flow range: 0.5 to 25 LPM Mini turbine wheel based technology.
(for forced mode) Working voltage: 4.5 to 24 VDC To measure the water flow rate during the
Max. Pressure: 1/.5 bar Working pressure. 0 to forced mode operation
10 bar Max rated current: 8 mA Withstand
current: 15 mA Working temp: up to 80°C
Storage temp: 25 to 65C
Supply voltage – 230 VAC.
Stop watch With electronic On-Off switch and a Reset button To detect the time during natural flow rate
Anemometer Air velocity: The anemometer can measure the air
Range: 0.4 to 45.0 m/sec velocity and the ambient air temperature.
Resolution: 0.1 m/sec The air flow sensor is a conventional angled
Accuracy(±2% + 0.1 m/sec) vane arms with low friction ball bearing. The
Range: -14 to 60C temperature sensor
Resolution: 0.1C is a precision thermistor.
Accuracy: 0.5C
Power supply: DC 4*1.5 AAA size
Pressure Gauges Sensor: Semiconductor thin film based technology.
Range: 0 to 6 bar Works on the principle of generation of
Accuracy: ±3 kpa electrical signal due to exertion of pressure.
Output: 4 to 20 mA (±3) To measure the inlet and outlet pressure
Input. 4-20 mA DC
Power: 220 VAC
Thermometers Sensor: Sensor is RTD based platinum probe.
Class A sensor Works on the principle of variation of
Range -200 to 650C resistance with temperature.
Accuracy: ±0.15 + 0.002*(t) Where t is absolute To measure the inlet curler. Output plate,
value of temperature inC and tank water temperature.
Supply Voltage: 230AC
Fan Range: 0 to 5 m/sec To supply the wind at the desire speed
Power supply: AC with regulators
Table 3.2: Detailed Specification of the Solar water heater system
Overall collector dimension 915 x 81O x 95 mm
Weight of the collector 13 Kg
Aperture Area 0.63 m2
Glazing Insulation
Glazing type and number Toughened Glass (1 No) Insulation material Rockwool
Glazing thickness 3 mm Insulation density 48 Kg/m3
Glazing transmissivity 85 % Insulation thickness base 50 mm
Glazing Emissivity 88 % Insulation thickness-side 25 mm
Absorption plate Conductivity 0.04 W/mK
Absorber material Copper Casing
Absorber plate thickness 0.12 mm Frame type Aluminium
Absorber plate dimension 115 mm Frame colour Black
Emissivity of surface 12 % Casing thickness 1.4 mm
Absorptivity 96 % Storage tank
Risers & headers Tank type Horizontal
Number of risers 6 Tank Materials SS - 304
Riser dimension 800 mm Tank insulation PUF
Headers dimension 882 mm Tested pressure 3 kpa
fest pressure 4 kpa Tank size 815 X400
Maximum working pressure 25 kpa

Parameters of a flat plate collector based solar water heating system:

The performance of a solar water heating system depends upon different design and
atmospheric parameters. The importance of some of the most dominating parameters are
described below.

Overall Heat loss coefficient (UL):

All the heat that is generated by the collector does not resulted into useful energy. Some of
the heat gets losses to the surroundings. The amount of heat losses depends upon the convective,
conductive and radiation heat loss coefficients.
Estimation of heat loss coefficient or the flat plate collector is Important for its performance
evaluation. A higher value of heat loss coefficient indicates the lower heat resistance and hence
tl1e lower efficiency.
Among all heal loss parameters the top loss contributes the most. The top heat loss
coefficient is a function of various parameters which includes the temperature of the absorbing
plate, ambient temperature, wind speed, emissivity of the absorbing and the cover glass plate, tilt
angle etc.

Heat Removal Factor (FR):

Heat removal factor represents the ratio of the actual useful energy gain to the useful
energy gain if the entire collector were at the fluid inlet temperature. It depends upon the factors
like inlet and outlet water temperature, the ambient temperature, area of the collector etc, The
importance of heat removal factors remains with the efficiency of the system. For a highly efficient
system a higher value of heat removal factor is must.

Efficiency ():
Efficiency is the most important factor for a system. This factor determines the system's
output. For a flat plate collector based solar water heater system the efficiency is defined as the
ratio of the useful energy delivered to the energy incident on the collector aperture. The value of
efficiency is dominated by parameters like product of glazing's transmittance and absorbing plate’s
absorptance, intensity of global radiation falling on the collector, water inlet temperature and
ambient air temperature.

Collector Time Constant:

Collector time constant is required to evaluate the transient behaviour of a collector. It is
define the time required rising the outlet temperature by 0.632 of the total temperature increase
from Tfo -Ta at lime zero to Tfo -Ta at time infinity i.e. time at which the outlet temperature attains a
stagnant value. It can be calculated from the curve between R and time as shown below. The time
interval for which R value is 0.632, is the time constant of the give collector.
In terms of temperatures R is define as,
T fo (t )  T fo (o)
R=
T fo ( )  T fo (o)
Where,
Tfo (t): Outlet water temperature at any time t
Tfo (o): Outlet water temperature at time zero
Tfo (α): Outlet water temperature at infinite time (maximum temperature)
Shape of the graph between R and time is as shown below.

Basic Equations to calculate different parameters:

UL is the overall heat transfer coefficient from the absorber plate to the ambient air. It is a
complicated function of the collector construction and its operating conditions.
In simple term it can be expressed as,
UL = Ut + Ub + UE (1)

According to Klein (1975), the top loss coefficient can be calculated by using the flowing formula.
   
1


Ut   N
 
   T p  T a  Tp
2
 Ta
2
 


  2 N  f  1 .........( 2 )
1    p  0 .05 N 1   p   1 
0 .33
 C  T p  Ta  N
 T  N  f   h   g 
 p   a 
Where,
C = 365.9 x (1 - 0.00883  + 0.0001298 x 2)
f = (1+0.04ha – 0.0005ha2) x (1+0.091N)
ha = 5.7+3.8v
The heat loss from the bottom of the collector is first conducted through the insulation and
then by a combined convection and infrared radiation transfer to the surrounding ambient air.
However the radiation term can be neglected as the temperature of the bottom part of the casing is
very low. Moreover the conduction resistance of the insulation behind the collector plate governs the
heat loss from the collector plate through the back of the collector casing. The heat loss from the back
of the plate rarely exceeds 10% of the upward loss. So if we neglect the convective term there will not
be much effect in the final result. Thus to calculate the bottom loss coefficients we can use the
following formula
k
U b  b ..................(3)
xb
Typical value of the back surface heat loss coefficient ranges between 03 to 0.6 W/m2K.
In a similar way, the heat transfer coefficient for the heat loss from the collector edges can be
obtained by using the following formula
 A 
U e  U b  e ...............( 4)
 Ac c 
Factors of a flat plate collector (F, F’, FR, F”)
1. Fin efficiency (F)
For a straight fin with rectangular profile the fin efficiency is given as
 m(W  D ) 
tanh  
 2
F ....................(5)
 m(W  D ) 
 2 

Ul
m
k
2. Collector efficiency factor (F')
Actual usefulheat collection rate
F’ =
Usefulheat collection ratewhenth ecollector
absoringpl ateisatthe localfluid temperatur e
Mathematically.
1
UL
F  .......... .......( 6)
 
 1 
W 
U [ D  (W  D ) F ]  1  1 
 L Cb Di h fi 
 

Fr = (Actual Useful energy gain) / (useful energy gain if the entire collector were at the fluid inlet
temperature)
3. Heat Removal Factor (FR)
Actual usefulheat energygain
FR =
Usefulener gygainifth eentirecol lector
wereatthef luidinlett emperature
Mathematically
mC P  U F A 
FR  [1  exp  L c ..............(7)
AcU L  mC 
 p 

Another formula for FR,

mC p [T fo  T fi ]
FR  ................(8)
Ac c[ I t 0 0  U L (T fi  Ta )]
4. Flow Factor (F”)
It is the ratio of the heal removal factor (F) and the collector efficiency factor (F)
Mathematically,
mC p  U F A 
F   [1  exp  L c ]..............(9)
AcU L F   mC 
 p 

The parameter is called the collector capacitance rate. It is a dimensionless parameter and the
sole parameter upon which the collector flow factor depends.
C. Collector Plate Temperature (Tp)
At any point of time the collector plat temperature is given a
Qu
T p  Ti  (1  FR ).................(10)
Ac FRU L
Where, the useful heat gain Qu is given as
Qu  Ac FR [ H T ( . )  U L (Ti  Ta )]........ .....(11)
D. Thermal Efficiency of the collector ()
It is the ratio of the useful heat gain to the Total Input energy
Mathematically,
(T  T )
  FR ( . )  FRU L i a .....................(12)
HT
E. Thermal Efficiency of the collector when angle of incident is not 90 ()
The equation number (12) for the thermal efficiency is applicable for a normal modem angle
situation. In a situation where angle of incident is not 90 we will have to add a new parameter in
the equation number (12). The new parameter is known as incident angle modifier (k  ). The necessity
of (k) is arises due to change in (Ta) product.

For a flat plate collector (k) is given as :

1 1
k  1  b0 (  1)  b1 (  1) 2 ..............(13)
cos  cos 
For a single glaze collector we can use a single order equation with, b0=-O.1
1
k  1  b0 (  1)
cos 
Thus for a collector where angle of incident is not 900, the efficiency can be calculated by using
the following equation,
 U L (Ti  Ta )
  k FR [( 0 0 )  .................(14)
It
Nomenclature
Ac: Area of the collector (m2)
Ae: Area of the edge (m2)
Bc: Bond conductance
Cp: Heat capacity of water (kj/(kgC))
D: Outer diameter of the risers (mm)
Hfi: Heat transfer coefficient between the water and the riser wall
It: Radition falling ton the collectors per unit area (W/m2)
Kb, Ke: Conductivity of the back and edge insulation (W/mk)
K: Conductivity of the fin (W/mk)
L: Collector’s length (mm)
M: Water mass flow rate (kg/sec)
N: Number of glass cover
Ta: Ambient temperature(C)
Tp: Plate temperature(C)
Ut, Ub, Ue: Top, bottom and edge heat loss coefficient respectively.
V: Wind velocity (m/sec)
w: Distance between two rises (mm)
Xb, Xe: Back and edge insulation thickness (mm)
0: Transmissivity of the glass cover
0: Absorptivity of the absorbing plate
p: Emissivity of the absorbing plate
g: Emissivity of the glass cover
: Stephen Boltzmann constant (W/m2K4)
: Thickness of the fin (mm)
: angle of incident (Deg)
Constant values:
Ac = 0.74115 m2
Ae = 0.32775 m2
Kb = 0.04 m2
N=1
Cp = 4180 J/ kgC
Xb = 0.05 m
Xe = 0.025 m
0 = 0.85
0 = 0.96
p = 0.12
g = 0.88
 = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 k4
Experimental set-up:
Fig 3.1 shows the experimental setup.

Assumptions:
To perform different experiments with this set-up a number of assumptions need to be made.
These assumptions are not against the basic physical principles but simplify the problems up to a
great extent.
 The collector is in a steady state condition.
 The headers cover only a small area of the collector and can be neglected.
 Heaters provide uniform flow to the riser tubes.
 Flow through the back insulation is one dimensional.
 Temperature gradients around tubes are neglected.
 Properties of materials are independent of temperature.
 No energy is absorbed by the cover.
 Heat flow through the cover is one dimensional.
 Temperature drop through the cover is negligible.
 Covers are opaque to infrared radiation.
 Same ambient temperature exists at the front and back of the collector.
 Dust effects on the cover are negligible (if otherwise mention).
 There is no shading of the absorber plate (if otherwise mention).

Experimental procedure:
1. Keep all valves closed.
2. Fill cold water tank number1.
3. Open the valves I and 2 and fill cold water tank 2 by using the pump.
4. Once the cold-water tank 2 is full, open valve 3 and 4 and allows the water to flow into the hot
water tank and the collector by gravity.
5. Once the hot water tank overflows and water comeback to the cold water tank 1 close the
valves 1, 2 and 3.
6. Switch on the Wind generating fan.
7. Measure the wind speed at different locations of the collector by using the Anemometer. Use an
average value for calculation.
8. Similar to the wind speed measure the ambient air temperature by using the same
Anemometer at different locations around the experimental setup. Use an average value for
calculation.
9. Connect all the meters and note all the readings
10. Switch on the Halogen system and set the regulator for maximum radiation level.
11. Measure the radiation level at different locations on me collector glazing by using the radiation
meter. To get the radiation levels at the desire value apply the regulator Use an average value
for calculation.
12. Note the values shown by different metes after every 15 minutes.
13. To know the mass flow rate, open the three ways valve and note the time required to fill a
desire amount of water in the beaker
14. Repeat tile above step (13) at least five times during the whole experiments. Use an average
value for calculation.
15. Keep the halogen system ON until the outlet water achieved a stable temperature.
[Link] the experiment is over drain the hot to the cold water tank I by opening valve 5.
Note : Before draining the hot water to the cold water tank 1, make sure that you nave fill up the
cold water tank 2 for the next experiment.

S. Time Ambient Inlet Plate Outlet Water Water Inlet Outlet

N (t, Temper water tempera water temperatur mass water water
min) ature tempera ture temperat e in the flow pressur pressur
(TaC) ture (TpC) ure storage rate e (Pi, e (Pout,
(TfiC) (TfiC) tank(TgC) (m,Kg/s kpa) kpa)
ec)
1

Observations:
 Tilt angle of collector () :-----------deg
 Wind speed (v) :----------m/sec
 Radiation level (I) :--------W/m2
Calculations:
1. Calculate Ut and hence UL by using equations 1 through 4
2. Calculate Heat Removal factor (Fr) by using equation 7
3. Calculate thermal Efficiency () of the collector by using equation 12
4. Evaluate time constant of collector by drawing the graph between R and time.
By using tile values of different entries from the Table-1 user can examine some other
characteristic parameters of the collector. The parameters are,
1. Collector efficiency factor (F’) by using equation 8.
2. Collector Flow factor (F”) by using equation 9.
3. Comparison of the experimented and calculated value of plate temperature by using equation
Results:
1. Draw the following efficiency graph.

2. Find the value of optical efficiency of the collector from the graph.
3. Find the slop of the curve which gives the sense of the overall heat loss coefficient of the
collector.
4. Find the gain and loss equalization point.

2. Find out the area rqured and estimate the simple payback period.
Assumption:
a. Hot water requirement = 250 litre
b. Water required at temperature = 80°C (may be 120 °C for other than solar water
heating requirement
c. Ambient temperature = 30°C
d. Daily solar radiations = 5.5 kWh/ m2 – day
e. Efficiency of solar water heater = 40%
f. Heat capacity of fluid (water in this case) = 4.18 kJ/kg- K
3. Generate a hot water utility for a small washing industry that needs 15000 litre of
hot water. Solar radiation available on the location is 7 kWh/ m2- day. Temperature
of feed water is 27 °C and it is to be heated upto 150°C. Which types of collectors
can cater to the demand? Why?
4. Estimate the temperature rise of the water in a 100-litre capacity thermosyphon
solar water-heating system during a typical day of operation. Estimate also the
electricity saved because of the use of a solar water heater and the corresponding
reduction in the monthly electricity bill.
Ex. No: 12 Experiment on performance evaluation of solar dryers
Date :

Aim:
 To evaluate the performance of natural convection (direct and indirect mode) solar
dryers.
 To expose working of active solar air heating system and hybrid solar-biomass air
heating systems for drying applications.

Equipments required:
Domestic Solar drier - direct mode and indirect mode (PAU model and TNAU Dome
model), Pyranometer, Thermocouples, Timer and Humidity/temperature meter

Description
Performance evaluation of domestic solar dryer
The PAU domestic solar will be loaded with selected product of 1kg capacity.
The tests will be carried out under full load condition.
Specifications
Aperture area : 0.36 m2
No. of trays : 3
External dimensions of dryer : 620 x 620 x 350 mm.
Weight of the dryer : 17 kg
Inclination of the dryer : fixed / variable

The temperature, relative humidity, and solar insolations were measured using
mercury bulb thermometer, digital RH meter and digital pyranometer in terns of W/m2
respectively.

Fig. 5.1. Photograph of PAU domestic solar dryer with door open
 Fig. 5.2. Side view of the dryer showing the position of tray supports at different
inclinations: (a) 30° and (b) 45°

The following other important parameters to be measured during the

experiment.
 Loading density
 Loading/unloading time
 Mositure content of initial and final products
 Maximum drying temperature at load condition
 Drying time/ drying rate

Exercise 1: Draw a sketch of natural convection PAU Solar Domestic dryer (direct and
indirect mode), TNAU dome model with all dimensions

Observations
Place the drier in an open space, facing south to north direction. Close the
openings provided to keep the trays. Find the initial temperature of the trays. Measure
the raise in temperature inside the drier at every 10 minute’s interval. Simultaneously
observe the solar intensity at each interval and tabulate the readings.
Tabulate the observations as shown below:
Time, Ambient Solar Ambient Tray Temperature, oC Dryer
Hr : temperature, intensity, RH, % efficiency, %
min. o
C W/m2 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Draw the following graphs

a. Time Vs. Solar intensity
b. Time Vs. temperature in each step
c. Find out the efficiency of the domestic dryer
Exercise Problem
1. Rice is harvested at a moisture content m = 0.28. Ambient conditions are 30°C and
80% relative humidity, at which me (equilibrium moisture content) = 0.16 for rice. If at
30°C and 80% relative humidity has mass of H2O in 1 m3 of saturated air=30.3 g/m3.
Calculate how much air at 45°C is required for drying 1000 kg of rice.
Lv = 2.40 MI/kg at 30°C
ρ = 1.15 kJ/m3 and
CP = 1.0 kJ/kg°K

2. The efficiency curves shown in Fig. are obtained for a solar air heater (L1=1.2m,
L2=0.9 m) which is tested over a range of flow rates varying from 25 to 200 kg/h. Find
the efficiency which would be obtained and the corresponding mass flow rate if the air
heater is used under the following conditions
Air inlet temperature : 55°C
Air outlet temperature : 75°C
Ambient temperature : 27°C
Solar flux incident on collector face : 950 W/m2
3. The following data is given for a conventional solar air heater with one glass cover:
Length of collector : 2.0
Width of collector : 0.9 m
Length of absorber plate : 1.90 m
Width of absorber plate : 0.80 m
Spacing between absorber plate and bottom plate : 2 cm
Absorber plate/bottom plate emissivity for long
Wavelength radiation (for the surfaces facing each other) : 0.93
Absorber plate absorptivity for solar radiation : 0.93
Glass cover thickness : 3 mm
Refractive index of glass : 1.526
Extinction coefficient : 10.5 m-1
Air flow rate : 440 kg/h
Air inlet temperature : 48°C
Location of collector :Chennai (13.00°N)
Date : March 3
Time : 1230 h (LAT)
Collector tilt : latitude angle
Surface azimuth angle : 0°
Ig : 0.968 kW/m2
Id : 0.195 kW/m2
Ambient temperature : 31.5°C
Top loss coefficient : 4.5 W/m2-K
Bottom loss coefficient : 0.55 W/m2-K
i. Calculate the instantaneous efficiency, the exit air temperature and the pressure
drop. (Assume that the heat transfer surfaces are smooth).
ii. Is it advantageous to have a low or a high value of emissivity (for large wave length
radiation) for the surfaces of the absorber plate?

4. The efficiency curves shown in Fig. are obtained for a solar air heater (L1=1.2m,
L2=0.9 m) which is tested over a range of flow rates varying from 25 to 200 kg/h.
Find the efficiency which would be obtained and the corresponding mass flow rate if
the air heater is used under the following conditions
Air inlet temperature : 55°C
Air outlet temperature : 75°C
Ambient temperature : 27°C
Solar flux incident on collector face : 950 W/m2

5. The following data is given for a conventional solar air heater with one glass cover:
Length of collector : 2.0
Width of collector : 0.9 m
Length of absorber plate : 1.90 m
Width of absorber plate : 0.80 m
Spacing between absorber plate and bottom plate : 2 cm
Absorber plate/bottom plate emissivity for long
Wavelength radiation (for the surfaces facing each other) : 0.93
Absorber plate absorptivity for solar radiation : 0.93
Glass cover thickness : 3 mm
Refractive index of glass : 1.526
Extinction coefficient : 10.5 m-1
Air flow rate : 440 kg/h
Air inlet temperature : 48°C
Location of collector :Chennai (13.00°N)
Date : March 3
Time : 1230 h (LAT)
Collector tilt : latitude angle
Surface azimuth angle : 0°
Ig : 0.968 kW/m2
Id : 0.195 kW/m2
Ambient temperature : 31.5°C
Top loss coefficient : 4.5 W/m2-K
Bottom loss coefficient : 0.55 W/m2-K
iii. Calculate the instantaneous efficiency, the exit air temperature and the pressure
drop. (Assume that the heat transfer surfaces are smooth).
iv. Is it advantageous to have a low or a high value of emissivity (for large wave length
radiation) for the surfaces of the absorber plate?
EXPERIMENT: 13 STUDY ON SOLAR POWER AND I-V CHARACTERISTICS
 Ex. No: 14 Experiment on Performance testing of Solar PV water pumping
Date: system and design problems

Aim:
To design and evaluate the performance of solar PV water pumping system.

Apparatus Required:
PV module, Tracking system, Motor, Water tank and Storage

Description
A solar water pumping system consists of PV modules, motor, pump and storage tank.
A DC motor can directly be coupled with a solar PV panel, avoiding the use of any inverter.
An AC motor can also be used with an inverter, which converts DC power of a PV module
into AC power. Additionally a PV water pumping system can also have a Maximum Power
Point Tracking device to match the PV module output impedance with that of motor to
extract maximum power throughout the day.

Fig 13.1. Experimental set up of solar pumping system

Specifications:
Capacity: 1 hp
Dc pump: 746 W

Observation:
[Link]. Solar Open Circuit Short Circuit Water Discharged,
Intensity, Voltage, V Current, A m3 /min
W/m2

Exercise: Draw the solar water pumping system setup with module connections
Design of Solar PV Pumping System
Design of solar PV pumping system requires details about the
(i). Quantity of water needs to be pumped
(ii). Depth of suction level at which water has to be pumped
(iii). Number of panels to meet the requirement
The overall design of the system can be divided in the following steps:
Step 1: Determine the amount of water required per day
Step 2: Determine the Total Dynamic Head for water pumping
Step 3: Determine the hydraulic energy required per day (watt-hour/day)
Step 4: Determine the solar radiation available at given location in terms of equivalent of
peak sunshine radiation (1000 W/m2) hours for which solar PV module is characterized.
Typically this number is 5 to 8 varying from season and location to location.
Step 5: Determine the size of solar PV array and motor, consider motor efficiency and other
losses.

Total water requirement (litre/day or m3/day)

The size and cost of the system depends on the amount of water required per day.
Solar pumping systems are designed to provide a certain quantity of water per day, where
the daily water quantity required is sum of all requirements during 24 hours. For more
reliable design, worst case of water requirement should be considered.
Total Dynamic Head (m)
It is an important factor, which signifies the effective pressure at which pump must
operate. It primarily consists of two parameters, total vertical lift and total frictional
losses.

Total vertical Lift (m)

The total vertical lift is sum of elevation, standing water level and drawdown. The
elevation is the height difference between the ground and the height at which water is
discharged. Standing water level is the height difference between the ground surface and the
water level in the well, when the well is in fully charged condition. Drawdown is the height
by which standing water level drops due to pumping.

Frictional losses (m)

Frictional loss is the pressure required to overcome friction in the pipes from the
water pump to the point of water discharge. It depends on many factors like size of pipe,
flow rate, type of fittings, number of bends, etc. If the tank is within 10 m of the well, then
frictional loss is taken as 5% of the total vertical lift.

Problems
1. Design a PV system for pumping 25000 litres of water every day from a depth of about
10 m is considered.
a. Amount of water to be pumped per day = 25000 l = 25 m3
b. Total vertical lift = 12 m ( 5m- elevation, 5m- standing water level, 2m–drawdown)
c. Water density = 1000 kg/m3
d. Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2
e. Solar PV module used = 75 WP
f. Operating factor = 0.75
g. Pump efficiency = 30%
h. Mismatch factor = 0.85
2. Design a solar PV to pump 10000 litre of water from a depth of 4 m (the drawdown will
be about 2 m). The water needs to be discharged at about 5m from the well. What would
be the cost of the system?
3. A photovoltaic system for supplying drinking water is installed in a village in Rajasthan
as part of the National Drinking Water Mission. The water is pumped from a bore well,
from a depth of 48 m. The solar cells are made from single crystal silicon and the array
consists of 24 modules. It is given that the inverter efficiency is 85 per cent and the
pump-motor set efficiency is 45 per cent. Calculate the water discharge rate at noon
when the global radiation incident normally on the cells is 945 W/m2.
Assume the conversion efficiency is 13 per cent, which is based on the cell area and is
valid for global radiation.