School of Civil and

Environmental Engineering
AAiT, AAU

Engineering Survey II

LOGO
Chapter 4.
Photogrammetry
 Photogrammetry
 Definitions of Photogrammetry:

The word “photogrammetry”

phos or photLOGO
means “Light”,
Gramma means “something drawn or written” metrein means, “to
measure”.

The root words, therefore originally signified measuring graphically

by means of light.
Photogrammetry (Defined by ASPR)

the art, science and technology of obtaining reliable information about

the physical objects and environment through processes of
recording,
measuring and
interpreting

photographic images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant energy and other

phenomena.
Photogrammetry, with respect to the above definition involves two aspects:
1. Metric Photogrammetry and
2. Interpretative Photogrammetry.

1. Metric photogrammetry involves precise measurements from photographic images and computations
to determine;-
 Positions, Finding Distances, Angles,
 Areas, Volumes, Elevations, And Sizes
 Shapes Of Objects Or Points.

 Most common applications;

 Preparation of Planimetric and Topographic Maps
 Production of Digital Orthophotos
 Military Intelligence such as Targeting.
2. Interpretative Photogrammetry
means the interpretation of photographic images for the purpose of
analyzing, classifying and identifying the objects represented by the
images.

 When we look at aerial photographs, we see various objects of

different sizes and shapes.

 When we can identify what we see on the photographs

 communicate this information to others, we are practicing air photo

interpretation.
 Types of Photographs
 Depending on the position of camera at the time of photography photograph is broadly classified
in to two.

1. TERRESTRIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
 Taken from the ground (on the Earth Surface).
 The axis of camera is horizontal or nearly horizontal.
 Normal (Ordinary) cameras can be used.

E.g Photo ThodoliteLOGO

is used to acquire precise terrestrial photos.
2. AERIAL/ VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPHS

 Photographs of terrain in an area are taken from air or

airplane.
 It is a type used for surveying applications
 Aerial/Vertical photographs are classified into two:
Based on the position of optical axis of the camera used in taking the
photograph
(i) Vertical photographs
(ii) Oblique photograph
(a) Low Oblique photograph
(b) High Oblique photograph

Ground trace of the aircraft

Figure : Vertical (a) and oblique (b) Photography

 1. Vertical Photographs:

Vertical Photographs:
 Photographs taken when the optical axis of the camera coincide with the plumb line.

 Lens axis is truly vertical

 Covers relatively small area

 Ground coverage by a single photo is square in shape

 An unfamiliar view of the ground

 Distance and directions may accurate for flat terrain

 Vertical Photographs:
Nearly vertical
Truly vertical
In practice most vertical aerial photographs are slightly tilted.

As a result, air photo with less than 3 degree tilt are considered as
vertical (for most photo interpretation purposes).

Hence, a “truly” vertical aerial photograph is rarely obtained because

of unavoidable angular rotation or tilts.
Vertical Photograph
 Advantages of Vertical Aerial Photographs

 The scale is less distorted and measurements made on them are therefore more
accurate.

 Approximate Direction is easier to obtain in a manner similar to that of a map.

 Hidden objects are very few

 A number of vertical aerial photos assembled together into a mosaic can easily
be used as a map for general purposes

 Vertical aerial photographs are often easier to interpret than oblique and are
better for stereo.
 2. Oblique Photographs:

Are photographs taken when the camera axis is deliberately

tilted through an angle ranging between

3 degree and 60 degree from the vertical, at the time of expos.

There are two basic types of oblique aerial photography:

1. Low Oblique
2. High Oblique
Low oblique photograph (horizon not shown)
High Oblique Photographs
(Horizon included)
 Advantages of Oblique Photograph

An oblique photograph covers much more ground area than a vertical photo taken
from the same altitude and with the same focal length.

In areas where cloud cover may make it difficult to take vertical photos, oblique
photos may be taken to cover an area from very low altitudes

 The view of oblique aerial photographs looks more natural

Determination of feature elevations is more accurate using oblique photograph than

vertical aerial photographs.

Having access to neighboring boarded country

 Disadvantages of Oblique Photograph

 Some details are hidden behind or under objects like hill,

building etc..

 It has scale variation over the whole format.

 Very expensive and laborious for map projection.

Information from Image Data/Photograph

 Distance (using ruler and scale of the photo)

 Angel (using protractor - Direction)

 Areas (Dot Density)

 Height ( Stereoscope, 3D – contour using stereoscopy)

 Extraction of natural and artificial features

 Can be determined from the following methods:-

a) Measuring the distance between two well-defined

𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ =
points on the ground as well as on the photograph. 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

b) Measuring the distance between two well-defined

𝑀𝑎𝑝 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
points on the available topographic map and aerial 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 =
𝑀𝑎𝑝 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
photograph. Then;

c) From average of the camera and the terrain above

mean sea level with respect to the focal length (f) of the
camera lens 𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 =
𝐹𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Overlap and Side lap

Figure 12: Flight path and overlaps for an aerial photographic survey
 Identifying Features Using Stereoscope

 A pair of stereoscopic photographs or images can be

viewed stereoscopically by
 Looking at the left image with the left eye and
 The right image with the right eye.

 This is called stereoscopy.

 The advantage of stereoscopy is the ability to extract

3D for example, classification between tall trees and
low trees, terrestrial features
Stereo vision
Operating principle of the mirror stereoscope
The impression of depth is caused by:

Relative apparent size of near and far objects

Effects of light and shade

Viewing of an object simultaneously by two eyes

which is separated in space  principle of
stereoscopic vision
Parallax

The algebraic difference of the

distances of two images of a ground
point from their perspective principal
point, measured parallel to the air
base.
 Parallax heighting is the process of
finding the height of objects from
stereo-pair of photographs that have
no tilt and are taken from the same
flying height.
Determination of height of object

O B O1
b c
a d
f
P Q' P' Q
C' D' P A B C D Q
fig. b
X
b c
H d
a

hx
P b Q' P' Q
Y
fig. c
hy
Datum

fig. a
The parallax of X has magnitude of PB
– (-CQ) when distances are measured
positive to the right. Parallax of Y is
PA – (-DQ).
If hy = 0, Py =
bm
Example 1: In pair of overlapping vertical photographs the mean distances
between two principal points lying on the datum is 6.385 cm. the flying height of
the aircraft at the time of photography, was 580 m above datum. Determine the
difference of parallel for top and bottom of a tower of height 115 m having base in
the datum surface. The focal length of the camera is 150 mm.

Solution:

B = (b/f)H = (6.385X580/15) = 246.89 m

Parallax is given by :
P = (Bf)/(H – h)
For the bottom of the tower, h = 0. Hence
PT = (246.89x150/(580-115) = 79.64 mm
PB = (246.89x150/580) = 63.85 mm
The difference of parallax is given by
p = PT – PB = 79.64 – 63.85 = 15.79 mm

The result can be checked

h = hT – hB = (H p)/(bm + p)
= (580x15.79)/(63.85 + 15.79) = 115 m ( the given value)
Flight Planning:

 It is one of the three basic phases of planning for a photogrammetric project.

 Three phases of planning a photogrammetric project are:-1. Development of a

flight plan.
2. Planning the ground control and executing necessary field surveys- for
accuracy requirement of the project.
3. Estimation the cost involved in the project.

 To produce a map of the desired accuracy.

 Finding out the best fit flight lines and camera exposure stations to cover the
project area with minimum number of models, flight lines and camera exposure
stations.

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Flight Planning:
Planning a sound mission to acquire aerial photography is critical to
completing a vegetation, land use, soil, water, etc. mapping project
successfully.
Flight Planning

 In order to obtain stereo pairs, every part of the

ground to be surveyed must be photographed at least
twice.
Flight lines
Over lap and side lap
Air Base
Photograph Required

 Lp = length of the photograph in cms in the direction of

flight
 Lg = Net ground distance corresponding to Lp
 Wp = width of photograph in cms at right angles to the
direction of flight
 Wg = Net ground distance corresponding to Wp
 OL = %longitudinal overlap
 Ow = % of side overlap
 S = scale of photograph
 Ap = Net area of the ground in each photograph
 Ag = Total area land to be photographed
 N = Numbers of photographs required
Overlaps Formula
Example : An area 40 km in the north-south direction and 36
km in the east-west direction, it to be photogrammetrically
surveyed. For this, aerial photography is to be made with the
following data:
i) Photograph size = 20 cm x 20 cm
ii) Average scale of photographs = 1:15000
iii)Averaged elevation of the terrain (h) = 450 m
iv)End lap = 60%
v) Side lap = 30%
vi)Ground speed of the aircraft = 220km/hr
vii)Focal length of the camera = 30 cm

Calculate the following data:

a) Flying height of the aircraft
b) Number of photographs in each flight (i.e. strip)
c) Number of flights (i.e. strips)
d) Total Number of photographs
e) Spacing of flight lines
f) Ground distance between exposures
Solution

Given that
S = 1/15000
f = 30 cm
Lp = 20 cm
Wp = 20 cm
Lo = 40 km
Wo = 36 km
h = 450 m
E = 60%
S = 30%
ZXC\TY,.\

a) S = f/(H – h)  H = (f/S) + h = 4950 m

b) Number of photograph for each flight / Strip
N 1 = (Lo/L) + 1
L = Lp(1-E)/S = 20(1-0.6)x15000/100 = 1200 m
N1 =(40x1000/1200) + 1 = 34.3 = 35
c) Number of flights or strips
N 1 = (Wo/W) + 1
W = Lp(1-Side lap)/S = 20(1-0.3)x15000/100 = 2100
m
N1 =(30x1000/2100) + 1 = 18.1 = 19
d) Total number of photographs
N = N 1 x N2 = 35x19 = 665
e) Spacing between flights d = (Wo/(N2-1)) = 2000 m
f) Ground distance between exposure is L = 1200 m
g) Exposure interval
t = L/V = (1200x3600/(220x1000)) = 19.6 sec
 Image Interpretation
Image interpretation is the extraction of qualitative and quantitative
information about
The shape, structure,
Function, quality,
Condition,
Relationship of and between object

Generally the accuracy of image interpretation depend of knowledge

and experience in mage interpretation.

Which assisted by systematic image interpretation elements.

What makes interpretation of imagery more difficult than the everyday
visual interpretation of our surroundings?

It is because we lose our sense of depth when viewing a two-

dimensional image, unless we can view it stereoscopically so as to
simulate the third dimension of height.

However viewing objects from directly above provides a very different

perspective than what we are familiar with.
 ELEMENTS OF INTERPRETATION

 The interpretation of satellite imagery and aerial photographs

 Involves the study of various basic characters of an object with reference to
spectral bands which is useful in visual analysis.
 The basic elements are:
• Shape
• Size
• Tone/colour
• Shadow
• Pattern
• Texture
• Association (Site)
• Shape: General form, configuration or outline of individual objects

• eg. regular, irregular, linear, curved, rounded, triangular etc.

 Cultural features - geometric, distinct boundaries

 Natural features - irregular shapes and boundaries
 Shape helps us distinguish old vs. new subdivisions, some tree species, athletic
fields, etc.
 The physical extent or dimension of a feature. May be comparative
(relative) (eg. a big bird is still small compared to an elephant).

 Relative size is an important clue

 Apartments vs. Houses
 Single lane road vs. Multilane

• Size of objects in an image (Photograph) is a function of

scale.
Color/Tone- Relative brightness or colour of a

 Refers to the relative brightness or colour of objects in an image.

Gray scale: very dark tone, dark tone, dark gray, mid tone, light tone, white
Colour: Blue, Green, Red, etc..

- Spruce forest (black) – Deciduous - Mixed spruce

with some deciduous (red) (leafy) vegetation And deciduous forest
trees. on hillside with tundra
(red). in valley bottom.
 Texture
 Refers to the arrangement and frequency of tonal variation in particular areas of
an image.
 Coarseness/smoothness caused by variability or uniformity of image tone or color
 Smoothness – tundra, swamps, fields, water, etc.
 Coarseness - forest, lava flows, mountains etc.

Marshy tundra with Bare rounded Mountains (blue) Tundra showing;

many surrounded by tundra and lakes.
drainage pattern
small ponds.
Pattern
 refers to the spatial arrangement of visibly
discernible objects.
 overall spatial form of related features
 repeating patterns tend to indicate cultural
features - random = natural
 drainage patterns can help geologists determine
bedrock type
Relates to the spatial arrangement of objects.
Repetition of form or spectral response (tone)
eg. gridded, regular (plantation), linear, irregular,
ordered (hierarchal), symmetric, geometric etc.
Site
Site:- relationship of a feature to its environment.
differences in vegetation based on location:
Vegetation is often has different characteristics by rivers than away
from them
Association
 Takes into account the relationship between other recognizable objects
or features in proximity to the target of interest
 Identifying one feature can help identify another - correlation

The white cloud and black shadow have

the same shape, they are related
 Features on a photo can be delineated based on
the following characteristics:
 Tone (gray shade), color and brightness)
 Size (depend on scale e.g. size of house)
 Shape (geometrical arrangement, road/house)
 Texture (smoothness or roughness, water, grass)
 Pattern (spatial arrangement, network of streets)
 Shadow (height of object)
 Site, Association (geographic location, features on rivers)
Photo interpretation can be supported by magnifying lens and stereoscope
(pocket, mirror)
Shape
Color
Association
LOGO