Chikkadevegowda K

M.Sc., B.Ed.,
Lecturer in Biology
Module - 4
NATURE-BIOINSPIRED MATERIALS AND MECHANISMS (QUALITATIVE)
Echolocation (ultrasonography, sonars), Photosynthesis (photovoltaic cells, bionic leaf). Bird flying (GPS
and aircrafts), Lotus leaf effect (Super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces), Plant burrs (Velcro),
Shark skin (Friction reducing swim suits), Kingfisher beak (Bullet train). Human Blood substitutes -
hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and Perflourocarbons (PFCs).

ECHOLOCATION:
➢ In nature’s sonar system, echolocation occurs when an animal emits a sound wave that bounces
off an object, returning an echo that provides information about the object’s distance and size.
➢ Over a thousand species echolocate, including most bats, all-toothed whales, and small mammals.
Human echolocation is the ability of humans to detect objects in their environment by sensing
echoes from those objects, and by actively creating sounds: for example, by tapping their canes,
lightly stomping their feet, snapping their fingers, or making clicking noises with their mouths.
➢ People trained to orient by echolocation can interpret the sound waves reflected by nearby
objects, accurately identifying their location and size.
➢ Many blind individuals passively use natural environmental echoes to sense details about their
environment; however, others actively produce mouth clicks and can gauge information about
their environment using the echoes from those clicks.
➢ Both passive and active echolocation help blind individuals sense their environments.
➢ Those who can see their environments often do not readily perceive echoes from nearby objects,
due to an echo suppression phenomenon brought on by the precedence effect. However, with
training, sighted individuals with normal hearing can learn to avoid obstacles using only sound,
showing that echolocation is a general human ability.

Mechanics:
➢ Vision and hearing are akin in that each interprets detections of reflected waves of energy.
➢ Vision processes light waves that travel from their source, bounce off surfaces throughout the
environment and enter the eyes. Similarly, the auditory system processes sound waves as they
travel from their source, bounce off surfaces, and enter the ears.
➢ Both neural systems can extract a great deal of information about the environment by
interpreting the complex patterns of reflected energy that their sense organs receive.
➢ In the case of sound, these waves of reflected energy are referred to as echoes.

A comparison of biological echolocation and technological echolocation is given below:

Biological echolocation
➢ Found in various animals such as bats, dolphins and some species of whales.
➢ Release on the emission of sound waves usually in the form of clicks or vocalizations.
➢ Animals emit sound waves and listen for the echoes produced when the sound waves bounce off
objects in their environment.
➢ By analyzing the echoes animals can determine the location , distance and even the shapes of
objects around them.
➢ This ability is mainly used for navigation, hunting and communication in the animal kingdom.

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Technological echolocation:
➢ Replicates the concept of biological echolocation using technological devices
➢ Utilizes sound waves, typically generated by artificial sources such as sonar or ultrasonic sensor.
➢ These devices emit sound waves and analyze the echoes that bounce back from objects.
➢ The information from the echoes is processed and interpreted by the technology to generate
useful data such as distance, location and object recognition.
➢ Technological echolocation has application in various fields including navigation, robotics,
obstacle detection and medical imaging.

Principle of echolocation:
➢ Both biological and technological echolocation rely on the same basic principles and have the
same underlying purpose: to detennine the location, distance, and shape of objects in the
environment using sound waves and their echoes.
➢ The principle of echolocation is based on the emission of sound waves and the interpretation of
the echoes that bounce back from objects in the environment.
✓ Sound Emission: the echolocation organism, whether biological or technological, emits sound
waves into its surroundings. In biological echolocation, this is typically achieved through
vocalization or clicks, while in technological echolocation, it is usually done using artificial sources
such sonar or ultrasonic sensors.
✓ Propagation of Sound waves: The emitted sound waves travel through the environment, spreading
out in all directions.
✓ Object interaction : When the sound waves encounter objects in the environment, such as
obstacles or prey, they interact with these objects. The interaction can involve reflection, scattering
or absorption of the sound waves.
✓ Eco Reception: Some of the sound waves that interact with objects bounce back or echo off them
.these echoes carry information about the objects' distance, shape, composition, and other
characteristics.
✓ Sensory receptor : The echolocating organism, whether biological or technological, has sensory
receptors capable of detecting and processing the returning echoes. In biological echolocation, this
is typically specialized organs or structures , such as bat ears or dolphin melon, ,while in
technological echolocation, it is achieved through sensors and receivers.
✓ Echo Interpretation: The information contained in the echoes is analysed and interpreted by the
organism or technology. This interpretation involves extracting relevant features from the echoes
and making sense of the spatial and temporal patterns present.
✓ Perception and Response: Based on the interpretation of the echoes, the organism or technology
can perceive and understand the surrounding environment. This perceptionenables the organism to
navigate, locate objects, detect obstacles, or perform other relevant tasks.

ULTRASONOGRAPHY:
Ultrasonography is a medical imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images
of the internal organs and tissues of the body. It is also known as ultrasound imaging or sonography.

Ultrasound:
➢ Ultrasound refers to sound above the human audible limit of 20 kHz.
➢ Ultrasound of frequencies up to 10 MHz and beyond is used in medical diagnosis, therapy, and
surgery.

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 ➢ The ultrasound machine emits high-frequency sound waves (usually in the range of 2 to 18 MHz)
that travel through the body and bounce back off of the internal organs and tissues. The returning
echoes are captured by the ultrasound machine and used to create images of the internal structures.
➢ Ultrasonography is a non-invasive, safe, and painless imaging method that can be used to visualize
a wide range of structure within the body, including the organs of the abdomen, pelvis, and chest,
as well as the uterus, foetus, and other soft tissues. It is commonly used in prenatal care to monitor
the growth and development of the foetus and to diagnose any potential problems.
➢ Ultrasonography has several advantages over other imaging methods, including its low cost, ease
of use, and lack of ionizing radiation. It is also portable and can be used in a variety of settings,
making it a valuable tool for medical professionals.

Uses of Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography is a versatile imaging method that is used applications.Some of the most common uses of
ultrasonography include:
➢ Obstetrics and gynaecology: Ultrasonography is commonly used to monitor the growth and
development of a foetus during pregnancy, as well as to evaluate the reproductive organs and
female pelvic organs for conditions, such as ovarian cyst fibroids, and endometrial cancer.
➢ Abdominal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the organs of the abdomen such as the
liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen and kidney, to diagnosis condition such as liver disease,
gallstones, pancreatitis, and kidney stones
➢ Musculoskeletal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the muscles, tendons, and ligaments
to diagnose conditions, such as muscle stains tendonitis, and ligament sprains.
➢ Vascular imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image blood vessels, such as the arteries and veins
to diagnose conditions such as blood clots, blockages, and aneurysms.
➢ Eye and neck imaging: ultrasonography is used to image the eyes and neck to diagnose conditions
such as, cataracts, glaucoma and thyroid nodules.
➢ Emergency medicine: ultrasonography is often used in emergency medicine to quickly and
accurately diagnosis conditions such as appendicitis, pneumothorax, and fluid buildup in the
abdomen or chest.

Working principle of ultrasonography:

the working principle of ultrasonography is based on the reflection of high-frequency sound waves
➢ Transducer : an ultrasonography machine consists of a transducer that is used to emit and receive
high-frequency sound waves. The transducer is placed in direct contact with the skin or inserted
into the body through a gel.
➢ Emission of sound waves: The transducer emits high-frequency sound waves (usually in the range
of 2 to 18 MHz) into the body. These sound waves travel through the body and encounter different
tissues and organs, which have different acoustic properties.
➢ Reflection of sound waves: The sound waves encounter boundaries between different tissues and
organs and bounce back, creating echoes. The strength of the echoes depends on the acoustic
properties of the tissues and organs, such as density and stiffness.
➢ Reception of echoes: The transducer in the ultrasonography machine receives the echoes and sends
the information to a computer, which processes the data to create images.
➢ Image formation: The computer uses the info1mation from the echoes to create images of the
internal organs and tissues of the body. The images are displayed on a screen, allowing the operator
to see the structure and movement of the internal organs and tissues.

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Advantages of Ultrasonography
➢ Non-invasive: Ultrasonography does not involve any incisions or injections, making it a safe and
convenient imaging method.
➢ No ionizing radiation: Ultrasonography does not use ionizing radiation making it a safer option
for patients, especially pregnant women and children.
➢ Real-time imaging: Ultrasonography provides real time images that can be used to monitor the
movement and function of internal organs and tissues in real time.
➢ Portable: Ultrasonography machines are portable and can be used in a variety of settings, making
it a valuable tool for emergency and rural medicine.
➢ Cost-effective: Ultrasonography is a cost-effective imaging method that does not require any
special preparation or recovery time.
➢ Versatile: Ultrasonography can be used to image a wide range of structure within the body,
including the organs of the abdomen , pelvis and chest, as well as the uterus, foetus, and other
soft tissues.

Limitations of Ultrasonography
➢ Limited depth: ultrasonography has limited depth and is not as effective at imaging deep structures
or those obscured by bones or gas.
➢ Operator dependence: the quality of the images produced by ultrasonography depends heavily on
the skills and experience of the operator.
➢ limited resolution: Ultrasonography has_ limited resolution compared to other imaging methods,
making it less effective at visualizing small structures or detecting small changes in tissue.
➢ Limitation in over weight patients: Ultrasonography may have limited usefulness in overweight
patients due to the difficulty in obtaining clear images through the layers of fat
➢ Limitations in detecting some types of cancer: Ultrasonography may not be as effective at
detecting certain types of cancer, such as pancreatic cancer, due to the lack of characteristic signs
on ultrasound images.

SONARS

Sonar, which stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging, is a technology that uses sound waves to detect
and locate underwater objects.

➢ Sonar (sound navigation and ranging or sonic navigation and ranging) is a technique that uses
sound propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigate, measure
distances (ranging), communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water,
such as other vessels."Sonar" can refer to one of two types of technology:
✓ passive sonar means listening for the sound made by vessels;
✓ active sonar means emitting pulses of sounds and listening for echoes.
➢ Sonar may be used as a means of acoustic location and of measurement of the echo
characteristics of "targets" in the water.
➢ Acoustic location in the air was used before the introduction of radar.
➢ Sonar may also be used for robot navigation, and SODAR (an upward-looking in-air sonar) is used
for atmospheric investigations.
➢ The term sonar is also used for the equipment used to generate and receive the sound. T
➢ he acoustic frequencies used in sonar systems vary from very low (infrasonic) to extremely high
(ultrasonic).
➢ The study of underwater sound is known as underwater acoustics or hydroacoustics.

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Uses of Sonars
Sonars are commonly used for a variety of purpose, including:
➢ Naval applications: Sonars are used by naval vessels to detect and locate other ships, submarines,
and under water obstacles allowing them to navigate safely and avoid potential collisions.
➢ Fishery: Sonars are used in the fishing industry to locate schools of fish and determine the depth
of the water, allowing fishmen to more efficiently target their catch.
➢ Oceanography: sonar are used in oceanography to study the physical and biological properties of
the ocean including the structure of the ocean floor, the movement of currents and the distribution
of marine life.
➢ Environmental monitoring: Sonars are used to monitor the health of marine ecosystems, track
the migration pattern of whales and other marine mammals, and assess the impact of human
activities on the ocean environment.
Sonar technology works by emitting a series of sound pulses and listening for the echoes that bounce back
from underwater objects. The time it takes for the echoes to return is used to calculate the distance to the
objects, and the frequency and pattern of the echoes are used to determine their size and shape.

working principle of sonars

The working principle of sonar technology is based on the reflection of sound waves. Here's how it works:
➢ Transmitter: A sonar system consists of a transmitter that produces and emits a series of sound
pulses into the water. These sound pulses are typically in the form of high frequency, low-power
acoustic signals, known as "ping."
➢ Propagation of sound waves: The sound pulses propagate through the water, traveling to the target
object and bouncing back as echoes. The speed of sound in water is slower than in air, and it
depends on the temperature, pressure, and salinity of the water.
➢ Receiver: The sonar system also includes a receiver that listens for the returning echoes. The
receiver is typically placed far away from the transmitter to minimize interference from the
transmitted signals.
➢ Calculation of range: The time it takes for the echoes to return to the receiver is used to calculate
the range to the target object. The range is simply the product of the speed of sound in water and
the time it takes for the echoes to return.
➢ Determination of target properties: The frequency and pattern of the echoes are used to
determine the properties of the target object, such as its size, shape and composition. For example,
a large, solid object will produce a strong low frequency echo, while a small, porous object will
produce a weaker, high-frequency echo.
➢ Display of results: The results of the sonar measurements are typica displayed on a screen or other
output device, allowing the operator to visualize the target object and its location.

Advantages of Sonar Technology

➢ Versatility: Sonar technology is versatile and can be used in a variety of applications, such as under
water navigation, mapping and imaging as well as for military and scientific purposes.
➢ Cost-effective: Compared to other underwater imaging technologies , sonar is relatively cost-
effective and affordable.
➢ Non-invasive: unlike other imaging technologies, such as diving and remote-operated vehicles,
sonar does not physically disturb the underwater environment, making it an ideal choice for
environmental and scientific research.
➢ Real-time imaging: Sonar provides real-time imaging, allowing operators to quickly and easily
assess the underwater environment.
➢ High resolution: Modem sonar systems have high-resolution capabilities, allowing for detailed
images of underwater objects and structures.

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Limitations of Sonar Technology:
➢ Limited visibility: Sonar imaging is limited by the visibility of the water, which can be affected
by factors such as sediment, algae, and water temperature. This can make it difficult to obtain clear
and accurate images.
➢ Interference: Sonar signals can be affected by interference from other underwater sources, such
as ships, submarines, and natural unde1water features, which can lead to false readings and reduced
accuracy.
➢ short range: Sonar signals have a limited range, which can make it difficult to image larger
unde1water structure or objects that are located far away from the sonar system.
➢ Limited depth: The depth to which sonar can effectively penetrate is limited, making it unsuitable
for imaging objects or structures that are located at great depths.
➢ Acoustic noise: The use of sonar technology can also generate acoustic noise, which can disturb
marine life and ha1m marine ecosystems. This is particularly a concern for high power, milita1y-
grade sonar systems, which have the potential to cause serious ha1m to marine life.
➢ Complex technology: Sonar technology can be complex, requiring specialized skills and
equipment to operate and maintain. This can limit its accessibility and increase the cost of
implementation.
➢ Inaccurate readings: Sonar readings can be inaccurate due to factors such as reflection, refraction,
and abs01ption of sound waves, which can result in incorrect measurements and false readings.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
Most life on Earth depends on photosynthesis. The process is carried out by plants, algae, and some types
of bacteria, which capture energy from sunlight to produce oxygen (O2) and chemical energy stored in
glucose (a sugar). Herbivores then obtain this energy by eating plants, and carnivores obtain it by eating
herbivores.

The Process:
During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) from the air and soil. Within
the plant cell, the water is oxidized, meaning it loses electrons, while the carbon dioxide is reduced,
meaning it gains electrons. This transforms the water into oxygen and the carbon dioxide into glucose.
The plant then releases the oxygen back into the air, and stores energy within the glucose molecules.

Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae and some bacteria convert light energy from the sun
into chemical energy stored in organic molecules. This process is critical for life on Ea1th, as it provides
the primary source of energy for all living organisms.

Chlorophyll:
➢ Inside the plant cell are small organelles called chloroplasts, which store the energy of sunlight.
➢ Within the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast is a light-absorbing pigment called chlorophyll,
which is responsible for giving the plant its green color.
➢ During photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs energy from blue- and red-light waves and reflects
green-light waves, making the plant appear green.

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS:
WHAT IS PHOTOVOLTAIC?
➢ The sun’s copious energy is captured by two engineering systems: photosynthetic plant cells and
photovoltaic cells (PV).

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 ➢ Photosynthesis converts solar energy into chemical energy, delivering different types of products
such as building blocks, biofuels, and biomass; photovoltaics turn it into electricity which can be
stored and used to perform work.
➢ Understanding better the way by which natural photosynthetic complexes perform these
processes may lead to insight into the design of artificial photosynthetic systems and the
development of new technologies for solar energy conversion.
➢ A broad variety of bio-inspired concepts and applications are emerging, ranging from light-
induced water splitting, Plant Microbial Fuel Cells to hybrid systems.
➢ These latter combine photosynthesis and photovoltaics and have great potential in
agriphotovoltaic concepts such as the side-by-side arrangement of solar cells and plants, and
systems consisting of transparent solar cells which are placed in front or above the plant.
➢ One of the applications that can contribute to bringing together the worlds of photosynthesis and
photovoltaics is the photovoltaic cell.
➢ A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly
into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon.
➢ It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as
current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices are often
the electrical building blocks of photovoltaic modules, known colloquially as solar panels.
➢ The common single-junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of
approximately 0.5 volts to 0.6 volts.

Application:
✓ Remote Locations
✓ Stand-Alone Power.
✓ Power in Space.
✓ Building-Related Needs.
✓ Military Uses.
✓ transportation.

➢ The connection between photosynthesis and photovoltaics lies in the conversion of light energy
into usable forms of energy. In photosynthesis, light energy from the sun is converted into chemical
energy stored in organic molecules, such as sugars and starches. In photovoltaics, light energy is
converted into electrical energy.
➢ Both photosynthesis and photovoltaics use the same basic principle of converting light energy into
usable forms of energy, but the end products are different. In photosynthesis, the end product is
store chemical energy, while in photovoltaics, the end product is electrical energy.
➢ However, the similarities between photosynthesis and photovoltaics go beyond just the conversion
of light energy. Both processes also involve the use of specialized components and materials, such
as chlorophyll in photosynthesis and silicon in photovoltaics, to absorb and convert light energy
into usable forms of energy.
➢ The development of photovoltaics has been heavily influenced by the natural process of
photosynthesis, and many researchers have sought to mimic and improve upon the efficiency and
effectiveness of photosynthesis in order to develop more advanced and efficient photovoltaic
systems. The study of photosynthesis has thus played a significant role in the development of
sustainable energy systems and continues to be an important area of research in the field of
renewable energy.

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Some of the new technologies in photovoltaic cells include:

Perovskite solar cells: Perovskite solar cells are a new type of photovoltaic cell that use a c1ystalline
material made of perovskite to conve1t light energy into electrical energy. They are highly efficient and
have the potential to be more affordable than traditional silicon-based photovoltaic cells.

Thin-film photovoltaic cells: Thin-film photovoltaic cells are a type of photovoltaic cell that uses a thin
layer of material, such as silicon or cadmium telluride, to conve1t light energy into electrical energy. They
are lighter and more flexible than traditional silicon based photovoltaic cells and are ideal for use in po1table
and flexible solar panels.

Concentrator photovoltaic cells: Concentrator photovoltaic cells are a type of photovoltaic cell that uses
a lens or mirror to concentrate sunlight onto a small area, increasing the amount of light energy that can be
captured and conve1ted into electrical energy.

Multi-junction photovoltaic cells: Multi-junction photovoltaic cells are a type of photovoltaic cell that
uses multiple layers of different - a ach optimized for different wavelengths of light, to conve1t light energy
int ti1'1 energy. They are highly efficient and ideal for use in concentrated solar powers.

BIONIC LEAF:
➢ The Bionic Leaf is a biomimetic system that gathers solar energy via photovoltaic cells that can be
stored or used in several different functions.
➢ Bionic leaves can be composed of both synthetic (metals, ceramics, polymers, etc.) and organic
materials (bacteria), or solely made of synthetic materials.
➢ The Bionic Leaf has the potential to be implemented in communities, such as urbanized areas to
provide clean air as well as providing needed clean energy.

Mechanics:
➢ Natural Photosynthesis vs. The Bionic Leaf at its simplest form.
➢ In natural photosynthesis, photosynthetic organisms produce energy-rich organic molecules from
water and carbon dioxide by using solar radiation.
➢ Therefore, the process of photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, from the air.
Artificial photosynthesis, as performed by the Bionic Leaf, is approximately 10 times more
efficient than natural photosynthesis.
➢ Using a catalyst, the Bionic Leaf can remove excess carbon dioxide in the air and convert that to
use alcohol fuels, like isopropanol and isobutanol.
➢ The efficiency of the Bionic Leaf's artificial photosynthesis is the result of bypassing obstacles in
natural photosynthesis through its artificiality. In natural systems, numerous energy conversion
bottlenecks limit the overall efficiency of photosynthesis.
➢ As a result, most plants do not exceed 1% efficiency and even microalgae grown in bioreactors do
not exceed 3%. Existing artificial photosynthetic solar-to-fuels cycles may exceed natural
efficiencies but cannot complete the cycle via carbon fixation.
➢ When the catalysts of the Bionic Leaf are coupled with the bacterium Ralstonia eutropha, this
results in a hybrid system capable of carbon dioxide fixation. This system can store more than half
of its input energy as products of carbon dioxide fixation.
➢ Overall, the hybrid design allows for artificial photosynthesis with efficiencies rivaling that of
natural photosynthesis.

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Applications:
✓ Agriculture
✓ Atmosphere
✓ Bionic Facades

Components of Bionic Leaf

A bionic leaf is a biohybrid system that mimics the natural process of photosynthesis to conve1t
sunlight into chemical energy. It typically consists of several key components that work together
to facilitate this conversion. Here are the main components of a bionic leaf:

• Photosynthetic Organism: The bionic leaf utilizes a photosynthetic organism, such as a cyanobacterium
or a genetically modified plant, as the primary component. This organism contains chlorophyll or other
light-absorbing pigments that capture solar energy and initiate the photosynthetic process.

• Light Harvesting System: The bionic leaf includes a light ha1vesting system, which can be artificial or
natural, to efficiently capture sunlight. In some designs, light-absorbing dyes or semiconductor materials
are incorporated to enhance light absorption and conversion efficiency.

• Catalysts: The bionic leaf inco1porates catalysts, such as enzymes (Examples: Hydrogenase,
Nitrogenase, etc.) or synthetic catalysts (Example: Rubisco (Ribulose-1,5- bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase)), to facilitate the chemical reactions involved in photosynthesis. These catalysts
play a crucial role in splitting water molecules, generating electrons, and catalysing the conversion of
carbon dioxide into fuels or other chemical compounds.

• Electron Transfer Pathway: An electron transfer pathway is essential component of the bionic leaf
system. It allows the generated electrons from , water splitting to be efficiently transported to the catalysts
involved in carbon di oxide. This pathway ensures the flow of electrons necessary for fuel production or
other desired chemical transformations.

• Carbon Dioxide Source: To sustain the photosynthesis process, a bionic leaf requires a source of carbon
dioxide. This can be obtained from various sources, including ambient air, industrial emissions, or
concentrated carbon di oxide solutions.

• Energy Storage or Conversion System: The bionic leaf include an energy storage. or conversion system
to capture and store the chemical energy produced during photosynthesis. This can involve the production
of hydrogen gas, liquid fuels, or other energy-rich compounds that can be stored and used as needed.

• Control and Monitoring System : to optimize performance and ensure efficient operation, a bionic leaf
typically incorporates a control and monitoring system. This system monitors various parameters such as
light intensity, temperature, pH, and carbon dioxide levels, and optimization of the overall process.

Working principle

The working principle bionic leaf is based on a1tificial photosynthesis, which aims to mimic the process
of photosynthesis in plants. The bionic leaf typically consists of a photovoltaic cell that capture sunlight
and converts it into electrical energy, and a catalyst, such as a bacterium, that uses the energy to split water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

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 The photovoltaic cells is used to convert sunlight into electrical energy, which is then passed to catalyst
The catalyst, in tum, uses the electrical energy to power the process of water splitting where water molecules
are separated into hydrogen and oxygen. This process is facilitated by the presence of enzymes or other
catalysts that act as a bridge between the electrical energy and the water splitting reaction.

The hydrogen produced by the bionic leaf can then be stored and used as a source of energy for a
variety of applications, such as powering vehicles or generating electricity. Additionally, the oxygen
produced by the bionic leaf can be released into the atmosphere, where it can help to mitigate the effects of
climate change by reducing the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

A flow cha1t of the working principle of bionic leaf is given below:

➢ Sunlight is captured and directed to the bionic leaf.

➢ The bionic leaf contains a catalyst (typically a special type of bacteria or an a1tificial catalyst) and
a water-splitting enzyme.
➢ Sunlight energy is used to split water molecules (H20) into hydrogen ions (H+) and oxygen (02)
through a process called photolysis
➢ The hydrogen ions (H) generated from water splitting combine with e1ectrons from an external
source (e.g., a wire) to fo1m hydrogen gas ).
➢ The oxygen gas (02) produced during water splitting is released into the atmosphere.
➢ The generated hydrogen gas (H2) can be collected and stored for later use as a clean and renewable
energy source.
➢ The bionic leaf also absorbs carbon dioxide from the air or a supplied source.
➢ The absorbed carbon dioxide (CO2) is converted into carbon -based compounds, such as formic
acid or methane through a reduction reaction.
➢ The carbon-based compounds can be used as a fuel or converted into other useful chemicals.
➢ The bionic leaf operates in a closed loop system, where the product oxygen during water splitting
is reused by the catalyst in subsequent cycles.

• Renewable energy Production: One of the primary applications of bionic leaf technology is in the
production of renewable energy. Bionic leaf systems can harness solar energy and conve1t it into chemical
energy in the fo1m of hydrogen gas or other carbon-based fuels. These fuels can be used as clean energy
sources for various applications, including transpo1tation, electricity generation, and heating.

• Carbon Dioxide Reduction: Bionic leaf technology offers a promising solution for mitigating the rising
levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. By capturing and utilizing carbon dioxide as a feedstock, bionic
leaf systems can potentially help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. This
application holds significant potential for carbon capture and utilization (CCU) strategies.

• Sustainable Chemical Production: Bionic leaf systems can be utilized for sustainable chemical
production. By utilizing carbon dioxide and renewable energy, these systems can produce a wide range of
valuable chemicals, such as fe1tilizers, plastics, and pharmaceuticals. This application offers a more
environmentally friendly and resource efficient approach to chemical synthesis.

• Agriculture and Food Production: Bionic leaf technology can have applications in agriculture and food
production. By utilizing sunlight and carbon dioxide, bionic leaf systems can generate oxygen and energy-
rich compounds that can enhance plant growth and improve crop yields. This technology can potentially
contribute to sustainable agriculture practices and help address global food security challenges .

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• Remote and Off-Grid Areas: Bionic leaf systems can provide a decentralized and off-grid energy
solution for remote or underdeveloped areas.

• Environmental Remediation: Bionic leaf technology has the potential to aid in environmental
remediation efforts.

BIRD FLYING:
Bird flight is the primary mode of locomotion used by most bird species in which birds take off and fly.
Flight assists birds with feeding, breeding, avoiding predators, and migrating. Bird flight is one of the most
complex forms of locomotion in the animal kingdom. Each facet of this type of motion, including hovering,
taking off, and landing, involves many complex movements. As different bird species adapted over millions
of years through evolution for specific environments, prey, predators, and other needs, they developed
specializations in their wings and acquired different forms of flight.

The science behind the birds flies using its wings and holding their body weight in air

The ability of birds to fly and support their body air is a result of various anatomical and physiological
adaptations. Here's a sim li of the science behind bird flight:

• Wing Shape: Birds have specialized wings with a unique shape that generates lift. The wings are curved
on the upper surface and flatter on the bottom, creating a pressure difference known as Bernoulli’s principle.
This pressure difference generates lift, allowing birds to stay airborne.

• Wing Muscles: Birds have strong flight muscles attached to their wings, allowing them to flap their wings
vigorously downstroke motion of the wings generates thrust, propelling the bird forward through the air.

• Hollow Bones: birds have light weight bones that are hollow and filled with air sacs, reducing their overall
weight.

• Feathers: Feathers plays a crucial role in flight. They provide both lift and control.

Respiratory system: Birds have a unique respiratory system that allows for efficient oxygen exchange.

Efficient circulatory System: Birds have a highly efficient circulary system that deliver oxygen rich blood
to their muscles and organs. Their hea1t rate increases during flight, ensuring a steady supply of oxygen to
meet the demands of their active muscles.

• Flight Control: Birds have remarkable coordination and control over their flight. They can adjust the
angle and shape of their wings, control their speed and direction, and perform intricate aerial manoeuvres
using their tail, wings, and body movements.

GPS Technology

GPS (Global Positioning System) is a technology that uses a network of satellites to provide location and
time information to users. The technology works by measuring the time it takes for signals to travel from
satellites to a receiver on the ground or in a vehicle, and using this info1mation to calculate the user’ s
position. Here are some key components of GPS technology:

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• Satellites: The GPS satellite network consists of 24-32 satellites orbiting the Earth. These satellites
continuously broadcast signals containing information about their location, time, and status.

• Receivers: GPS receivers, which are typically integrated into devices such as smart phones, navigation
systems, and aircraft, receive signals from GPS satellites and use the information to calculate the user's
position.

• Control segment: The control segment consists of ground -based monitoring stations that track the GPS
satellites, check the accuracy of their signals and make adjustments as needed.

• User segment: The user segment consists of the GPS receivers used by individuals and organizations to
obtain location and time information.

GPS technology has a wide range of applications, including navigation, mapping, surveying, search and
rescue, and military operations. The accuracy and reliability of GPS have improved over time, and the
technology continues to evolve with new developments in satellite and receiver technology, as well as the
integration of GPS with other technologies such as augmented reality and artificial intelligence.

Importance of GPS Technology in Aircrafts

GPS technology is essential for aircraft navigation and guidance .Here's how it is used:
• Positioning and Navigation: GPS helps aircraft accurately determine their position and follow precise
routes. Signals from satellites are received by GPS receivers onboard, allowing the system to calculate the
aircraft’s position.
• Flight Planning: GPS assists pilot and planners in creating optimal flight plans, considering waypoints,
altitudes and current information’s on navigation aids, weather and airspace restrictions.
• Approach and landing: GPS based navigation system provide precise guidance during approach and
landing. Even in low visibility. This enhances safety and reduces reliance on ground-based navigation aids.
• Air Traffic management : GPS is integrated into air traffic management systems, improving air space
efficiency, reducing congestion, optimizing routing, and enhancing aircraft and situational awareness for
controllers.
Collision avoidance: GPS contributes to collision avoidance systems like TCAS and ADS-B. These
systems use GPS data to track nearby aircraft, provide ale1ts, and ensure safe separation.
• Flight data recording: GPS data is often recorded by flight data recording systems, aiding post -flight
analysis, accident investigation, and overall flight safety improvements. GPS technology has revolutionized
aircraft navigation and has become an integral part of modem aviation. It provides accurate positioning,
enhances safety, improves operational efficiency, and contributes to the overall advancement of the aviation
industry.

Aircraft technology
Aircraft technology has advanced significantly since the first powered flight by the Wright brothers in 1903.
Here are some key components of modem aircraft technology:
• Aerodynamics: Modem aircraft are designed to be more aerodynamic, with wing shapes optimized for
lift and efficiency. Advanced materials and manufacturing techniques have also been developed to reduce
weight and improve durability.
• Jet engines: Jet engines, which use the principles of Newton's third law of motion to produce thrust, have
replaced propeller engines in most modem aircraft. These engines are more powerful, fuel-efficient, and
reliable.
• Avionics: Avionics, or aviation electronics, have advanced significantly with the development of digital
technology. Flight instruments, navigation systems, and communication systems have become more
precise, reliable, and sophisticated.

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• Safety systems: Aircraft safety systems have been developed to reduce the risk of accidents and improve
passenger safety. These include systems for collision avoidance, weather detection, and emergency
response.
• Automation: Aircraft automation has increased significantly in recent years, with the development of
advanced autopilot systems and computerized flight control systems. This technology has made flying safer
and more efficient, but has also raised concerns about pilot training and the potential for ove1rnliance on
automation.

Bio Mimicking Birds Fly for Aircraft Technology

Biomimicry ,or the practice of using designs and processes found in nature to solve human problems, has
led to the development of various technologies inspired by birds flight. Some examples include:
• Wing design: The shape of bird wings has inspired the design of aircraft wings, which have evolved to
be more aerodynamic and fuel efficient as a result. The study of bird flight has also led to the development
of winglets small structures at the tip of wings that reduce drag and increase lift.
Flapping wing drones: Researchers have developed drones that use flapping wings to fly, mimicking the
way birds and insects fly. These drones can be used for various as monitoring crops and wildlife, inspecting
buildings and infrastructure research and rescue operations.
• Soaring algorithms: Soaring refers to the flight technique used by birds and ce1tain aircraft to stay aloft
and travel long distances with minimal energy expenditure. It involves utilizing rising air currents, such as
the1mals, ridge lift, wind shear, or atmospheric waves, to gain altitude and maintain flight. Birds use
the1mals, or columns of rising warm air, to gain altitude and soar. Researchers have developed algorithms
inspired by bird flight to help gliders and other aircraft use thermals more efficiently, leading to longer and
more sustainable flights.
• Landing gear: The legs and feet of birds have inspired the design of landing gear for aircraft, with shock-
absorbing and retractable structures that help absorb impact upon landing.

Lotus Leaf Effect:

Introduction

➢ The lotus leaf effect, also known as the "lotus effect," refers to the ability of lotus leaves to repel
water and self-clean through their unique surface structure. This effect has inspired the
development of super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces, which have a wide range of
applications in various industries.
➢ The lotus leaf surface has a microscale and nanoscale structure that consists of numerous small
bumps and wax-coated hairs. This structure creates a high contact angle between the water droplets
and the surface, causing the droplets to roll off and carry away any dirt or debris. This self-cleaning
property 1s due to the lotus leaf ability to repel water and resist adhesion.
➢ Super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces have applications in industries such as aerospace,
automotive, building materials, and medical devices. For example, self-cleaning coatings can be
used on the exterior of buildings to reduce the need for cleaning and maintenance, while super
hydrophobic coatings can be used to prevent icing on aircraft wings.

LOTUS LEAF EFFECT:

➢ The lotus leaf is well-known for having a highly water-repellent, or superhydrophobic, surface,
thus giving the name to the lotus effect.
➢ Water repellency has received much attention in the development of self-cleaning materials, and
it has been studied in both natural and artificial systems.

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SUPERHYDROPHOBIC AND SELF-CLEANING SURFACES:
➢ The self-cleaning function of superhydrophobic surfaces is conventionally attributed to the
removal of contaminating particles by impacting or rolling water droplets, which implies the
action of external forces such as gravity.
➢ Here, we demonstrate a unique self-cleaning mechanism whereby the contaminated
superhydrophobic surface is exposed to condensing water vapor, and the contaminants are
autonomously removed by the self-propelled jumping motion of the resulting liquid condensate,
which partially covers or fully encloses the contaminating particles.
➢ The jumping motion of the superhydrophobic surface is powered by the surface energy released
upon the coalescence of the condensed water phase around the contaminants.
➢ The jumping-condensate mechanism is shown to spontaneously clean superhydrophobic cicada
wings, where the contaminating particles cannot be removed by gravity, wing vibration, or wind
flow.
➢ Our findings offer insights into the development of self-cleaning materials.

Mechanism:
➢ An autonomous mechanism to achieve self-cleaning on superhydrophobic surfaces, where the
contaminants are removed by self-propelled jumping condensate powered by surface energy.
➢ When exposed to condensing water vapor, the contaminating particles are either fully enclosed
or partially covered with the resulting liquid condensate.
➢ Building upon our previous publications showing self-propelled jumping upon drop coalescence
(5, 6), we show particle removal by the merged condensate drop with a size comparable to or
larger than that of the contaminating particle(s).
➢ Further, we report a distinct jumping mechanism upon particle aggregation, without a condensate
drop of comparable size to that of the particles, where a group of particles exposed to water
condensate clusters together by capillarity and self-propels away from the superhydrophobic
surface.

Engineering Applications of Super Hydrophobic Surface

Super hydrophobic surfaces have potential applications in the electronics, automobiles and aerospace
industries, offering several benefits in these sectors here some specific applications:
Electronics Industry:
• Waterproofing Electronics: super hydrophobic coatings can protect electronic components from water
damage. By applying super hydrophobic coatings on circuit boards, connectors and other sensitive
electronic parts.
• Moisture Resistance: Electronic devices exposed to humid environments or moisture- prone conditions
can be benefits from super hydrophobic coatings. These coatings prevent moisture from reaching critical
electronic components, reducing the risk of short circuits, corrosion malfunctioning.
Displays: Super hydrophobic coatings applied to displays and touch screens repel water oils, and
fingerprints, making them easier to clean and maintain.
Automobile industry
• Anti-Fogging Windows and Mirrors: Super hydrophobic coatings can be used on automobile windows
and mirrors to prevent fogging or condensation formation. The water-repellent property helps maintain
clear visibility, enhancing driver safety and comfort in humid or cold weather conditions.
• Self-Cleaning Surfaces: Applying super hydrophobic coatings to the exterior surfaces of vehicles can
facilitate self-cleaning by repelling water, dirt, and contaminants. This reduces the need for frequent
washing and maintenance, keeping the vehicle cleaner and improving its appearance.
• Fuel Efficiency: Super hydrophobic coatings can reduce drag and frictional resistance on vehicle surfaces,
leading to improved aerodynamics and fuel efficiency. By minimizing water adhesion, the coatings help

14
reduce the accumulation of water droplets on the vehicle's exterior, decreasing drag and optimizing
performance.
Aerospace Industry:
• Anti-Icing and De-icing: Super hydrophobic coatings applied to aircraft surfaces can prevent ice
formation or facilitate ice removal. This is particularly important for critical areas such as wings, engine
components, and sensors, helping to ensure safe operations and reducing the risk of ice-related incidents.
• Drag Reduction: Super hydrophobic coatings on aircraft surfaces can minimize factional drag during
flight, leading to improved fuel efficiency and reduced emission
• Corrosion Resistance: Super hydrophobic coating can protect aerospace component from corrosion
caused by exposure to moisture, rain or harsh environment.

Super Hydrophobic Effect

The Principle of Super hydrophobic Surfaces

The super hydrophobic effect refers to the ability of certain surfaces to repel water and resist wetting. Super
hydrophobic surfaces are characterized by a high contact angle between water droplets and the surface,
typically over 150 degrees, and a low contact angle hysteresis, meaning that the droplets roll off the surface
with ease.

Self-Cleaning Surfaces

Self-cleaning surfaces are surfaces that are able to clean themselves without the need for manual cleaning.
These surfaces are typically Super hydrophobics and have a high contact angle with water, which causes
water droplets to bead up roll off surface, carrying away any dirt or debris.

Principle of Self Cleaning Surface

The principle of self cleaning surface based on two main mechanisms: the reduction of surface energy
and the modification of surface texture. These mechanisms work together to minimize the adhesion of dirt
, water and other contaminants, enabling the self-cleaning effect.
• Low Surface energy:self cleaning surfaces often have low surface energy which means they have a
reduce affinity for liquid and solid particles. Materials with low surface energy repel water, oils and other
substance preventing them for adhering to the surface.
• Lotus leaf effect: the Lotus Effect is a phenomenon observed in nature on the leaves of lotus plant. It is
a classic example of self cleaning surface.
• Micro/Nanostructured Surfaces: Surface texture plays a crucial role in self-cleaning surfaces.
Microscopic or nanoscopic structures can be engineered or naturally occurring on a surface to create a
roughness that limits the contact between the surface and contaminants. These structures can hap air
pockets, causing liquids to form droplets with reduced contact area, minimizing adhesion. The trapped air
can act as a lubricant, aiding in the easy removal of particles.
External Factors: While the surface properties contribute to self-cleaning, external factors like water,
wind, or light often play a role in activating the self-cleaning process. For example, the presence of water,
either through rainfall or manual washing, can help remove loosely adhered particles from the surface.
Sunlight or UV radiation can activate photocatalytic reactions on certain surfaces, breaking down organic
matter and enhancing self-cleaning capabilities.

Applications of self cleaning surfaces and coatings

Self-cleaning surfaces have a wide range of applications in various industries. Here are some notable
examples:

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• Architecture and Building Materials: Self-cleaning surfaces find applications in architectural structures
and building materials, such as self-cleaning glass for windows and facades. These surfaces repel di1t, dust,
and pollutants, reducing the need for frequent cleaning and maintenance.
• Solar Panels: Self-cleaning coatings on solar panels prevent the accumulation of dust and dirt on the
surface, ensuring optimal energy efficiency. By repelling contaminants, self cleaning surfaces help maintain
the transparency and effectiveness of solar panels.
• Automotive Industry: Self-cleaning surfaces can be applied vehicle exteriors, including car windows
and windshields. These surfaces repel water, oil, and dirt improving visibility and reducing the need for
frequent cleaning.
• Electronics: Self-cleaning coatings can be used on electronic displays, touchscreens, and optical lenses.
These surfaces resist fingerprints, oils and smudges ensuring clear visibility and enhancing device
performance.
• Textiles: Self-cleaning coatings can be applied to fabrics used in outdoor clothing and carpets used in
outdoor clothing. These coatings repel liquids, stains, and dirt, making the textiles easier to clean and
maintain.
• Medical Equipment: Self-cleaning surfaces can be utilized in the medical equipment, such as hospital
furniture, beds, and surfaces . These surfaces minimize the adhesion of microorganisms, reduce the
contamination and improving hygiene.
• Kitchen and Bathroom Surfaces: self cleaning surfaces can be used in kitchen kitchen countertops,
sinks, and bathrooms fixtures to repel water, oils, and stains. This helps keep the surfaces clean and reduce
the efforts required for cleaning and maintenance.

PLANT BURRS:
➢ A bur (also spelled burr) is a seed or dry fruit or infructescence that has hooks or teeth.
➢ The main function of the bur is to spread the seeds of the bur plant, often through epizoochory.
➢ The hooks of the bur are used to catch on to for example fur or fabric, so that the bur, which
contains seeds, then can be transported along with the thing it attached itself to.
➢ Another use for the spines and hooks is physical protection against herbivores.
➢ Their ability to stick to animals and fabrics has shaped their reputation as bothersome. Some other
forms of diaspores, such as the stems of certain species of cactus also are covered with thorns
and may function as burs.
➢ Bur-bearing plants such as Xanthium species are often single-stemmed when growing in dense
groups, but branch and spread when growing singly.
➢ The number of burs per fruit along with the size and shape can vary largely between different bur
plants.

Relevance to humans:
➢ Burs are best known as sources of irritation, injury to livestock, damage to clothing, punctures to
tires, and clogging equipment such as agricultural harvesting machinery.
➢ Furthermore, because of their ability to compete with crops over moisture and nutrition, bur
plants can be labeled as weeds and therefore also be subject to removal.
➢ Methods of controlling the spread of bur plants include the use of herbicides, slashing, and
cultivation among others.
➢ Some have however been used for such purposes as fabric fulling, for which the fuller's teasel is
a traditional resource. The bur of burdock was the inspiration for the hook and loop fastener, also
known as Velcro.

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VELCRO:
Mr. de Mestral examined the burr under a microscope and realized the small hooks of the burr and loops
of the fur/fabric allowed the burr to adhere exceedingly well.

This sparked his idea to mimic the structure as a potential fastener. Originally VELCRO is envisioned as a
fastener for clothing, today, Velcro is used across a wide array of industries and applications; including
healthcare, the military, land vehicles, aircraft, and even spacecraft.

Engineering Applications of Velcro Technology

Clothing and footwear:Velcro is commonly used in clothing and footwear for closures and adjustable
straps. It can be easily opened and closed, making it convenient for users with limited dexterity or mobility.
Medical devices: Velcro is used in medical devices such as braces, splints, and compression garments r for
its adjustable and secure fastening capabilities.
Aerospace equipment: Velcro is used in aerospace equipment, such a components in place and prevent
them from vibrating or shifting during launch or flight.
Automotive industry:Velcro is used in the automotive industry for a range of applications, such as
securing carpets and headliners, and attaching door panels and seat cushions.
Packaging industry:Velcro is used in the packaging industry for resealable on bags, pouches, and other
types of packaging.
Sports equipment: Velcro is used in sports equipment such as helmets and gloves, for its ability to provide
a secure and adjustable fit.

SHARK SKIN:
➢ The texture is rough since it has small scales similar to teeth, called Dermal Denticles.
➢ Each species has a uniquely shaped denticle.
➢ They have a covering of dentine, a central pulp canal containing blood vessels, and a single nerve.
➢ The denticles play an important part in swimming efficiency. The water is channeled by the ‘skin
teeth' and flows across the fins and around the body.
➢ The teeth also break up the interface between skin and water, reducing the friction between the
two entities.
➢ The teeth and skin also help protect the shark from injuries and several elements in the water. It's
like a suit of armor for sharks.

Relevance to humans:
➢ It is typically made with acetate and rayon yarns, as well as with worsted wool and various
synthetic blends.
➢ The combination of the color of the yarns and the twill weaving pattern in which the colored
threads run diagonally to the white yarns results in the finish for which sharkskin fabric is known.
➢ it has a smooth but crisp texture and a two-tone lustrous appearance.
➢ Lightweight and wrinkle-free, sharkskin is ideal for curtains, tablecloths, and napkins.
➢ Sharkskin fabric is popular for both men’s and women’s worsted suits, light winter jackets, and
coats. Sharkskin is commonly used as a liner in diving suits and wetsuits.

SHARK SKIN AND SWIMSUITS:

➢ Scientists have been able to replicate the dermal denticles in swimsuits and also the bottom of
ships or boats.
➢ When cargo ships can squeeze out even a single percent in efficiency, they burn less bunker oil
and don’t require cleaning chemicals for their hulls.

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 ➢ Besides that, this sharkskin mechanism is also applied to create surfaces in hospitals that resist
bacteria growth since the bacteria can’t catch hold of the rough surface.
➢ Sharkskin-inspired swimsuits received a lot of media attention during the 2008 Summer Olympics
when the spotlight was shining on Michael Phelps.
➢ However, they are now banned in most of the major competitions.

KINGFISHER BEAK:
➢ The kingfishers have long, dagger-like bills.
➢ The bill is usually longer and more compressed in species that hunt fish, and shorter and broader
in species.

Relationship with humans:

➢ Kingfishers are generally shy birds, but despite this, they feature heavily in human culture,
generally due to the large head supporting its powerful mouth, their bright plumage, or some
species' interesting behavior.
➢ For the Dusun people of Borneo, the Oriental dwarf kingfisher is considered a bad omen, and
warriors who see one on the way to battle should return home.
➢ Another Bornean tribe considers the banded kingfisher an omen bird, albeit generally a good
omen.
➢ The sacred kingfisher, along with other Pacific kingfishers, was venerated by the Polynesians, who
believed it had control over the seas and waves.

THE BEAK THAT INSPIRED A BULLET TRAIN:

The Strategy:
➢ The secret is in the shape of the kingfisher’s beak.
➢ A long and narrow cone, the kingfisher’s beak parts and enters the water without creating a
compression wave below the surface or a noisy splash above.
➢ The fine point of the conical beak presents little surface area or resistance to the water upon entry,
and the evenly and gradually enlarging cross-section of the beak keeps fluid flowing smoothly
around it as it penetrates further into the water column.
➢ This buys the bird crucial milliseconds to reach the fish before the fish knows to flee.
➢ The length of the beak is critical here: the longer it is, the more gradually the angle of the wedge
expands. A shorter, fatter, or rounder beak would increase the wedge angle, resulting in a splash,
a compression wave, and a fleeing fish.

The Potential:
➢ Eiji Nakatsu, the chief engineer of the company operating Japan’s fastest trains, wondered if the
kingfisher’s beak might serve as a model for how to redesign trains not to create such a
thunderous noise when leaving tunnels and breaking through the barrier of tunnel air and
outside-air.
➢ Sure enough, as his team tested different shapes for the front of the new train, the train became
quieter and more efficient as the geometry of its nose became more like the shape of a
kingfisher’s beak, requiring 15% less energy while traveling even faster than before.

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HUMAN BLOOD SUBSTITUTES:
➢ Shortages in blood supplies and concerns about the safety of donated blood have fueled the
development of so-called blood substitutes.
➢ The two major types of blood substitutes are volume expanders, which include solutions such as
saline that are used to replace lost plasma volume, and oxygen therapeutics, which are agents
designed to replace oxygen normally carried by the hemoglobin in red blood cells.
➢ Of these two types of blood substitutes, the development of oxygen therapeutics has been the
most challenging.
➢ One of the first groups of agents developed and tested were perfluorocarbons, which effectively
transport and deliver oxygen to tissues but cause complex side effects, including flulike reactions,
and are not metabolized by the body.
➢ Other oxygen therapeutics include agents called hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs),
which are made by genetically or chemically engineering hemoglobin isolated from the red blood
cells of humans or bovines.
➢ HBOCs do not require refrigeration, are compatible with all blood types, and efficiently distribute
oxygen to tissues.
➢ A primary concern associated with these agents is their potential to cause severe immune
reactions.
➢ Blood from the human umbilical cord has been studied for its potential as a substitute source of
red blood cells for transfusion.
➢ Red blood cells can be extracted from cord blood via sedimentation as the blood is cooled.
➢ Donated cord blood can be screened for infectious organisms and other contaminants.
➢ Research concerning its potential use for transfusion is ongoing. Of particular concern for
implementation are the establishment of safe, effective, and ethical procedures for cord blood
collection as well as the development of criteria that help to ensure safe transfusion and the
preservation of cord blood quality.

Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) AND Perfluorocarbons (PFC) :

➢ Pharmaceutical companies attempted to develop HBOCs (also called oxygen therapeutics) and
PFCs starting in the 1980s and at first, seemed to have some success.
➢ However, the results of most human clinical trials have been disappointing.
➢ A study published in 2008 in the Journal of the American Medical Association summarized the
results of 16 clinical trials on five different blood substitutes administered to 3,500 patients.
➢ Those receiving blood substitutes had a threefold increase in the risk of heart attacks compared
with the control group given human donor blood.
➢ However, a closer analysis of the results showed that some of the negative statistics were
misleading.
➢ The artificial blood products reviewed in this study varied in their benefits and risks, and some
blood substitutes had very few serious side effects.
➢ The findings suggest that some blood substitutes may be safer and more beneficial than scientists
originally thought.

1) HBOCs:
➢ Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) are “made of” natural hemoglobins that were
originally developed as blood substitutes but have been extended to a variety of hypoxic
clinical situations due to their ability to release oxygen.
➢ Compared with traditional preservation protocols, the addition of HBOCs to traditional
preservation protocols provides more oxygen to organs to meet their energy metabolic

19
 needs, prolongs preservation time, reduces ischemia-reperfusion injury to grafts,
improves graft quality, and even increases the number of transplantable donors.
➢ The focus of the present study was to review the potential applications of HBOCs in solid
organ preservation and provide new approaches to understanding the mechanism of
promising strategies for organ preservation.

2) PFCs:
➢ PFCs remain in the bloodstream for about 48 hours. Because of their oxygen-dissolving ability,
PFCs were the first group of artificial blood products studied by scientists.
➢ They are first-generation blood substitutes. Unlike the red-colored HBOCs, PFCs are usually white.
However, since they do not mix with blood they must be emulsified before they can be given to
patients.
➢ PFCs are such good oxygen carriers that researchers are now trying to find out if they can reduce
swollen brain tissue in traumatic brain injury.
➢ PFC particles may cause flu-like symptoms in some patients when they exhale these compounds.

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