The Design of

High Performance Mechatronics

     

mechatronics

R S
     
brainport
academy

          

 The Design of
High Performance
Mechatronics
High-Tech Functionality by
Multidisciplinary System Integration

2nd revised edition

Robert Munnig Schmidt

Georg Schitter
Adrian Rankers
Jan van Eijk

Delft University Press

© 2014 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.

ISBN 978-1-61499-367-4 (print)

ISBN 978-1-61499-368-1 (online)
doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-368-1-i

2nd revised edition, 2014

Published by IOS Press under the imprint Delft University Press

IOS Press BV
Nieuwe Hemweg 6b
1013 BG Amsterdam
The Netherlands
tel: +31-20-688 3355
fax: +31-20-687 0019
email: [email protected]
www.iospress.nl

LEGAL NOTICE
The publisher is not responsible for the use which might be made of the
following information.

PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

Contents

Preface xix
Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Comments to the Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

1 Mechatronics in the Dutch High-Tech Industry 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Video Long-Play Disk (VLP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1.1 Signal Encoding and Read-Out Principle . . . 4
1.2.1.2 Compact Disc and Digital Optical Recording . 6
1.2.2 Silicon Repeater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2.1 IC Manufacturing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.2.2 Highly Accurate Waferstage . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.3 Impact of Mechatronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3 Definition and International Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.1 Different Views on Mechatronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.1.1 Main Targeted Application . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.1.2 Focus on Precision-Controlled Motion . . . . . 20
1.4 Systems Engineering and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.1 Systems Engineering Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.1.1 Definitions and V-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.1.2 Product Creation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.1.3 Requirement Budgeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.4.1.4 Roadmapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.4.2 Design Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.4.2.1 Concurrent Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.4.2.2 Modular Design and Platforms . . . . . . . . . 35

v
vi Contents

2 Applied Physics in Mechatronic Systems 39

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2 Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.1 Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.1.1 Cartesian Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.1.2 Generalised Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.1.3 Modal coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.2 Force and Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.2.1 Galilei and Newton’s Laws of Motion . . . . . 44
2.2.2.2 Hooke’s Law of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.2.3 Lagrange Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3 Electricity and Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.1 Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.1.1 Potential Difference and Capacitance . . . . . 52
2.3.1.2 Electric Field in an Electric Element . . . . . 54
2.3.1.3 Electric current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.2 Magnetism and the Maxwell Equations . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.3 Voltage and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.3.3.1 Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.3.3.2 Electric Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.3.3 Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.3.3.4 Practical Values and Summary . . . . . . . . . 65
2.4 Signal Theory and Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.4.1 The Concept of Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.4.1.1 Random Signals or Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.4.1.2 Power of Alternating Signals . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.4.2 Representation in the Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.4.3 Energy Propagation in Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.4.3.1 Mechanical Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.4.3.2 Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.4.3.3 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.4.3.4 Reflection of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.4.3.5 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.4.4 Fourier Decomposition of Alternating Signals . . . . . . 88
2.4.4.1 Fourier in the Frequency Domain . . . . . . . 90
2.4.4.2 Triangle Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.4.4.3 Sawtooth Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.4.4.4 Square Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.4.4.5 Non-Continuous Alternating Signals . . . . . 94
2.5 Dynamic System analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Contents vii

2.5.1 Time Domain Related Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

2.5.1.1 Step Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.5.1.2 Impulse Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.5.2 Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.5.2.1 Laplace and Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . 105
2.5.2.2 Poles and Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.5.2.3 Frequency Response Function . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.5.2.4 Domain Notation of Dynamic Functions . . . 108
2.5.2.5 Bode Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.5.2.6 Nyquist Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.5.2.7 Limitation to LTI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

3 Dynamics of Motion Systems 117

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.1 Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.1.1 Importance of Stiffness for Precision . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.1.2 Active Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.2 Mass-Spring Systems with Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.2.1 Dynamic Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.2.1.1 Compliance of a Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.2.1.2 Compliance of a Damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.2.1.3 Compliance of a Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.2.1.4 Dynamic Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.2.1.5 Lumping the Dynamic Elements . . . . . . . . 129
3.2.1.6 Transfer Function of Compliance . . . . . . . . 133
3.2.2 Effects of Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.2.2.1 Damped Resonance and Aperiodic Damping . 140
3.2.2.2 Poles and Critical Damping . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.2.2.3 Quality-Factor Q and Energy in Resonance . 147
3.2.3 Transmissibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.2.4 Two-Body Mass-Spring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.2.4.1 Analytical Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.2.4.2 Multiplicative Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.2.4.3 Effect of Different Mass Ratios . . . . . . . . . 159
3.3 Modal Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.3.1 Eigenmodes of Two-Body Mass-Spring System . . . . . 165
3.3.2 Adding Damping to Eigenmodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.3.2.1 High levels of damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.3.3 Theory of Modal Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.3.3.1 Multi Degree of Freedom Equation of Motion 175
viii Contents

3.3.3.2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . 175

3.3.3.3 Modal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.3.3.4 Resulting Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.3.4 Graphical Representation of Mode Shapes . . . . . . . . 180
3.3.4.1 Traditional Representation . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.3.4.2 Lever Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.3.4.3 General System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.3.4.4 User-Defined Physical DOF . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.3.5 Physical Meaning of Modal Parameters . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.3.5.1 Two-Body Mass-Spring System . . . . . . . . . 188
3.3.5.2 Planar Flexibly Guided System . . . . . . . . . 193
3.3.6 A Pragmatic View on Sensitivity Analysis . . . . . . . . 196
3.3.6.1 Example of Two Body Mass-Spring System . 198
3.3.6.2 Example of Slightly Damped Resonance . . . 200
3.3.7 Suspension and Rigid-Body Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.3.7.1 Non-Zero Rigid-Body Eigenfrequency . . . . . 205
3.4 Mechanical Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.4.1 Multiple eigenmodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.4.2 Characteristic Frequency Responses . . . . . . . . . . . 208
3.4.2.1 Frequency Response Type I . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.4.2.2 Frequency Response Type II . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.4.2.3 Frequency Response Type III . . . . . . . . . . 215
3.4.2.4 Frequency Response Type IV . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.4.3 Example Systems with Type I/II/IV Response . . . . . . 218
3.4.3.1 Planar Moving Body on Compliant Spring . . 218
3.4.3.2 H-drive Waferstage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.5 Summary on Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

4 Motion Control 229

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.1 A Walk around the Control Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.1.1 Poles and Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
4.1.1.1 Controlling Unstable Mechanical Systems . . 232
4.1.1.2 Creating Instability by Active Control . . . . . 234
4.1.1.3 The Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.1.2 Properties of Feedforward Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.1.3 Properties of Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.2 Feedforward Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
4.2.1 Model Based Open-Loop Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
4.2.2 Input Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Contents ix

4.2.3 Adaptive Feedforward Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

4.3 PID Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4.3.1 PD-Control of a Compact-Disc Player . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.3.1.1 Proportional Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
4.3.1.2 Proportional-Differential Feedback . . . . . . . 253
4.3.1.3 Limiting the Differentiating Action . . . . . . 256
4.3.2 Sensitivity Functions of Feedback Control . . . . . . . . 260
4.3.2.1 Real Feedback Error Sensitivity . . . . . . . . 263
4.3.3 Stability and Robustness in Feedback Control . . . . . 264
4.3.4 PID-Control of a Mass-Spring System . . . . . . . . . . 269
4.3.4.1 P-Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
4.3.4.2 D-Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
4.3.4.3 I-Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
4.3.4.4 Inclusion of one Resonating Eigenmode . . . . 278
4.3.5 General Guidelines for PID-control . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.3.6 PID-Control of More Complex Systems . . . . . . . . . . 280
4.3.6.1 PID-Control of a Magnetic Bearing . . . . . . . 280
4.3.6.2 Including Resonating Eigenmodes . . . . . . . 285
4.3.6.3 “Optimal” PID-Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
4.3.6.4 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop . . . . . . . . . . . 293
4.4 Digital Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
4.4.1 Continuous Time versus Discrete Time . . . . . . . . . . 294
4.4.2 Sampling of Continuous Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
4.4.3 Digital number representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
4.4.4 Digital Filter Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
4.4.4.1 Z-Transform and Difference Equations . . . . 300
4.4.4.2 Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filter . . . . . 302
4.4.4.3 Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) Filter . . . . . 305
4.4.4.4 From Continuous to Discrete-Time Filters . . 308
4.5 State-Space Control Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
4.5.1 State-Space in Relation to Motion Control . . . . . . . . 310
4.5.1.1 Mechanical Dynamic System in State-Space . 312
4.5.1.2 PID-Control Feedback in State-Space . . . . . 316
4.5.2 State Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
4.5.2.1 System Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
4.5.2.2 State Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
4.5.2.3 Additional Remarks on State-Space Control . 323
4.6 Limitations of Linear Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
4.7 Conclusions on Motion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
x Contents

5 Electromechanic actuators 333

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
5.2 Electromagnetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
5.2.1 History on Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
5.2.2 Magnetism from Electric Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
5.2.3 Hopkinson’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
5.2.3.1 Practical Aspects of Hopkinson’s Law . . . . . 342
5.2.3.2 Magnetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
5.2.4 Ferromagnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
5.2.4.1 Coil with Ferromagnetic Yoke . . . . . . . . . . 345
5.2.4.2 Magnetisation Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
5.2.4.3 Permanent Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
5.2.5 Creating a Magnetic Field in an Air-Gap . . . . . . . . . 351
5.2.5.1 Optimal Use of Permanent Magnet Material 355
5.2.5.2 Flat Magnets Reduce Fringing Flux . . . . . . 356
5.2.5.3 Low Cost Loudspeaker Magnet . . . . . . . . . 357
5.3 Lorentz Actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
5.3.1 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
5.3.2 Improving the Force of a Lorentz Actuator . . . . . . . . 362
5.3.3 The Moving-Coil Loudspeaker Actuator . . . . . . . . . 363
5.3.4 Position Dependency of the Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . 364
5.3.4.1 Over-Hung and Under-Hung Coil . . . . . . . . 364
5.3.5 Electronic Commutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
5.3.5.1 Three-Phase Electronic Control . . . . . . . . . 368
5.3.6 Figure of Merit of a Lorentz Actuator . . . . . . . . . . . 369
5.4 Variable Reluctance Actuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
5.4.1 Reluctance Force in Lorentz Actuator . . . . . . . . . . . 372
5.4.1.1 Eddy-Current Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
5.4.1.2 Ironless Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
5.4.2 Analytical Derivation of Reluctance Force . . . . . . . . 375
5.4.3 Variable Reluctance Actuator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
5.4.3.1 Electromagnetic Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
5.4.3.2 Magnetic Attraction Force . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
5.4.4 Permanent Magnet Biased Reluctance Actuator . . . . 385
5.4.4.1 Double Variable Reluctance Actuator . . . . . 385
5.4.4.2 Constant Common Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
5.4.4.3 Combining two Sources of Magnetic Flux . . . 388
5.4.4.4 Hybrid Force Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
5.4.4.5 Magnetic Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
5.4.5 Active Linearisation of the Reluctance Force . . . . . . 394
Contents xi

5.5 Application of Electromagnetic Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

5.5.1 Electrical Interface Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
5.5.1.1 Dynamic Effects of Self-Inductance . . . . . . 396
5.5.1.2 Limitation of the “Jerk” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
5.5.1.3 Damping Caused by Source Impedance . . . . 400
5.5.2 Comparison of the Actuation Principles . . . . . . . . . 403
5.5.2.1 Standard Coil Dimension for Comparison . . 403
5.5.2.2 Force of the Lorentz Actuator . . . . . . . . . . 406
5.5.2.3 Force of the Reluctance Actuator . . . . . . . . 406
5.5.2.4 Force of the Hybrid Actuator . . . . . . . . . . . 407
5.5.2.5 Dynamic Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
5.5.2.6 Moving Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
5.6 Intermezzo: Electric Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
5.6.1 Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
5.6.2 Real Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
5.7 Piezoelectric Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
5.7.1 Piezoelectricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
5.7.1.1 Poling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
5.7.1.2 Tapping the Bound Charge by Electrodes . . . 418
5.7.2 Transducer Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
5.7.3 Nonlinearity of Piezoelectric Actuators . . . . . . . . . . 422
5.7.3.1 Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
5.7.3.2 Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
5.7.3.3 Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
5.7.4 Mechanical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
5.7.4.1 piezoelectric Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
5.7.4.2 Actuator Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
5.7.4.3 Actuator Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
5.7.4.4 Mechanical Amplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
5.7.4.5 Multiple Motion Directions by Stacking . . . . 430
5.7.5 Electrical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
5.7.5.1 Charge vs. Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
5.7.5.2 Self-Sensing Actuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433

6 Analogue electronics in mechatronic systems 437

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
6.2 Passive Linear Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
6.2.1 Network Theory and Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
6.2.1.1 Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
6.2.1.2 Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
xii Contents

6.2.1.3 Theorem of Norton and Thevenin . . . . . . . . 442

6.2.1.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
6.2.1.5 Impedances in Series or Parallel . . . . . . . . 443
6.2.1.6 Voltage Divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
6.2.1.7 Maximum Power of a Real Voltage Source . . 446
6.2.2 Impedances in Electronic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
6.2.2.1 Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
6.2.2.2 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
6.2.2.3 Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
6.2.3 Passive Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
6.2.3.1 Passive First-Order RC-Filters . . . . . . . . . 458
6.2.3.2 Passive Higher-Order RC-Filters . . . . . . . . 461
6.2.3.3 Passive LCR-Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
6.2.4 Mechanical-Electrical Dynamic Analogy . . . . . . . . . 469
6.3 Semiconductors and Active Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
6.3.1 Basic Discrete Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
6.3.1.1 Semiconductor Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
6.3.1.2 Bipolar Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
6.3.1.3 MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
6.3.1.4 Other Discrete Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . 485
6.3.2 Single Transistor Linear Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
6.3.2.1 Emitter Follower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
6.3.2.2 Voltage Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
6.3.2.3 Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
6.3.3 Operational Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
6.3.3.1 Basic Operational Amplifier Design . . . . . . 496
6.3.3.2 Operational Amplifier with Feedback . . . . . 498
6.3.4 Linear Amplifiers with Operational Amplifiers . . . . . 499
6.3.4.1 Design Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
6.3.4.2 Non-Inverting Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
6.3.4.3 Inverting Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
6.3.4.4 Adding and Subtracting Signals . . . . . . . . 503
6.3.4.5 Transimpedance Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
6.3.4.6 Transconductance Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . 507
6.3.5 Active Electronic Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
6.3.5.1 Integrator and First-Order Low-Pass . . . . . 511
6.3.5.2 Differentiator and First-Order High-Pass . . . 513
6.3.6 Analogue PID-Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
6.3.6.1 PID Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
6.3.6.2 PID Control Gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Contents xiii

6.3.6.3 High-Speed PID-Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

6.3.7 Higher-order Electronic Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
6.3.7.1 Second-Order Low-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . 521
6.3.7.2 Second-Order High-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . 521
6.3.7.3 Different Types of Active Filters . . . . . . . . 522
6.3.8 Ideal and Real Operational Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . 524
6.3.8.1 Open-Loop Voltage Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
6.3.8.2 Dynamic Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
6.3.8.3 Input Related Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
6.3.8.4 Power Supply and Output Limitations . . . . 534
6.3.9 Closing Remarks on Low-Power Electronics . . . . . . . 535
6.4 Power Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
6.4.1 General Properties of Power Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . 538
6.4.2 Linear Power Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
6.4.2.1 Current-Source Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
6.4.2.2 Dynamic Loads, Four-Quadrant Operation . . 549
6.4.3 Switched-Mode Power Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
6.4.3.1 First Example Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
6.4.3.2 Power MOSFET, a Fast High-Power Switch . 554
6.4.3.3 Pulse-Width Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
6.4.3.4 High-Power Output Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
6.4.3.5 Intermediate Conclusions and Other Issues . 563
6.4.3.6 Driving the Power MOSFETs . . . . . . . . . . 563
6.4.3.7 Charge Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
6.4.3.8 Dual-Ended Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
6.4.3.9 Output Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
6.4.4 Resonant-Mode Power Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
6.4.4.1 Switching Sequence of the Output Stage . . . 571
6.4.4.2 Lossless Current Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
6.4.5 Three-Phase Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
6.4.5.1 Concept of Three-Phase Amplifier . . . . . . . 576
6.4.5.2 Three-Phase Switching Power Stages . . . . . 577
6.4.6 Some Last Remarks on Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

7 Optics in Mechatronic Systems 581

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
7.2 Properties of Light and Light Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
7.2.1 Light Generation by Thermal Radiation . . . . . . . . . 584
7.2.2 Photons by Electron Energy State Variation . . . . . . . 585
7.2.2.1 Light Emitting Diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
xiv Contents

7.2.2.2 Laser as an Ideal Light Source . . . . . . . . . 588

7.2.3 Useful Power from a Light Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
7.2.3.1 Radiant Emittance and Irradiance . . . . . . . 593
7.2.3.2 Radiance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
7.2.3.3 Etendue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
7.3 Reflection and Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
7.3.1 Reflection and Refraction according to the Least Time 598
7.3.1.1 Partial Reflection and Refraction . . . . . . . . 601
7.3.2 Concept of Wavefront . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
7.3.2.1 A Wavefront is Not Real . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
7.4 Geometric Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
7.4.1 Imaging with Refractive Lens Elements . . . . . . . . . 605
7.4.1.1 Sign Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
7.4.1.2 Real Lens Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
7.4.1.3 Magnification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
7.4.2 Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
7.4.2.1 Spherical Aberration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
7.4.2.2 Astigmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
7.4.2.3 Coma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
7.4.2.4 Geometric and Chromatic Aberrations . . . . 617
7.4.3 Combining Multiple Optical Elements . . . . . . . . . . 619
7.4.3.1 Combining Two Positive Lenses . . . . . . . . . 620
7.4.4 Aperture Stop and Pupil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
7.4.5 Telecentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
7.4.5.1 Pupil, Aperture and Lens Dimensions . . . . . 626
7.4.5.2 Practical Applications and Constraints . . . . 626
7.5 Physical Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
7.5.1 Polarisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
7.5.1.1 Birefringence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
7.5.2 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
7.5.2.1 Fabry-Perot Interferometer . . . . . . . . . . . 634
7.5.3 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
7.5.3.1 Amplitude gratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
7.5.3.2 Phase Gratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
7.5.3.3 Direction of the Incoming Light . . . . . . . . . 646
7.5.4 Imaging Quality based on Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . 646
7.5.4.1 Numerical Aperture and f-Number . . . . . . . 650
7.5.4.2 Depth of Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
7.6 Adaptive Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
7.6.1 Thermal Effects in Optical Imaging Systems . . . . . . 656
Contents xv

7.6.2 Correcting the Wavefront . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657

7.6.2.1 Zernike Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
7.6.2.2 Correcting Zernikes by Adaptive Optics . . . . 662
7.6.3 Adaptive Optics Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . 664
7.6.3.1 Active Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666

8 Measurement in mechatronic systems 671

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
8.1.1 Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
8.1.2 Errors in Measurement Systems, Uncertainty . . . . . 673
8.1.2.1 Ultimate Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
8.1.2.2 Uncertainty in Traceable Measurements . . . 675
8.1.3 Functional Model of a Measurement System Element 677
8.2 Dynamic Error Budgeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
8.2.1 Error Statistics in Repeated Measurements . . . . . . . 679
8.2.2 The Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
8.2.3 Combining Different Error Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
8.2.4 Power Spectral Density and Cumulative Power . . . . . 683
8.2.5 Cumulative Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
8.2.5.1 Variations in Dynamic Error Budgeting . . . . 686
8.2.6 Sources of Noise and Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
8.2.6.1 Mechanical Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
8.2.6.2 Electronic Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
8.2.6.3 Using Noise Data from Data-Sheets . . . . . . 690
8.3 Sensor Signal Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
8.3.1 Sensing Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
8.3.2 Converting an Impedance into an Electric Signal . . . 693
8.3.2.1 Wheatstone Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
8.3.3 Electronic Interconnection of Sensitive Signals . . . . . 700
8.3.3.1 Magnetic Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
8.3.3.2 Capacitive Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
8.3.3.3 Ground Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
8.4 Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
8.4.1 Instrumentation Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
8.4.2 Filtering and Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
8.4.2.1 AM with Square Wave Carrier . . . . . . . . . 710
8.4.2.2 AM with Sinusoidal Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . 711
8.5 Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
8.5.1 Schmitt Trigger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
8.5.2 Digital Representation of Measurement Data . . . . . . 715
xvi Contents

8.5.2.1 Gray Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716

8.5.2.2 Sampling of Analogue Values . . . . . . . . . . 718
8.5.2.3 Nyquist-Shannon Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
8.5.2.4 Filtering to Prevent Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . 722
8.5.3 Analogue-to-Digital Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
8.5.3.1 Dual-Slope ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
8.5.3.2 Successive-Approximation ADC . . . . . . . . . 725
8.5.3.3 Sigma-Delta ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
8.5.3.4 ADC Latency in a Feedback Loop . . . . . . . . 731
8.5.4 Connecting the Less Sensitive Elements . . . . . . . . . 732
8.5.4.1 Characteristic Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
8.5.4.2 Non-Galvanic Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
8.6 Short-Range Motion Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
8.6.1 Optical Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
8.6.1.1 Position Sensitive Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . 737
8.6.1.2 Optical Deflectometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
8.6.2 Capacitive Position Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
8.6.2.1 Linearising by Differential Measurement . . . 743
8.6.2.2 Accuracy Limits and Improvements . . . . . . 744
8.6.2.3 Sensing to Conductive Moving Plate . . . . . . 747
8.6.3 Inductive Position Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
8.6.3.1 Linear Variable Differential Transformer . . . 750
8.6.3.2 Eddy-Current Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
8.6.4 Pneumatic Proximity Sensor or Air-Gage . . . . . . . . 753
8.7 Measurement of Mechanical Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
8.7.1 Measurement of Force and Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
8.7.1.1 Strain Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
8.7.1.2 Fibre Bragg Grating Strain Measurement . . 757
8.7.2 Velocity Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
8.7.2.1 Geophone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
8.7.3 Accelerometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
8.7.3.1 Closed-Loop Feedback Accelerometer . . . . . 764
8.7.3.2 Piezoelectric Accelerometer . . . . . . . . . . . 766
8.7.3.3 MEMS Accelerometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
8.8 Optical Long-Range Incremental Position Sensors . . . . . . . 777
8.8.1 Linear Optical Encoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
8.8.1.1 Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
8.8.1.2 Vernier Resolution Enhancement . . . . . . . . 784
8.8.1.3 Interferometric Optical Encoder . . . . . . . . 786
8.8.1.4 Concluding Remarks on Linear Encoders . . . 791
Contents xvii

8.8.2 Laser Interferometer Measurement Systems . . . . . . 792

8.8.2.1 Homodyne Distance Interferometry . . . . . . 793
8.8.2.2 Heterodyne Distance Interferometry . . . . . . 800
8.8.2.3 Measurement Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
8.8.2.4 Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
8.8.2.5 Multi-Axis Laser Interferometers . . . . . . . . 821
8.8.3 Mechanical Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
8.8.3.1 Abbe Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823

9 Precision Positioning in Wafer Scanners 827

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
9.1.1 Waferscanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
9.1.2 Requirements on Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
9.2 Dynamic Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
9.2.1 Balance Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
9.2.2 Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
9.2.2.1 Eigendynamics of the Sensitive Parts . . . . . 841
9.3 Zero-Stiffness Stage Actuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
9.3.1 Waferstage Actuation Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
9.3.1.1 Waferstepper Long-Range Lorentz Actuator . 846
9.3.1.2 Multi-Axis Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
9.3.1.3 Long- and Short-Stroke Actuation . . . . . . . 850
9.3.2 Full Magnetic Levitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
9.3.3 Acceleration Limits of Reticle Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
9.4 Position Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
9.4.1 Alignment Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
9.4.2 Keeping the Wafer in Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
9.4.3 Dual-Stage Measurement and Exposure . . . . . . . . . 863
9.4.4 Long-Range Incremental Measurement System . . . . 864
9.4.4.1 Real-Time Metrology Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
9.5 Motion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
9.5.1 Feedforward and Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
9.5.2 The Mass Dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
9.6 Future Developments in IC Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872

Appendix 875
References and Recommended Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
Nomenclature and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Preface

Motivation to the First Edition

A world without mechatronics is almost as unthinkable as a world with-

out electric light. After its origin around the second world war the name
mechatronics has become known for all kind of mechanical systems where
mechanics and electronics are combined to achieve a certain function. The
complexity of mechatronics ranges from a simple set of electronic controlled
relay-switches to highly integrated precision motion systems. This prolifera-
tion of mechatronics has been accompanied by many books, which each have
been written with a different scope in mind depending on the specific tech-
nological anchor point of the author(s) within this wide multidisciplinary
field of engineering.
This book distinguishes itself from other books in several ways. First of all
it is a combination of an industrial reference book and a university textbook,
due to the mixed industrial and academic background of the authors. The
industrial reference book part is based on extensive experience in designing
the most sophisticated motion systems presently available, the stages of
wafer scanners, which are used in the semiconductor industry. The aca-
demic part is based on advanced research on precision motion systems,
including ultra precision metrology equipment with fast Scanning-Probe
Microscopy and optical measurement systems with sub-nanometre accuracy.
Closely related to the industrial background is the focus on high-precision
positioning at very high velocity and acceleration levels. With this focus,
the book does not include examples from other important application areas
like robotics, machining centres and vehicle mechatronics, though the the-
ory is also valid for those applications. All presented material is aimed at
obtaining a maximum of control of all dynamic aspects of a motion system,
which is the reason for the term “High Performance” in the title.
Another, more teaching related reason for writing this book next to all other

xix
xx Preface

books in the field is based on the observation that most students at the
university are rather well trained in applying mathematical rules for solving
purely mathematical problems, while they often have more difficulties in
the application of these mathematics in the modelling of real mechatronic
designs. The industrial need for well educated real engineers with both
theoretical and practical skills, combined with a healthy critical attitude to
the outcome of computer simulations, became a guiding motive to finish the
tedious job of writing. The capability to swiftly switch between model and
reality is one of the most important skills of a real multidisciplinary designer.
This capability helps to quickly predict the approximate system behaviour
in the concept phase of a design, where intuition and small calculations on
the backside of an envelope are often more valuable than computer based
detailed calculations by means of sophisticated modelling software. It is cer-
tainly true that these software tools are indispensable for further detailing
and optimisation in the later phase of a design project but more attention is
needed for basic engineering expert-knowledge to cover the concept-design
phase where the most important design decisions are taken.
In view of these main motivations to write this book, it was also decided to
focus uniquely on the hardware part of mechatronic systems. This means
that the important field of embedded software is not presented even though
software often serves as the actual implementation platform for modern con-
trol systems. The reason for this exclusion is the intended focus of this book
on the prime functionality of a mechatronic system, without the interfaces
to other systems and human operators. The logical sequence algorithm of
the controller, together with the sampling delay, is more important for this
prime functionality than the way how this algorithm is described in C-code.
When writing a book on mechatronics, the broad range of contributing disci-
plines forces a limitation in the depth to which the theory on each of these
disciplines can be treated. Where necessary for the explanation of certain
effects the presented material goes deeper, but other subjects are treated in
such a way that an overall understanding is obtained without specialised in
depth knowledge of all details.
Like the work of a mechatronic engineer as system designer in a team of
specialists, this book is aimed to be a binding factor to the related spe-
cialised books, rather than one that makes these other sources of knowledge
redundant.
It is our sincere wish that this book serves its purpose.
Robert Munnig Schmidt, Georg Schitter, Adrian Rankers and Jan van Eijk
January 2014
Preface xxi

To the Second Edition

As many writers will agree, any book will contain errors in spite of a thor-
ough check of every line. In this case most of these errors were typos and
UK language issues, but gradually it became clear that also some unbalance
existed in the chapters, mainly regarding the basic background material
on mechanics and dynamics. The book was initially mainly intended for
mechanical engineering students with BSc level knowledge. It appeared
however that also students from other disciplines would follow the related
courses and this made us decide to add some basic mechanics in this second
edition. Further a good friend and specialist in active dynamics in the
Netherlands, Adrian Rankers, made us aware of a real error in the modal
analysis of the rotating body at the end of Chapter 3 and while investigat-
ing a solution, it was concluded that the part on modal analysis deserved
a much deeper treatise in view of the frequent application in controlled
mechatronic systems. Adrian was happy to provide the material from his
PhD thesis [70] for inclusion in this book and he carefully reviewed the
entire dynamics chapter. Also several remarks of students during lectures
and examinations pointed clearly at some parts of the text that could result
in a better understanding when written in a slightly different way. And last
but not least several readers expressed their interest in literature citations
for reference.
Summarising the following major changes are applied:

• Chapter 2 is renamed into “Applied Physics in Mechatronic Systems”.

The mechanical laws of Newton and Lagrange are added, explaining
coordinate systems and the methods to derive equations of motion from
energy and acceleration. Several illustrations are added to explain
the Fast Fourier Transform window and the Laplace plane while the
Maxwell Equations are transferred from Chapter 5 to this chapter.

• Chapter 3 is extended with a large section on the theory on modal

decomposition.

• Chapter 4 is extended with an introduction in discrete-time control.

• Relevant sources and subjects for further reading like PhD theses are
cited in the text and grouped in a Bibliography section.

Finally the contributing authors expressed the wish to be more clear about
their specific contribution. For this reason at each chapter the contributing
authors are mentioned separately.
xxii Preface

Contributions and Acknowledgements

Besides much material from our own experience, this book also includes
material created by many other people.
Several university staff members and students have contributed to and re-
viewed the material. Some are cited in the text but even then it is impossible
to mention all without forgetting some names. as example only the most
important students who are not cited separately are mentioned here. The
first is Ton de Boer, the MSc student who entered upon the impossible task
to write the rough material that started this book as lecture notes by follow-
ing the lectures on Mechatronic System Design. Johan Vogel and Oscar vd
Ven, also from the Mechatronic System Design group at Delft University
of Technology reviewed the first versions and helped with the physics and
electromechanics chapters, while Markus Thier from the Automation and
Control Institute at Vienna University of Technology helped with the section
on digital motion control.
Our partners from industry deserve gratitude for their support, financially,
in equipment or advice, by permission to use company illustrations or by
reviewing the material. The three most important to mention are the Dutch
high-tech company ASML and the metrology companies Heidenhain from
Germany and Agilent Technologies from the United States.
We further thank all other companies and individuals who kindly gave per-
mission to use their illustrations. Where appropriate these are separately
mentioned at the related figures or cited in the bibliography.
It is true to say that this textbook is based on the knowledge of many others
as laid down in books, patents and journal articles. Several are cited in the
text but most are not, because their knowledge entered the public domain
very long ago. Still it are these giants on whose shoulders we all stand1
and who deserve our gratitude. In that respect it is worthwhile to mention
the increasing value of Wikipedia. Besides the possibility to quickly find
certain physical and mathematical terms or derivations, it also provided
information about small trivia like the date of birth or the full name of a
famous scientist from the past.

Errata

The errata of the first and second edition are noted at a dedicated website:
errata.rmsmechatronics.nl.

1 Cited with a slight variation to the words of Bernard de Chartres ≈ 1115.

Preface xxiii

Summary

This book is intended for Bsc level students as an introduction to mecha-

tronics, for Msc-level students who want to extend their knowledge on all
aspects of advanced mechatronics and for engineers in the high-tech indus-
try who want to learn more about adjacent specialisations. To accommodate
this broad approach and define the application environment, the first and
last chapter describe the waferscanners of ASML as these complex systems
are symbolic for the high level of advancement that modern mechatronic
systems have achieved.
The nine chapters are summarised as follows:
The introduction in Chapter 1 gives the context of mechatronics in the
Dutch high-tech industry with the historical background, some general
observations on the international differences in approach towards mecha-
tronics and the close link with “Systems Engineering”. Subjects include the
development of the optical Video Long Play (VLP) disk and the wafer stepper
at Philips Research Laboratories. These developments have strongly deter-
mined the dominant foothold of high-precision mechatronic system design
in the Netherlands and are exemplary for the specific photon-physics ori-
ented approach in this country, quite different from the machining oriented
approach in most other countries. The overview on systems engineering and
design introduces some functional design and development methodologies
that have proved to be crucial for the success of the high-tech industry. These
methods are based on industrial practice where complex multidisciplinary
designs have to be realised. Systems Engineering is a field closely related
to mechatronics and the corresponding principles are used in structuring
the design of a mechatronic system.
Chapter 2 on the applied physics in mechatronic systems is the first
of a series of chapters on the theory that is applied in controlled motion
systems. After an introduction to some relevant items from the mechanical
domain, like coordinate systems and the physical laws on force and motion,
the chapter introduces the theory on electricity and magnetism, essential
element in a mechatronic positioning system. This is followed by a section
on signal theory and wave propagation. This chapter explains the reason
why the properties of mechatronics are so often described in the frequency
domain next to the more mechanical oriented time-related step and impulse
responses. The chapter also introduces different graphical representations
of frequency responses, which are used in several chapters of this book.
xxiv Preface

The hard-core of a mechatronic system is still the mechanical structure that

represents the real hardware, which has to be fully mastered when position-
ing objects in a controlled way. In most cases, the dynamic properties of this
structure determine the achievable control performance. Expert knowledge
of this field is a prerequisite for a mechatronic designer. For that reason
Chapter 3 deals with these dynamics of motion systems and mainly con-
centrates on the vibrational properties of standard mechanical elements
consisting of a multitude of springs, bodies and dampers. It includes a more
in depth treatise of modal decomposition, a method to describe the dynamic
response to external forces by means of individual vibration modes, which
allow to optimise the structural dynamics for controlled motion.
Directly related to the mechanical dynamics is the important field of mo-
tion control in Chapter 4. This chapter concentrates on a thorough un-
derstanding of the working principle and tuning of the still widely used
PID controllers. The practice of loop-shaping for optimising a feedback
controller is introduced as it is widely used. Also an introduction is given
in state-space control with direct pole placement as this method plays an
increasing role in the design of mechatronic systems. A strong emphasis is
put on the physical aspects of control. It is shown that feedback control adds
virtual elements from the mechanical domain to the system, like springs
and dampers together with new elements like an integrator and observer.
Electromechanic actuators and analogue electronics are two closely
related hardware components of a mechatronic system. Their interaction is
increasingly underestimated by system designers, because of two reasons.
Firstly the field is controlled by experts in physics and electronics. These
specialists have a fundamentally different more abstract frame of mind
than the mostly concrete-mechanical visually oriented system designers.
The second reason for underestimating these related fields is caused by the
overwhelming amount of electronics, motors and actuators, which are all
around us, giving rise to the idea that their principle is simple and mastered
by many. This idea is a dangerous delusion as the difficulty in electronics is
related to its dynamic analogue behaviour and unfortunately the number of
people that master analogue electronics is rather decreasing than increas-
ing. It is the analogue side of electronics, dealing with measurement and
actuation, that needs most of the attention of the mechatronic designer.
With this purpose in mind, Chapter 5 first presents linear electrome-
chanic actuators. This chapter focuses on electromagnetic actuators while
also piezoelectric actuators are presented as these are increasingly applied
in precision mechatronic systems. This chapter will help in the selection
Preface xxv

process of actuation systems and creates a knowledge base for further study
on the subject. Also the relation with power-amplifier constraints, which
are presented in the following chapter, is made clear.
Chapter 6 deals with analogue electronics for measurement and power
and starts at a very basic level with passive components because most me-
chanical engineering students have hardly any knowledge about electronics.
The introduction of the active components leads to their application in the
basic design of the operational amplifier, the most universal and widely used
analogue electronic building block. The last section in this large chapter
gives an overview of the basic design of power amplifiers, which act as
the interface between the controller and the actuators.
Optics has become a main driver of mechatronic advancement in the past
decades. Firstly it is an application area where mechatronics are used to
control and correct optical properties of imaging systems and other instru-
mentation. Secondly, optics are used to determine distances in a plurality
of sensors, which enables us to create measurement systems with extreme
precision. For these reasons Chapter 7 gives an introduction to optics from
the perspective of a mechatronic designer. Starting with basic physics on
optics with sources and the duality of light, an overview of geometrical and
physical optics is presented including limiting factors for the performance of
imaging systems. The chapter concludes with an introduction on adaptive
optics.
Chapter 8 presents the basic principles of sensors for force and dynamic
position measurements based on several physical principles including
strain-, inductive-, capacitive- and optical sensors. The theory in this chapter
will enable the first selection of suitable sensors when designing a mecha-
tronic system. Laser interferometry and encoders will also be presented as
these are most frequently applied in high precision mechatronic systems.
Even though metrology in general will be shortly touched, the chapter con-
centrates on measurement for control. For this reason also the principle of
dynamic error budgeting is included, a statistical method to determine
the total error in a dynamic precision system from contributions of different
error sources.
As closure of the book Chapter 9 presents the mechatronic design for pre-
cision positioning in waferscanners where all theory is applied to its
most extreme level. This chapter includes the basic design of positioning
stages, the need for and active control of vibration isolation, and the motion
control approach to achieve a position accuracy of less them a nanometre at
speeds of more than 1 m/s and accelerations of more than 30 m/s2 .