(eiratsa 1966-—_ The National organzaton or irene med, 1963 etme 1967 The Famine tsar Chivers 1962 ste 1965 ned Farm uty tiean | Ralph Nar Unsat at rr renin ; ace! Caron’ took | impos the | ‘Any Speed poea, atone yet American ‘Silent Spring launches the ‘wor Initiating the consumer of grapes picked on Events ‘environmental movement. protection movement. ‘nonunion farms. 9: Eleonhower Presidential Terms: °,Sesnhore World Events a Era of Activism 960-1975) SECTION 1 The Women’s Movement SECTION 2 Ethnic Minorities Seek Equality section 3 The Counterculture secTION 4 The Environmental and Consumer Movements Jon F Kennedy 1961-2903 Lyndon ohnson 1963-2969 Sovlet cosmonaut Valentina Indira Gandhi bec: Tereshkova becomes the first primo minister of woman in $606 ese — 762 Chapter 23 + An Era of ActiviemOkisnoma | anansas states attying 1972 tats aiying 1973 States rating 1974-1977 Di siaes no raving © sates ater evolng RA The Supreme Court legalizes The Woodstock ‘The first Earth Day is celebrated, abortion in Roe v. Wade. festival celebrates ‘the Environmental Protection Protesters from the American rock musie and the ‘Agency is established, and Indian Movement take over the ‘counterculture, ‘Congress passes the Clean Air Act. reservation at Wounded Knee. Greenpeace Is founded in Vancouver, Canada. Chapter 23 763Seen The Women’s Movement READING FOCUS KEY TERMS TAKING NOTES * What was the background of the feminism Copy the web diagram below. As you read, women’s movement? National Organization for __write the conditions that led to the ‘© How did women organize to gain support Women (NOW) women’s movement in the bubbles on the and to effect change? Roe v. Wade left. Write the effects on the right: '* What was the impact of feminism? ae Amendrrent ‘* Which groups opposed the women’s movement and why? MAIN IDEA The women's movement, which was dedicated to ending discrimination based on gender, found inspiration in the lvl rights movement and other activist causes. ‘support goons | Setting the Scene songwriter Bob Dylan’s 1964 hit “The Times | ‘They Are A-Changin’ reflected the atmosphere of the sixties. The fifties had been primarily a time of unpr | groups had participated equally. The six dented prosperity and security, but not all ushered in an era of activism, as groups and their supporters seized the opportunity to make their voices heard. One demand for change came from women who did not want to be lim: ited to the traditional roles of wife and mother. These women demanded the same opportunities as men. Pop singer Helen Reddy’s 1971 song exemplified this new point of view the 6 1 am woman, hear me roar In numbers too big to ignore, And | know too much to go back and pretend. Yes, I've paid the price But look how much I gained. If | have to, | can do anything. Lam strong, | am invincible, am woman? Z —Ray Burton and Helen Reddy (On August 26, 1970, the anniver’ | ‘These lyrics reflect the sense of self-confidence and strength that helped to sary ofthe passage ofthe const: | create the new women’s movement in the 1960s and continued to drive it for tutional amendment granting ward sicoithes9 708 women suffrage, thousands of arent ees] 2208 women took the day off fram jobs Meer puma chorce eerie Background of the Women’s Movement Women’s Equality Day. The crusade for women’s rights was not new in 1960. In the late 1800s, partic- ularly, women had worked for the right to vote and for equality in education and in jobs. The term feminism, which came to be associated with the 1960s, had first come into recorded use in 1895 to describe the theory of political, economic, and social equality of men and women. Feminists were those who believed in this equality or took action to bring it about. 764 Chapter 23 + An Era of ActivismWhile much progress had been made since the 1890s, the full equality sought by feminists had not been achieved, The women’s movement of the 1960s sought to change aspects of American life that had been accepted for decades. The 1950s stereotype of women still placed them in the home, mar- ried and raising children, For many women, this stereotype did not reflect either reality or nece: fed to work in order to support themselves or to help support their fami- Furthermore, World War IT had opened many new employm for women. During and after the war, more and more women As had been the case in earlier decades, many women nities labor force. By the beginning of the 1960s, about 38 percent of all women held jobs. In addition, many women were educated, and looked forward to putting their education to use in professional careers. Education and Employment An increasing number of women began going to college after World War II. In 1950, only 25 percent of all Bachelor of Arts degrs 43 percent. Better-educated women had high hopes for the future, but they were often discouraged by the discrimination they faced when they looked for jobs or tried to advance in their professions In many cases, employers were reluctant to invest in training women because they expected female employees to leave their jobs after a few years to start families. Other employers simply refused to hire qualified women because they believed that home and family should be a woman’s only responsibilty. Women who did enter the work force often found themselves under employed, performing jobs and earning salaries below their abilities. Working women earned less than working men doing similar or even identical jobs. In 1963, women, on average, were paid only 59 cents for each dollar that men cared. By 1973, this figure had dropped to 5 created @ grow demands for equal pay for equal work es were earned by women. Twenty years later, in 1970, the number was 7 cents. This financial inequality sense of frustration among women and led to renewed The Impact of the Civil Rights Movement While social, educational, and economic conditions set the scene for the women’s movement, the civil rights movement provided a “how-to” model for action. It also provided inspiration. Black and white women had joined in the struggle for civil rights and gained valuable skills from their work in the movement. At the same time, they had endured frustration over their second-class status in civil rights organizations. As they worked to end racial discrimination, women were expected to make cofi¢e and do clerical work ‘while men made most of the policy decisions. Frustrated over $7,000 their assigned roles, women began to apply the techniques as that had been successfl in the civil rights movement to a new ‘ movement that would address their own concerns. g S00 The civil rights movement also provided women with 5 s,ag9 legal tools to fight discrimination. One such tool was the = 1964 Civil Rights Act. Originally, the section of the act 2 $00 called Title VII prohibited discrimination based on race, reli- © ogy gion, or national origin. When Congress debated the bill, however, some opponents of civil rights added an amend- sa «to outlaw discrimination on the basis of sex. This » Ue 1950 action was a strategy to make the entire bill look ridiculous, so that it would fail in the final vote. To the dismay of its Ted eeu Ace cas, ‘The new women's movement chose symbols of power to represent its cause, INTERPRETING GRAPHS ‘Women’s incomes continued to lag behind men’s earnings, partly because many low-paying jobs ‘were traditionally considered “women’s work.” Making ‘Comparisons How did the gap change between 1950 and 19752 1975 | i : 1955. 1960-1965 1870 Year SOURCE: Statistical Abstract ofthe United States opponents, both the amendment and the bill passed. ThE ——— Chapter 23 + Section 4 765new Civil Rights Act now had a provision that gave women a legal framework to challenge discrimination. Even with the added boost of the new legislation, progress took time. Women soon discovered that the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission OC) set up by the bill did not take women’s discrimination claims seriously. Nevertheless, Title VII would be tremendously important as the women’s movement gained strength. Women’s Groups Organize The Feminine Mystique Betty Fieden's book The Feminine Mystique __-&8 the 1960s unfolded, women began to mect in groups to compare ica aiaenentlen the cits cf experiences. Women active in the civil rights movement met to look for America. It addressed ss ways in which they could play a larger role in that struggle. Soon the women who had they went beyond politics, exploring other aspects of their lives. everything that society . The growing movement drew women who were active in other said they should want: forms of protest and reform. They included student radicals, oppo- De nents of the Vietnam War and the draft, and workers for welfare Eee ary rights and other social issues. Another important influence was east Betty Friedan’s 1963 book The Feminine Mystique. The dissatisfied eetetinelard housewives that Friedan described in her book began meeting, t00, money to furnish and 5) to discuss their lives and their roles in society. refurnish the comfort: ‘i ble forse ty van cor tie aries Support Groups Meeting in kitchens and living rooms, women rene tees eee began gathering in consciousness-rasing groups, which were dedicated to Paciecitten hetesd cathe increasing their members’ awareness of women’s situation in society. One were often called “neurotic” or not participant, Nancy Hawley, who was a community activist in Boston, normal. Friedan called it“the problem Massachusetts, was troubled by pattems she saw at work, “Though many that had no name"—the dissatisfaction of us were working harder than the men,” she noted, “we realized we of a als 2 formalin en were not listened to and often ignored.” Growing numbers of women eee eee recognized the negative attitudes, oF sexism, directed toward them. Many So eStar ts tec told of being ridiculed for attending women’s groups. Such lack of sup- eres aang tan port outside the group made their bond stronger within the group. need for personal growth and fulfil: it up c fofessional_ women, Monte the reedeorthel fonts, end OFEanizing NOW In 1966, a group of 28 prof i . ‘nth secondclass cttzenshipin iw end ‘including Betty Friedan, established the National Organization for in the marketplace. Friedan gave these -- Women (NOW). These women were frustrated that existing women’s Peerreriatectrerenoesaulaths! groups were unwilling to pressure the Equal Employment Opportunity all?”—and her book helped women Commission to take women’s grievances more seriously. The goal of realize that it doesn't have to be. NOW was “to take action to bring American women into full participa- tion in the mainstream of American society now.” NOW sought fair pay and equal job opportunities. It attacked the “false image of women” in the media, such as advertising that used sexist slo- gans or photographs. NOW also called for more balance in marriages, with men and women sharing parenting and houschold responsibilities. A year after NOW was founded, it had 1,000 members. Only four years later, some 15,000 women had joined. For some women, NOW seemed too extreme; for others, it was not extreme enough. Some saw NOW—and the women’s movement in general—as mainly benefiting white, middle-class women, Nonetheless, NOW served as a rallying point to end sex discrimination and to promote equality for all women The Impact of Feminism ‘The women’s movement came of age in the early 1970s. In August 1970, a New York City march celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of women’s suffrage drew CULTURE 766 Chapter 23 + An Era of Activismtens of thousands of demonstrators supporting women’s equality. More women began identifying themselves as feminists. Even those who did not join feminist groups could now find new kinds of information and opinions on women’s issues. One new source was a book called Our Bodies, Ourselves. This handbook, published in 1970 by a women’s health collective in Boston, encouraged women to understand their own health issues. It sold 200,000 copies in the first several years after its publication and three million by 1990. In 1972, journalist Gloria Steinem and several other women founded Ms. magazine. Devoted to feminist issues, Ms provided women with viewpoints that were decidedly different from those in Good Housekeeping, Ladies? Home Journal, and. other women’s magazines of the day. All 300,000 copies of the preview issue sold out in eight days. Only one year later, Ms, had nearly 200,000 subseri the magazine familiarized its aude women’s movement. ers. While not all readers considered themselves feminists, ce with the arguments and issues of the READING CHECK What were some of the effects of the women's movement? ides Slowly the women’s movement brought a shift in atti- and in the law. For example, in 1972, Congress passed a prohibition against sex discrimination as part of the Higher Education Act. A survey of first-year college students revealed a significant change in career goals—and opportunities. In 1970, men interested in fields such as business, law, «1 ing, and medicine outnumbered women by eight to one. Five years later, the margin had dropped to three to one. More women entered law school and medical school, Women were finally admitted to military academies to be trained as officers In 1971, the National Women’s Political Caucus was formed to expand women’s participation in politics. By working from within the system, women were able to gain broader support for the goals of the women’s mov Women also became more influential in politics. New Yorker Shirley Chisholm, who was a founder of the National Women’s Political Caucus, served in the House of Representatives from 1969 to 1983. In 1972, she ran for President, winning, 152 delegates to the Democratic National Convention before she withdrew from the race. Chisholm’s candidacy demonstrated that an Affican American woman nent. COMPARING PRIMARY SOURCES In the early years of the women's movement, experts disagreed over the issue of working mothers. Analyzing Viewpoints What assumptions and biases about women and about children are revealed by each author? What reasonable argument does each author use? In Favor of Working Mothers “At the present time, one can say anything—good or Opposed to Working Mothers “To work or not to work? Some mothers have to work to ‘bad—about children of employed mothers and support the statement by some research finding, But there is no definitive evidence that children are less happy, healthy, adjusted, because their mothers work. The studies that. ‘show working women to be happier, better, more mature: mothers do not get much publicity.” —Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 1963. make a living, Usually their children turn out all right, because some reasonably good arrangement is made for their care. But others grow up neglected and malad- justed. . .. It doesn’t make sense to let mothers go to work making dresses in a factory or tapping typewriters in an office, and have them pay other people to do a poorer job of bringing up their children.” —Benjamin Spock, M.D., Baby and Childcare, 1957 (first published in 1946) Chapter 23 + Section. 767could gain support for national office. And she paved the way for Geraldine Ferraro’s selection as the Demo- cratic Party's vice presidential candidate in 1984. Many women did not actively participate in or support the women’s movement. Still, most agreed with NOW’s goal to provide women with better job opportunities. Many were also pleased that the women’s movement brought a greater recognition of issues important to women, These issues included the need for child-care facilities, shelters for homeless women, more attention to women’s health concerns, and increased awareness of sexual harassment Despite many shared concerns, the women’s move- ‘ment continued to be divided regarding some of its goals and strategies. Radical feminists emphasized the need to end male domination, sometimes even rejecting men, marriage, and childbearing. Other women rejected the strong opinions of the radicals, fearing, they would cause a split in the women’s movement ‘These women emphasized that they sought only equality with men, not rejection of them. VIEWING HISTORY Gloria Steinem, above, was one of the founders of Ms. magazine. The first issue is shown at right. Analyzing Visual Information How does the Ms. cover show the many roles women were expected to fil? Roe v. Wade One issue that had the potential to divide the movement was abortion, NOW and other groups worked to reform the laws governing a woman's decision to choose an abortion instead of continuing an unwanted pregnancy. Many states outlawed or seve Women who could afford to travel to another state or out of the country could usually find legal medical services, but poorer women often turned to abortion methods that were not only illegal but unsafe. A landmark social and legal change came in 1973, when the Supreme Court legalized abortion in the controversial Roe v. Wade decision. The justices based their decision on the constitutional right to personal privacy, and struck down state regulation of abortion in the first three months of pregnancy. How- ly restricted access to abortion. ever, the ruling still allowed states to restrict abortions during the later stages of pregnancy. The case was, and remains, highly controver on both sides of the argument. L, with radical thinkers Many women demonstrated in The Equal Rights Amendment Many women also took part in the cam- favor of ratification ofthe ERA paign for a change to the Constitution that would make discrimination based on a person’s scx illegal. In 1972, Congress approved passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution ool ers) Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.99 —Equel Rights Amendment, 1972 To become law, the amendment had to be ratified by 38 states. Thirty states did so quickly. When a few others also rati fied it, approval seemed certain, By 1977, 35 states had ratified the amendment, but opposition forces were gaining strength. The effort to add the ERA to the Constitution limped along until the 1982 deadline for ratification and then died. 768 Chapter 23 + An Era of ActivismOpposition to the Women’s Movement It was a woman, conservative political activist Phyllis Schlafly, who led a national campaign to block ratification of the ERA. She said this about the amendment: 66 it won't do anything to help women, and it will take away from women the rights they already have, such as the right of a wife to be supported by her husband, the right of a woman to be exempted from miltary combat, and the right ... to go to a single-sex college. Phys Sctiaty Women already had legal backing for their rights, Schlafly argued. ERA sup- porters contested Schlafly’s charges about the supposed effects of the ERA, stich as the establishment of coed bathrooms and the end of alimony. > I ments such as Schlafly’s were instrumental in preventing the ERA trom being ratified before the deadline. Schlafly was not alone in her opposition to the ERA and to the women’s movement in general. Many men were also hostile to the feminist movement, which was sometimes scornfiully called “women’s liberation” or “women’s lib.” xr were all women sympathetic to the goals of the women’s movement Some women responded by stressing their desire to remain at home and raise children. They were happy with women’s traditional roles and resented being, everthe- told that they should feel dissatisfied. These women felt that their roles as wives, and particularly as mothers, were being undervalued the women’s move- ment. The result, as these women saw it, was less rather than more respect for women and for the important task of raising the Opposition came from other quarters as well. Some African American women felt that combating racial discrimination was more important than bat tling sex discrimination. In 1974, NOW’s Affican American president, Aileen Hernandez, acknowledged that “Some black sisters are not sure that the femi- nist movement will meet their current needs.” Many working-class women felt removed from the movement, too. They believed they were being encouraged to give up homemaking in order to take up undesirable paid labor Nevertheless, the women’s movement continued to make gains, to change minds, and to expand opportunities for women. In so doing several important strands of reform in the era of activism. ext generation, it became one of Assessment VIEWING HISTORY Phyllis ‘Schlafly spoke out against the ERA. Determining Relevance Do ‘you think the fact that Schlafy was ‘a woman made her a more effective or less effective advocate for her ‘point of view? Expiain your answer. READING COMPREHENSION 1, What is feminism? 2. (a) When was NOW formed? (b) What was its purpose? 3. Who was Shifley Chisholm? 4. Explain the Roe v. Wade decision. 5. (a) What was the ERA? (b) How many states eventually ratified it? CRITICAL THINKING AND WRITING 6. Identifying Assumptions (a) What beliefs led many women to support the women’s movement? (b) What beliefs led others to oppose it? 7. Writing an Opinion Would there have been a successful women’s ‘movement without the example of the civil rights movement? Support your opinion in a paragraph. roi en Activity: Making a Poster Learn more about the battle over ratification of the ERA. Make a poster either for or against ratiti- cation. Use the links provided in the America: Pathways to the Present area of the following Web site for help in completing this activity ‘ww. [Link] Chapter 23 + Sectiona 769770 Recognizing Bias Recognizing bias means being aware of information and ideas that are one-sided or that present only a partial view of a subject. Bias may be stated or unstated. A writer may admit partisanship, or bias, and then support one side of an issue. Unstated bias—when a source presents only one side of an issue while suggesting that it presents the whole pic- ture—is more difficult to detect. The ability to spot bias will help you analyze information and make sound judgments about the reli lity of sources. Bias is often attached to issues that have emotional impact—issues that also inspire strong expressions of different points of view. One such issue was the Equal Rights ‘Amendment (ERA). LEARN THE SKILL Use the following steps to recognize bias: 1. Decide whether or not the source presents only one ide of an issue. Writing from a single viewpoint sig- nals imbalance—and bias. 2, Look for unstated as well as stated bias. Look for clear statements of a position that signal stated bias. Also I00 for indications that a source is pre- senting only one side of the issue while suggesting it covers all sides; that is unstated bies. 3. Determine whether the presentation of the issue Is supported by opinions or verifiable facts. Sometimes what appear to be facts are actually opinions disguised as facts. Remember, you can check the accuracy of facts in other sources 4, Examine the source for hidden assumptions or gen- ‘ralizations that are not supported by facts. Look for sweeping generalizations and for claims that ‘opposing opinions are worthless. PRACTICE THE SKILL ‘Answer the following questions: 4. (a) What is the overall message of each passage? (b) Does either passage present both sides of the issue? Explain. 2. (a) Is the bias in Passage A stated or unstated? Explain. (b) Is the bias in Passage B stated or Unstated? Explain. 3. (a) Which dotails in the passages can be checked for accuracy? (b) Are any opinions presented as though they were facts? Give an example. 4. (a) What hidden assumptions or generalizations do you find in the passages? (b) Which passage Tidicules the opposing point of view? How does it do so? (e) How much would you rely on each pas- ‘sage for information about the ERA? Explain your reasoning. APPLY THE SKILL See the Chapter Review and Assessment for another ‘opportunity to apply this skill Chapter 23 + An Era of Activism “My primary objection to ERA is that it’s a broad, general amendment which is open to interpreta. tion. | think only an absolute foo! would give an open amendment to the Supreme Court in light of what the Court has done in the last twenty- five years. The ERA is a power grab by Washington. States’ rights pertaining to women will go to the national government. We've already given up ower to the feds in other Constitutional amend- ‘ments. Why give up more power?” Opponent of ERA, in The Politics of the Equal Rights Amendment, 1979 “The 14th and 15th amendments, written in 1868 and 1870, said: ‘All persons born or natu: ‘alized in the U.S. are citizens and have the right to vote.’ ‘Susan B. Anthony, considering herself to be a person, registered and voted in 1872, She was arrested, brought to trial, convicted of the crime of voting—because she was a woman, and the word persons mentioned in our Constitution did not mean women. .. . If she were alive todey, Susan B. Anthony might vote, but she would still see 1000 legal discriminations against women upon various state statute books. . .. The solution of the problem of giving women 100 per cent protection of the Constitution . is the adoption of the Equal Rights for Women ‘Amendment which reads: Equality of rights under Jaw shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.” —Proponent of ERA, in Delta Kappa Gamma Magazine, Fall 1969How did Latinos seek equality during the Latino ‘As you read, complete the chart below to 1960s and early 1970s? migrant farm worker _—_deseribe each group's struggle for equality. How did Asian Americans fight discrimi- Set oer nation during this period? oN (stn aod Socomysateneti In what ways did Native Americans con- reece ere Ce acne ee un. | acta. | ‘American Indian SUSTE A. |Al “competteuon fl. Inspired by the civil rights movement, Latinos, _ Movement (AIM) demons | meme | Asian Americans, and Native Americans organ- autonomy ater | | ized to seek equality and to improve their Ives. : : Setting the Scene Inspired by the civil rights and women’s move- ments, other ethnic and racial groups began to fight for equality during the 1960s and 1970s. In May 1970, journalist Rubén Salazar predicted the future of one of these new movements, the Chicano movement in Los Angeles, California. | “We are going to overthrow some of our institutions,” he said. “But in the way | Americans have always done it: through the ballot, through public consensus, That’s a revolution.” Three months later, Salazar was killed in the rioting that broke out after police tried to stop a Chicano anti-Vietnam War demonstration. After his death, Salazar became a martyr to the Chicano movement. His ideals and his death also point to the connection between the Chicano move César ment and other activist causes of the era, such as the antiwar and civil rights | Chévez leads @ United Farm ‘Workers Union march in 1965. Checking Consistency Does this peaceful protest by Latino migrant ‘and | workers correspond to the desorip- movements. In addition, Salazar’s words show how these movements of the 1960s and 1970s fit into the long tradition of American reform—a tradition that is marked by change “through the ballot, through public consensus” occasionally marred by violence. tion ofthe “revolution” described by Rubén Salazar? Explain your answer. People whose family origins are in Spanish-speaking Latin America, or Latinos, come from many different places, but they share the same language and some elements of culture Whether their origins are in Puerto Rico, Cuba, Mexico, or other parts of the Americas, Latinos have often been regarded as outsiders by other Am quently been denied equal opportunities in many impor tant areas, includin jcans. They have fre- mployment, education, and housing, The Latino Population Spanish-speaking people lived in many parts of the present-day United States before English-speaking settlers arrived, and their numbers have grown steadily. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, for example, immigration from Central and e qj South America increased, and between 1970 and 1980, census figures for people “of Spanish origin” rose from 9 million to 14.6 million. Specific groups BD outrageously as possible in bright colors, beads, and flowers was ASP the symbol of the 1960s. The former looked adult and responsi- ble, and was clearly dressed for nine-to-five success, He was the = organization man, and conformed to the culture of his tim ‘The latter, the hippie, rejected the gray flannel suit and the regimented life it represented. The hippie generation favored “flower power” over corporate and military power, and eventually influenced the dominant ture ‘The hippie (seated below) is doing his best not to look like the man of tne fities (at let. In the 1960s, many young people adopted values that ran counter to, or against, the mainstream cul- ture that they saw around them. Members of this counterculture valued youth, spontaneity, and individuality, Also called hippies, these young people promoted peace, love, and freedom. And they experimented with new styles of dress and music, freer attitudes toward sexual relationships, and the recr ional use of drugs. The result was often a “generation gap,” or a lack of understand- ing and communication between the older and younger generations. The so-called youth generation had an enormous influence on American society. First of all, it was the largest generation in American history. The “baby boom” that followed World War II resulted in a huge student population in the 1960s. By sheer numbers, { the baby boomers became a force for change. The music industry rushed to produce the music they liked; clothing designers copied the styles they Chapter 23 « Section3 777introduced; universities changed college courses and rules to accom- modate them. Politicians, too, found that they could not ignore the woice of the baby boom generation. Sixties Style The look of the 1960s was distinctive, frivolous, and fice. But it was also a signal of changing attitudes. The counterculture rejected restrictions and challenged authority. Many young women gave up the structured hairstyles of the 1950s and began wearing their hair long and free. They also chose freer fashions, such as loose-fitting dresses. Men, too, let their hair grow long and wore beards. Their clothing was as different from a gray flannel suit as they could make it—and that was the point. These styles announced a rejection of the corporate world and its uniform. Of course, hippie dress itself became a kind of uniform for the youth generation. ‘Many members of the counterculture identified with the poor and downtrodden around the world and at home. They fought for the civil rights of minority groups in the United States, and sided with those they believed were oppressed abroad. Hippies often adopted the dress of working people, including blue jeans, plain cotton shirts, peasant blouses, and other simple garments. They also sought out apparel of indigenous peoples, such as. po! South America, dashikis from Africa, jewelry made by Native Americans, and other hand- ‘made items. The colorful look of the sixties was not confined to clothing. Hippies painted their cars—and their bodies. And this spirit of fan and irreverence also invaded the art world. ‘The Pop Art of the 1960s, such as paintings by Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein, fea- tured realistic depictions of the artifacts of modern life. Scorned at the time, these satirical paintings of soup cans and comic books now hang in art museums. Another style, Op Art, captured the spirit of the sixties with its fluorescent colors and dizzying optical illusions. Many of the images were—or looked as though they were—created under the influence of psychedelic drugs. Op Art was especially popular for posters and album covers showeasing popular rock groups. chos from, VIEWING HISTORY The Andy Warhol painting (above) and the Op ‘Art poster (at right) show the lnreverance of 1960s artis. ‘Making Comparisons What do the ‘two art works have in common? How are they different? The Sexual Revolution Just as participants in the counterculture demanded more freedom to make personal choices in how they dressed, they also demanded more freedom to choose how they lived. Their new views of sexual conduct, which rejected many traditional restrictions on behavior, were labeled “the sexual revolution.” Some of those who led this revolution argued that sex should be sep: arated from its traditional ties to family life. Many of them also experimented with new living pattems. Some hippies rejected traditional relationships and lived together in communal groups, where they often shared property and chores, Others simply lived together 2s couples, without getting married. Phe sexual revolution in the counterculture led to more open dis assion of sexual subjects in the mainstream media, Newspapers, magazines, and books published articles that might not have been printed just a few years earlier. The 1962 book by Helen Gurley Brown, Sex and the Single Girl, became a bestseller. In 1966, William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson shocked many people 778 Chapter 23 + An Era of Activismwhen they published Human Sexnal Response, a report on their scientific studies of sexuality. The Drug Scene Some members of the 1960s counterculture also turned to psychedelic drugs. These powerful chemicals cause the brain to behave abnormally. Users of psychedelic drugs experience hallucina- tions and other altered perceptions of reality. The beatniks of the 1950s, who were an inspiration to the 1960s counterculture, had experimented with drugs, but the beatniks had been relatively few in number. In the 1960s, the use of drugs, especially marijuana, became much more wide- spread among the nation’s youth One early proponent of psychedelic drug use was researcher ‘Timothy Leary. Leary worked at Harvard University with Richard Alpert on the chemical compound lyse amide, commonly known as LSD. The two men were fired from their research posts in 1963 for involving undergraduates in experiments with the drug. Leary then began to preach that drugs could help free the mind. He advised listeners, “Tune in, turn on, drop out.” Leary’s view presented just one side of the drug scene. On the other le lay serious danger. The possibility of death from an overdose or from an accident while under the influence of drugs was very real. Three leading musicians of the 1960s—Janis Joplin, Jim Morrison, and Jimi Hendrix—died of complications from drug overdoses. And they were not the only ones. Their deaths represented the tragic excesses to which some people were driven by their reliance on drugs to enhance or to ape from reality, The Music World ‘Music both reflected and contributed to the cultural changes of the 1960s. The rock and roll of the 1950s had begun a musical revolution, giving young people a music of their own that scan dalized many adults. The early 1960s saw a new interest in folk music. Members of the counterculture turned to traditional songs that had been passed down fiom generation to genera: tion of “folk,” or ordinary people around the world. They also favored songs of protest against oppression; songs of laborers, such as sailors and railroadmen, and songs that originated under slavery. The ye CULTURE Hair Nothing seemed to provoke adult disapproval of the youth culture as ‘much as their long hair. Young people themselves viewed growing their hair long as a sign of rebellion. African ‘American youth also saw the longer, natural Afro style as a symbol of racial pride, and wore it instead of straight- ening their hair in imitation of conven- tional white hairstyles. Even the Broadway rock musical about the clash between the hippie generation ‘and their elders was called Hair. ‘On the more serious side, many high schools banned “long, shaggy hair” and beards. Some students ‘sued for their right to express them: ‘selves, and the responses of the courts were mixed. In 1967, a federal ‘court upheld the expulsion of a boy for wearing long hair, and the Supreme Court refused to hear the case, But two years later, two other federal courts ruled in favor of long- haired teenagers. Zz nce STUDENTS OF NORWALK BEAUTIFY AMERICA jet a haircut 1964 marked a revolution in rock music that some called the British Invasion. It was the year that the Beatles first toured America. The “Fab Four” had already taken their native England by storm. They became a sensation in the United States as well, not only for their music but also for their irreverent | sense of humor and their “mop top” long hair. The Beatles heavily influenced the music of the period, as did another British group, the Rolling Stones. Mick Jagger of the Stones was a dramatic and electrifying showman. Another exciting performer was Texan Janis Joplin, a hard-drinking singer whose powerful inter pretations of classic blues songs catapulted her to superstardom, Woodstock The diverse strands of the counterculture all came together at the Woodstock Music and Art Fair in August 1969. About 400,000 people gathered for several days in a large pasture in Bethel, New York, to listen to the major bands of the rock world. Despite brutal heat and rain, those who attended the Woodstock festival recalled the event with something of a sense of awe for the fellowship they READING CHECK Describe some influences on American music of the sixties. experienced there. Police avoided confrontations with those Chapter 23 * Section3 779attending by choosing not to enforce drug laws. The crowd remained under control. Tom Law was at Woodstock: 66 The event was so much bigger than the music. It was a phenomenon. it was absolutely a phenome non. And it was aiso the most peaceful, civilized gathering that was probably happening on the planet at the time. —Tom Law Other Americans, however, viewed both the festival and the mood it reflected with disgust. the older generation began growing their hair longer and ating “hipper” clothing, they were alarmed at the changes they saw around them. These changes also dis turbed many in the younger generation, In particular, VIEWING HISTORY This goup | some in the mainstream culture deplored the drugs, sex, and nudity they saw at ide pace ramae canto ike the Woodstock festival and around the country. To them, the counterculture ntrgeousy pated be Drawing | -FePFEsented a rejection of morals and honored values, and seemed a childish Inforoncos How ave they showing’ | reaction to the problems of the era their rejection of traitiona social customs? n as some of Altamont The fears of those who criticized Woodstock came true at another rock festival held at the Altamont Speedway in California in December 1969. There, 300,000 people gathered for a concert by the Rolling Stones, When promoters of the concert failed to provide adequate security, the Stones hired a band of Hell’s Angels, an infamous and lawless motorcycle gang, to keep order. The cyclists ended up beating one man to death when he approached the stage with a gun, This ugly violence contradicted the values preached by the counte1 culture. It also signaled that the era of “peace and love” would not last forever. Despite their celebration of simple lifestyles, most hippies were children of the comfortable middle class. American corporations marketed such items as bell-bottom blue jeans and stereo equipment to them, and they eagerly bought apart, the hippies melted right back into the mainstream, By the 1980s, many baby boomers who had protested the values of 1950s and 1960s mainstream America would hold executive positions in the same corporations they had once denounced. the products. When the counterculturt Assessmen READING CRITICAL THINKING COMPREHENSION AND WRITING ee 1, What was the counterculture? 5. Identifying Assumptions (a) What Activity: Creating an Ad Learn 2. What are Pop Art and Op Art? assumptions about mainstream cut | more about sixtes folk music |_| and ereate an ad fora concert 2. What new attitudes toward sexual eee ce peeonme rola °4 ae ture? (b) Were they fair? Explain. aang aman epee eee activity and drugs were promoted by ers. Use the links provided in eaten 6. Witing a Letter to the Editor iis the America: Pathways to the Present area of the following teenager. Write a letter to the editor | Web site for help in completing either for or against a rule banning | this activity. “hippie dress” at your child’s school. | [Link] 4, How was the Altamont concert ee a Bens pore Cha cifferent from the Woodstock festival? 780 Chapter 23 + An Era of ActiviemWhat efforts were begun inthe 1960s Nuclear Regulatory Copy the diagram below. As you read, fill in to protect the environment? Commission (NRC) the two circles with the goals and accom- How did the government try to balance —_—Environmental plishments of each movement. Place items jobs and environmental protection? Protection Agency that apply to both where the circles overiap. How did the consumer movement begin, _(€PA) cracneonal en ‘and what did it try to accomplish? Clean AirAct Movement Movement Clean Water Act Conditions that came to light in the 1960s as well as the activist mood of the period helped to create movements for preserving the environment and for ensuring the safety of consumer products. Setting the Scene In 1958, a woman in Massachusetts wrote a letter to a fiiend—and set offa revolution, The letter writer was Olga Owens Huckins, and ced Huckins’s neighborhood with DDT 10 control mosquitoes, and the next day she had found dead birds in the friend was Rachel Carson. An airplane had sj her yard. She asked Carson, a biologist, to look into the connection. The result was Silent Spring, the 1962 book that started the environmental movement. Carson begins Silent Spring with “A Fable for Tomorrow.” In the fable, she describes a lovely country town surrounded by farms and wilderness, by beauty and the sounds of wildlife. She continues: Then a strange blight crept over the area and everything began to change. Some evil spell had settled on the community: mysterious ‘maladies swept the flocks of chickens; the cattle and sheep sickened and died. Everywhere was a shadow of death. The farmers spoke of much illness among their families. . .. There was a strange stillness. The birds, for example—where had they gone?. . . [T]here was now no ‘sound; only silence lay over the fields and woods and marsh. . . . No witchcraft, no enemy action had silenced the rebirth of new life in this, stricken world. The people had done it themselves.’ —Rachel Carson in Silent Spring Carson’s fable links wo protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s. Both the environmental movement and the consumer movement demanded honesty and accountability from industry and government. Consumer advocates insisted upon safety for customers and workers. Environmental- ists went further: they called for actions that would preserve and restore the tal activists, carth’s environment and resources. According to environm the very products that people used in an effort to improve th <—to control mosquitoes, for example—were damaging not only as well ir world and their liv the health of the environment but the health of the peopl Like the women’s movement, the environmental movement of the 1960s had roots in the American past. In the late 1890s and early 1900s, Rachel Carson was already recog: nized as a distinguished naturalist ‘when she wrote Silent Spring, Chapter 23 + Section 4 781.Progressives had worked to make public lands and parks Forward available for the enjoyment of the population. New Deal to Today programs of the 1930s included tree-planting projects in an effort to put people back to work—and to conserve forests The Return of the Bald Eagle and farmlands. The modern environmental movement, In 1963, a year after Silent Spring was published, however, would not have started without Rachel Carson. bald eagles were near extinction, with only 447 Rachel Carson Marine biologist Rachel Carson grew breeding pairs in the lower 48 states. They were declared an endangered species in DDT was banned, and a year later the Endangered Species Act was passed. The eagles were put under up wanting to become a writer. Her mother taught her to appreciate nature and encouraged Carson’s growing inter est in zoology. In the 1930s and 1940s, Carson combined 1967. In 1972, the protection of this act in 1978. Efforts to save her talents and began to write about scientific subjects for the bald eagle included bringing young eagles from enteral audiences. In 1951, she published The Sea Around Canada and Alaska and then releasing them in the Us, which was an immediate bestseller and won the continental United States, and breeding eagles in National Book Award. This book, and her next, The Edge captivity and then releasing their offspring into the of the Sea, made her famous as a naturalist. One of Carson’s wild. By 1999, the eagles had made a strong recov- ery; there were more than 5,000 breeding pairs, ‘and the species was removed from the endangered list. Posing with an eagle named Challenger at an Independence Day ceremony, President Bill Clinton said, “It’s hard to think of a better way to cel- ebrate the birth of a nation than to celebrate the rebirth of ‘our national symbol.” What does the return of the bald eagle suggest about saving other endangered species? Explain your answer. READING CHECK What was Rachel Carson's main argument in Silent Spring? main themes was that human beings are part of nature, and that all parts of nature interact. She also believed that people carry a great responsibility for the h because they have the power to change the environment. Silent Spring, her most influential book, warned against the abuse of that power. In Silent Spring, Carson spoke out against the use of chemical pesticides, particularly DDT. She argued that DDT had increased agricultural productivity but killed var: ious other plants and animals along with the insect pests that were its target. She stated: Ith of nature 6 The most alarming of all man’s assaults upon the environment is the contamination of air, earth, rivers, and sea with dangerous and even lethal materials, This pollution is for the most part irrecoverable. . .. in this now universal contamination of the environment, chemicals are the sin- ister and little-recognized partners of radiation in changing the very nature of the world.99 Rachel Carson in Silent Spring As Carson explained, chemicals sprayed on crops enter into living organisms and move from one to another in a chain of poisoning and death. Specifically, in the 1960s, the lingering effects of DDT threatened to destroy many species of birds and fish, including the national symbol, the bald eagle. Silent Spring caused a sensation, The chemical industry fought back vigor- ously, arguing that Carson confused the issues and left readers “unable to sort fact trom fancy.” The public, however, was not persuaded by this attack on Carson. So great was national concern that a special presidential advisory com: mittee was appointed, It called for continued research and warned against the widespread use of pesticides. Eventually DDT was banned in the United States, and other chemicals came under stricter control. (For more on the impact of Silent Spring, see the “Geography and History” feature that follows this section.) It was not only DDT that wortied people. They became more conscious of poisonous fumes in the air, oil spills on beaches, and toxic wastes buried in the ground. In the mid-1960s, President Lyndon Johnson addressed environmen: tal concerns in his plans for the Great Society: 782 Chapter 23 + An Era of Activism4 The water we drink, the food we eat, the very air that we breathe, are threatened with pollution. Our parks are overcrowded, our seashores overburdened. Green fields and dense forests are disappearing. —Ayndon Johnson Johnson promised that environmental legislation would be part of his broader reform program. Nuclear Power During the 1960s, concern about the overuse of nonrenew- able resources, such as oil and gas, encouraged the development of nuclear power plants to generate electricity. Ma people considered nuclear plants to be better than coal-burning plants because they caused less air pollution Nuclear plants, howe reactor into local waterways. This discharge raised water discharged water used to cool the temperatures, killing fish and plant life. As time went on, objections to nuclear power plants began to develop. These objections were also fteled by a growing concern about the possibility of nuclear plant accidents. The fear was that in the event of an accident, radioactivity would be released into the air, causing serious damage—or even death—to all plant and animal fife in the surrounding area. ‘The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRO), created in 1974, tried to address these fears as it oversaw the use of nuclear materials in civilian life. Its chief goal was to ensure that nuclear power plants and facil -s were operated safely Public Response People from all walks of life were becoming alarmed by environmental problems. Biologist Barry Commoner, for example, warned about rapid increases in pollution in his 1971 book The Closing Circle. Meanwhile, the Sierra Club, an organization founded in 1892 to further nature conservation, became active in opposing power projects that the group thought would harm the environment. But it was an environmental catastrophe off the coast of California in 1969 that captured the public’s attention. The result of an oil platform blowout, the Santa Barbara oil spill fouled beaches and killed thousands of birds and other wildlife. President Richard Nixon visited the site, and declared, “The Santa Barbara incident has frankly touched the conscience of the American people.” And the American people were ready to respond, Grassroots environmental movements began springing up around the country. Groups supporting conservation efforts and opposing such actions as the building of dams and nuclear plants gained attention. In 1969, Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin announced plans to hold a national day of dis cussion and teaching about the environment. ‘The following year, on April 22, 1970, Americans celebrated the first Earth Day. Organizers stressed the important role that Americans could play in improving awareness of environ mental issues and in bringing an end to environmental damage. Earth Day would become a yearly observance. Its aim was to heighten concern for the environment, to increase awareness about environmental issues, and to clean up pollution and litter. VIEWING HISTORY Concem about Earth and its resources prompted Earth Day rallies, mass cleanup activities, and protests against nuclear power plants. Expressing Problems Clearly (a) What is the sign carried by the protester really asking people t0 0? (b) According to environmental activists, why Is this action necessary? Chapter 23 + Section 4 783De ee es CL} Legislation Wilderness Act, 1964 Description Designated lands to be maintained and ‘reserved for public enjoyment Rare and Endangered Established protection for rare, endangered, Species Act, 1966 ‘and threatened plants and animals. Environmental Created as an independent federal agency to Protection Agency, 1970 Clean Air Act, 1970 administer the laws that affect the envconment. Instituted a research and development program ‘0 prevent and contro air pollution Clean Water Act, 1972 _Estabshed regulations for preventing urban and industrial water pollution Resource Conservation _Estabshed guidelines for storage and/or Government Actions The efforts of environ- mental activists and the concern of the public at large helped spur the federal government to create a new agency that would set-and enforce national pollution-control standards, In 1970, President Nixon established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) by combining existing federal agen- cies concerned with air and water pollution, One of the EPA’s carly responsibilities was to enforce the Clean Air Act. Passed by Congress in 1970 in response to public concerns about air pollu- tion, the Clean Air Act was designed to control the pollution cau: The EPA forged an agreement with car manufactur ers to install catalytic converters (devices that convert tailpipe pollutants into less dangerous substances) in cars to reduce harmful emissions. In 1972, the EPA gained farther responsibilities d by industries and car emissions. ‘and Recovery Act, 1974 disposal of existing hazardous waste Safe Drinking Water Act, _ Estabished guidelines for safe drinking water. 1974 Toxic Substance Enacted to regulate the commercial Control Act, 1976 manufacture, processing, and distribution of chemical substances. INTERPRETING CHARTS. ‘The government responded to envi- ronmental activism by enacting laws and creating federal agencies. ‘Analyzing Information Which of these laws directly affect human health and safety? ‘READING CHECK How did the government try to balance jobs and environmental protection in Alaska? 784 when Congress enacted the Clean Water Act to regulate the discharge of industrial and municipal wastewater. The act also provided for grants to build better sewage-treatment facilities. As the nation’s watchdog against polluters, the EPA continues to monitor and reduce air and water pollution, It regulates the disposal of solid waste and the use of pesticides and toxic substances. Balancing Jobs and the Environment Efforts to clean up and preserve the environment did not come without a cost. Many industry leaders worried that the new regulations would be confusing to follow and overly costly to businesses. They raised concerns that the increased costs associated with cleaning up the air and water would result in the loss of jobs. Government and industry worked to balance the demands of economic development and environmental protection, The development of oil fields in Alaska provides an example of how the government tried to achieve this balance. Construction began in 1974 on an 800-mile pipeline designed to carry oil across the frozen landscape to ice-free ports in the southern part of Alaska, This development of the oil industry ere- ated new jobs and expanded revenues for the state. At the same time, it brought increased concern over the welfare of the Alaskan wilderness and the rights of native Alaskans, The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 had set aside millions of acres of land for the state’s native groups, to be used partly for cor servation purposes. In 1978, and again in 1980, additional land was added to the state’s protected conservation areas. The Consumer Movement Just as the birth of the environmental movement was credited to Rachel Carson, the consumer movement of the 1960s was also associated with one individual Ralph Nader was this era's most important and visible champion of consumer rights. However, the consum movement, too, had earlier roots. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, for example, had been one carly effort 10 maintain safety standards and protect the public. In the 1960s and early 1970s, though, the cor ment grew far large and stronger and had more far-reaching effects. Chapter 23 * An Era of ActiviemAttorney Ralph Nader spearheaded the new consumer effort. Nader had been a serious activist all his life. While a student at Princeton University in the carly 1950s, Nader protested the spraying of campus trees with DDT. His inter est in automobile safety began while he was attending Harvard Law School. In 1964, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, then Assistant S as a consultant on the issue of automobile safety regulations, The government report Nader wrote developed into a book, Unsafe at Any Speed: The Designed in Dangers of the American Automobile, published the next year. It began: ary of Labor, hired Nader 6¢ For over half a century the automobile has brought death, injury, and the most inestimable sorrow and deprivation to millions of people. « [This mass trauma began rising sharply four years ago reflecting ‘new and unexpected ravages by the motor vehicle. A 1959 Department of Commerce report projected that 51,000 persons would be killed by automobiles in 1975. That figure will probably be reached in 1965, a decade ahead of schedule.? VIEWING HISTORY Ralph —Ralph Nader in Unsafe at Any Speed Nader was a “one-man lobby" for consumer safety. Making Like the muckrakers of the Progressive Era, Nader drew attention to the | Comparisons How were the tactics facts with passionate arguments. He called many ears “coffins on wheels,” | of Falah Nader and is “riders e + | different from those of other pointing to dangers such as a tendency of some models to flip over. The auto- | activists of the 1960s? mobile industry, he charged, knew about these problems but continued to build over one million cars before confronting the safety problems. Nader’s book was a sensation. In 1966, he testified before Congress about automobile hazards. That year, Congress passed the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act. The Washington Post noted, “Most of the credit for making possible this important legislation belongs to one man—Ralph Nader. . .. A one- man lobby for the public prevailed over the nation’s most powerful industry.” Nader broadened his efforts and investigated the meatpacking. business, helping to secure support for the Wholesome Meat Act of 1967. He next looked into problems in other industries. Scores of volunteers, called “Nader's Raiders,” signed on to help. They turned out report after report on the safety of such products as baby food and insecticides, and they inspired consumer activism. As ordinary Americans began to stand up for their rights, consumer protection offices began to respond to their many complaints, Sect Assessment READING CRITICAL THINKING Pyar COMPREHENSION AND WRITING 1, What is Earth Day? 5, Recognizing Cause and Effect ‘Activity: Preparing Testimony 2. When was the Environmental Explain how Rachel Carson's con- |Research the EPA or the NRC. Protection Agency formed and what cer with DDT initiated the environ. | Write out testimony you might is its purpose? ‘mental movement. give in congressional hearings about funding the agency. Use 3. Describe the Clean Air Act and the © Writing an Opinion Do you think the | the jinks provided in the Clean Water Act. United States should rely more on | America: Pathways to the Pre- nuclear power plants? Write a pare- | sent area of the following Web . Explain of Unsafe at Doel erronance, of Unsere a graph that supports your opinion, site for help in completing this Any Speed. activity. [Link] Chapter 23 + Section4 785Chapter Review and Assessment Copy the chart (right) on a piece of paper. Use it to organize information about some of the groups that challenged the status quo in the | creating a CHAPTER SUMMARY | fame ae TN Ag eon Tr) Ethnic ‘Counter Environ. 196Brend 19706 Women |) minorities |] ‘cuture || mentatsts For additional review and enrichment activities, ) : . . . see the interactive version of America: Pathways to the Present, available on the Web and on CD-ROM. & Reviewing Key Terms 20. What were two of the targets of Ralph Nader's For each of the terms below, write a sentence explaining ‘consumer movement? (Section 4) how it relates to the activism of the 1960s and 1970s. \ fe 1. feminism 6. autonomy Critical Thinking ae 5 2 21. Determining Relevance (a) How did the civil ag cus rights movement affect groups as diverse as 3. Latino 8. Woodstock festival women, Native Americans, and environmentalists? 4, migrant farm worker 9. 5. United Farm Workers (UEW) 10. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 9 Reviewing Main Ideas 1A. What were the goals of NOW? (Section 1) 12, Describe the effort to ratify the ERA. (Section 1) 43. What opposition did the women’s movement encounter? (Section 1) 14, What role did César Chavez play in the Chicano struggle for equal rights? (Section 2) 45. What did the JACL accomplish? (Section 2) 16, What were the goals of the American Indian Movement? (Section 2) 17. Describe three new attitudes of the youth culture of the 1960s and 1970s. (Section 3) 18. What happened at the Altamont festival? (Section 3) 19. Describe how Rachel Carson influenced the ronmental movement. (Section 4) 786 Chapter 23 * An Era of Activism 23. 24, (b) Do you think that these groups would have been as successful without the example of the rights activists? Explain your answer. Identifying Central Issues (a) What underlying problem in American society did the women’s movement, the Chicano movement, and the American Indian Movement try to address? (b) What kinds of changes were all three groups fighting for? Making Comparisons What was the attitude of the counterculture toward “the establishment” (institutions such as government and big business) and how did they show it? Compare their attitudes and actions to those of the environmental and consumer movements, Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Balancing the demands of economic development and environmental protection often involves making tradeofis. Choose a current environmental issue or use one that was discussed in the chapter, and. write a paragraph suggesting how to balance those demands.Skills Assessment Analyzing Political Cartoons > 25. Examine the images in the cartoon, What do the ships represent? 26. Who are the people standing on the shore, and what do they represent? 27. Explain the humor in the dialogue, as well as the serious point it is making. Analyzing Primary Sources Dennis Banks restated the goals of the American Indian Movement in a speech marking the group’s second anniversary. Read the following excerpt from his speech, and answer the questions that follow. ‘« The government and churches have demor- alized, dehumanized, massacred, robbed, raped, promised, made treaty after treaty, and lied tous. ... We must now destroy this political machine that man has built to pre- vent us from self-determination.99 —Dennis Banks 28, Which of the following was one of AIM’s goals as expressed by Dennis Banks? A to join the government B to make no changes to Native American lifestyles © to make radical changes in order to gain self determination D to enter into a new treaty with the government 29. How did Banks suggest that AIM achieve its goals? F through peaceful demonstration G by destroying the political machine built by the government and churches H by joining churches J. by ignoring the problem Applying the Chapter Skill: Recognizing Bias 30. Look back at the Skills for Life page. Then choose a ‘quoted passage in this chapter, and use the steps for recognizing bias to evaluate that passage. N\_Writing to LEARN Writing an Explanation During the 1960s an¢ 1970s, César Chavez's United Farm Workers organized successful consumer boycotts of grapes, lettuce, and other produce. Explain how boy- cotts such as these achieve their goals. You may wish to do more reading about the UFW boycotts. Primary Source CD-ROM ‘Working With Primary Sources Find additional infor- mation on the activism of the 1960s and 1970s on the Exploring Primary Sources in U.S. History CD-ROM and use the selection(s) provided to complete the Chapter 23 primary source activity located in the America: Pathways to the Present area of the following Web site. ‘[Link] DD) ote eto no er = Chapter Self-Test As a review activity, take the Chapter 2 Self-Test in the America: Pathways to the Present area at the Web site listed below. The questions are designed to test your understanding of the chapter content. ‘[Link] Chapter 23 Assessment 787The Environmental Movement The publication of Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring in 1962 helped spark an awareness of environmental problems during the 1960s. A growing environmental movement led to the first Earth Day in 1970—which featured demonstrations like the one shown here—to raise public awareness of environmental problems. Environmental Legislation Concerned citizens pressed the federal government to protect the environment. The 1963 Clean Air Act was followed by the tougher Clean Air Acts of 1970 end +1990, which required states to reduce high levels of pollution. in response to air quality concems, car- makers and other industries acted to produce more fuetefficient cars and to reduce harmful emissions. A 1980 law established a rust fund (known as the Superfund) to clean Up hazardous waste sites. Geographic Connection the Image to the left, areas shaded in blue have below-normal ozone levels. Based on this image, what areas suffer from ozone loss? Growing Concerns While they continued to fight pollution in the 1980s and 1990s, scientists also addressed the thinning ozone layer and a growing “ozone hole” lover Antarctica, shown in the remote sensing image on the right. Certain chemicals cause ozone In the atmosphere to break down, exposing, Earth to higher levels of harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. An international accord in 1987 com- mitted the world's nations to reducing gases that harm the ozone layer. Another concer was the accumulation of “greenhouse gases" released by industry and motor vehicles (right), which could raise temperatures globally. 788One State's Example j This map of California shows just a few of that state's environmental achieve ‘ments. The Sacramento and San Joaquin «0 rivers feed canals and aqueducts that \ provide water to California's farms and cities as well as the Sacramento-San Joaquin Deita—a network of wetlands and inland waterways that flow into San Francisco Bay. Environmental organiza- tions and the government have acted to ensure that enough fresh water flows into the delta and bay to protect fish and other species in danger of extinction. Meanwhile, air quality districts covering the state’s largest cities have imposed strict air pollution standards. Sin Fanci Geographic Connection Why might tougher air quality standards be needed in urban PACIFIC ieee ocean pe ge BOG ih 7 on: + a, Geographic Connection Why do environmentalists seek protection of nature preserves and wild areas? Protecting the Mojave Environmental sclentists have worked to protect open space and to preserve wildlife diversity and habitat. in 1994, Congress created the Mojave National Preserve, which protects part of the Mojave Desert from development. Sr platen cont date i Mojave Desert Ecosystem — canal — pavedtet % protctonste” Utah Arizona MEXICO Saving the California Condor When California condors were almost extinct in the wild in the 1980s, scientists began a program to broed young condors in captivity at the Los Angeles Zoo and the San Diego Wild Animal Pars. They have since released these birds in protected areas such as the Sespe Condor Sanctuary. 789