Piston Engine

Introduction

In Aviation there are two types of engine works.

• Reciprocating Engine

• Rotatory Engine

They both are comes under Internal Combustion Engine Category.

Piston Engine can be further classified as Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine.

In Aviation we use 4 stroke Petrol Engine.

Reciprocating Engine (Piston Engine) (Basic Part Familiarization)

Cylinder: It Provides a chamber for piston displacement intake &

combustion of charge(Fuel/Air Mixture) ,Intake and Exhaust valve
installation ports and Colling fins.

Piston: It acts like a moving wall inside the cylinder and displaces and compress
the fuel/air mixture. It is also a part which feels engine generated power first.

Connecting Rod: It connects Piston with Crank-shaft.

Crank Shaft: It converts reciprocating motion into

Rotatory motion
 Camshaft: It links with crankshaft and allows to
open/close the correct valve with respect to Piston
moment.

Cam Shaft Speed = half of crankshaft speed

Cam Shaft Gear = Double the crankshaft Gear.

Inlet/Outlet Valves: Its use as a door for charge. Intake valve open means to
allow fresh fuel/air mixture come inside the cylinder and Exhaust valve open
means burn gasses needs to spell out from the cylinder.

Spark Plug: It use for burning of Fuel Air Mixture during Power
stroke

How Does a 4 stroke Piston Engine Works?

Intake Stroke:

This is the first stroke for any 4 stroke petrol Engine. In this is stroke fresh fuel/air mixture goes inside the
engine. This time the movement of the piston is from TDC to BDC. During this stroke Intake valve remains
open and exhaust valve closed.
Compression Stroke:

This is the Second Stroke for any 4 stroke petrol Engine. In this is stroke fresh fuel/air mixture get compresses
by the piston, inside the engine. This time the movement of the piston is from BDC to TDC. During this stroke
both Intake and exhaust valves are closed.

Power Stroke

During Compression stroke when piston is about to reach at TDC just few degree before spark plug produces
the fire and the fresh and compress fuel air mixture gets burn.

At this time the burn gases expends and it push the piston towards down side (TDC to BDC). As here the work
was done by gases hence it is known as power stroke. At this moment the exhaust valve start to open.
Exhaust Stroke

At this time the exhaust valve is completely open and the piston starts to move from BDC to TDC. Hence it
spells out all the burn gases away from the cylinder.

Valve Lead is when the valve opens before the theoretical opening time. (Inlet valve opens before T.D.C.,
exhaust valve opens before B.D.C.).

Valve Lag is when the valve remains open after the theoretical closing time. (Inlet valve remains opens after
B.D.C., exhaust valve remains open after T.D.C.).

Valve Overlap is a period when both valves are partially open together. It is good for Engine
breathing/scavenging.

Type of Piston Engine as per Engine LayOut

Indicated Horse Power :-

The Indicated horse power produce by an engine is the horsepower calculated from indicated mean effective
pressure and the other factor which affect the power output of the engine.

Indicated horse power is the actual power developed in the combustion chamber without reference to
friction losses within the engine.”

Indicated horsepower = PLANK/33000

Where P = Indicated mean effective pressure

L = Length of the stroke in ft.

A = Area of the piston head or cross sectional area of the cylinder, in sq. inch

N = Number of power stroke per minute, r.p.m / 2

K = Number of cylinder

Brake HorsePower :-

The Indicated horsepower is the theoretical power of the frictionless engine.

The total horsepower lost in overcoming friction must be subtracted from the indicated horsepower to arrive
at the actual horsepower delivered to the propeller for useful work is known as Brake Horsepower ([Link]).

The difference between indicated horsepower and break horsepower is known as Friction Horsepower.

Friction Horsepower:-

Friction horsepower is the indicated horsepower minus brake horsepower. It is the horsepower used by an
engine in overcoming the friction of moving parts, drawing in fuel, expelling exhaust, driving oil and fuel
pumps, and the like. On modern air- craft engines, this power loss through friction may be as high as 10 to
15% of the indicated horsepower.

Thermal Efficiency

This is the ratio of the Useful work done by engine to the heat energy of the fuel it uses, expresses in work or
heat.

The thermal efficiency of an engine may be based on either [Link] or [Link] and is represented by the formula.

Mechanical Efficiency

Mechanical efficiency is the ratio that shows how much of the power developed by the expending gases in the
cylinder is actually delivered to the output shaft.
It is comparison between the [Link] and [Link]. It can be expressed by the formula ;

The factor that has greatest effect on mechanical efficiency is the friction within the engine itself.

Therefore, the mechanical efficiency of an engine will be highest when engine is running at the r.p.m at which
maximum [Link] developed.

Volumetric Efficiency

The Volumetric efficiency is a ratio between Volume of fuel/air charge inducted into cylinder to the total
piston displacement.

“ If the engine draws in volume of charge of this density exactly equal to its piston displacement, it is said to
be operating at 100% Volumetric Efficiency.”

“ An engine equipped with a high speed internal or external blower may have volumetric efficiency more than
100%”

Volumetric Efficiency……

Many factor decreases volumetric efficiency; some of these are ..

1. Part throttle operation.

2. long intake pipes of small diameter.

3. Sharp bends in the induction system

4. Carburetor air temperature too high

5. Cylinder Head Temperature too high

6. Improper valve timing

7. Incomplete Scavanging
Work: -

As per physics we know that “ The work is force time distance”. Work done by a force acting on a body is equal
to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the distance through which the force acts.

Work (W) = Force (F) X Distance (D)

Horsepower: -

The common unit of the engine power is Horse Power (hp).

To calculate the horse power rating of the engine, divide the power developed in ft-lb per minute by 33,000 or
ft-lb per second by 550.

Piston Displacement: -

When other factor remain equal, the greater the piston displacement the greater the maximum horsepower
an engine will be capable of developing.

When piston moves from BDC to TDC. It displaces a specific volume.

“ The volume displaced by the piston is known as piston displacement and is expressed in cubic inches for
most American made engines and cubic centimeters (CC) for other.”

The piston displacement of one cylinder may be obtain by multiplying the area of cross section of the cylinder
by the total distance the piston moves in the cylinder in one stroke.

V=AXH

V= volume

A = Area of the piston base

H = Altitude
Compression Ratio

The Compression ratio of an engine is a compression of the volume of space in a cylinder when the piston is
at bottom of the stroke to the volume of the space when the piston is at top of
the stroke.

Types of Connecting Rod

Plain Type Connecting Rod: This type connecting road use in Inline and Horizontal
Opposed Type Engine.

Fork and Blade type Connecting Rod This type connecting road V Type Engine
Master and Articulated type Connecting Rod This type connecting road Radial Type Engine

Cylinder Numbering
Occasionally it necessary to refer to the left and right of the engine or to a particular cylinder.
Therefore it is necessary to know the engine direction and how cylinders of the engine are
numbered.
The propeller end of the engine is always refer the front end and the accessory end is the
rear end.
• Single row Radial engine cylinders are numbered clockwise as viewed from accessary
end.
• Double Row, all odd-numbered cylinders are in the rear and all even numbered
cylinders are in front.
• The numbering of opposed engine cylinder is by no means standard.
• Some manufacturers number their cylinder from the rear and other from the front of
engine.
• Always refer to the appropriate engine manual to determine the correct numbering
system used by the manufacture.
Firing Order
The Sequence in which the power event occurs in the different cylinders is called Firing
Order. Designed to provide for balance and to eliminate vibration.
Firing order in Single row radial engine.
• Odd first Even Later….
• For 9 Cylinder single row radial engine. 1-3-5-7-9-2-4-6-8
Firing Order in Double row Radial Engine
An easy way to calculate for 14 cylinder double row radial engine
Add 9 and subtract 5
for 18 Cylinder Engine
Add 11 and Subtract 7

Firing Order in Horizontal opposed/Inline Engine

• The Information always provided by the manufacture.
• For Lycoming Engine
• 4 Cylinder 1-3-2-4
• 6 Cylinder 1-4-5-2-3-6
• For Continental Engine
• 4 Cylinder 1-4-2-3
• 6 Cylinder 1-6-3-2-5-4

Strokes and Events of 4 stroke Piston Engine

The Crankshaft angle between TDC and BDC is 1800 . The Piston engine operation is as per Otto Cycle.

It is an Adiabatic Process (Temperature remains constant)

The valve timing for a particular engine is fixed, and does not vary with engine speed.

Control of power in piston engine is achieved by varying the quantity of air which enters the cylinder . this in
turn will very the pressure rise during combustion. The pilot controls a valve, The Throttle to vary the quantity
of air.

The area within the power column represents work done on the piston during the power
stroke and the blue areas represent work done by the piston in compressing the charge and
exhausting the cylinder against back pressure. This results in an average reading of pressure
on the piston during the working cycle being available which is termed the Indicated Mean
Effective Pressure (I.M.E.P.)
The pilot is not given a display in the cockpit of the IMEP but can be displayed manifold
pressure which is representative of cylinder pressure. This is displayed on the manifold
pressure gauge.
Opening the throttle increases manifold pressure and closing the throttle will reduce it. The
Manifold Absolute Pressure gauge (MAP) is normally calibrated to read in inches of mercury.

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (SFC)

The weight of fuel burnt, in lbs, for the power produced BHPin unit time (Hours) is called the
Specific Fuel Consumption.
Engine designers strive to get as much power as possible from the engine, for the minimum
weight of fuel burnt. During operation a reduction in power for the same weight of fuel burnt,
is defined as an Increase in Specific Fuel Consumption, and a reduction in fuel burnt for
the same, or more power a Decrease in Specific Fuel Consumption.
NOTE
SFC is affected by engine design and Pilot Operation of the engine. Since the pilot has no
control over design, correct operation of the engine is essential if performance Figures are to
be attained.

The Compression Ratio

Total Volume is the volume above the piston when the piston is at B.D.C.
Swept Volume is the volume displaced by the piston during a single stroke.

Swept volume =cross sectional area of the cylinder x the stroke.

Clearance Volume is the volume above the piston crown when the piston is at T.D.C., this
form the combustion chamber.
Total Volume = Swept Volume + Clearance Volume

EXAMPLE. If the swept volume is equal to 1300 cc, and the clearance volume is equal to
200 cc the compression ratio would be equal to: -

THE CRANKCASE
The Crankcase is usually made of two halves and joined by seal and cross stud bolt pattern.
it houses the main bearings for the crankshaft, supports the cylinders and provides
mounting faces and spigots for the attachment of the other main engine casings.
Generally made of light alloy, it forms a sealed chamber for the lubricating oil, and is
provided with the means of attaching the engine to its mounting frame in the aircraft.
A vent to atmosphere is normally provided in order that gas pressure build-up in the
crankcase is avoided.
CRANKSHAFT (CRANKED-SHAFT)
The crankshaft converts the reciprocating or linear motion of the pistons into rotary motion,
and transmits torque to the propeller, and provides the drive for accessories.. The offset
Crank Throw also determines the piston stroke.

The Journals, the main part of the shaft, are supported by the main bearings in the
crankcase. The Piston are attached by the Connecting Rods to the Crank-pin
The crankshaft often has as many crank throws as there are pistons. Oil-ways are drilled
through the shaft to transfer the lubricating oil onto the bearing surfaces.
Plain Bearings are used to enable the high reciprocating loads to be carried.
The Piston
Generally made of aluminum alloy, the piston forms a sliding plug in the cylinder and
transmits the force of the expanding gases via the connecting rod to the crankshaft.
Bosses are formed to house the Piston Pin (Gudgeon Pin) which fastens the piston to the
Small End of the connecting rod.
Circumferential grooves are machined in the piston to accommodate Piston Rings which
provide the means of preventing pressure leakage past the piston in one direction and oil
leakage in the other.
The Compression Rings prevent gas leakage into the crankcase. They are fitted into grooves
cut into the upper portion of the piston.
The Scraper Rings or Oil Control Rings prevent excess oil passing into the combustion
chamber and spread the oil evenly around the cylinder bore. They are designed so that the
bearing face is reduced in area and the bearing pressure consequently increased.
The rings are generally made of a special grade of cast iron; the rings are sprung against the
cylinder walls. Cast iron has the ability to retain its elasticity when heated.

Cylinder
This is the most Important part of Piston engine. It provides space for Piston movement,
Intake and exhaust valves port, sparkplug bussing and cooling fins for cooling purpose.
 Main Parts of Cylinder
Cylinder is a combination of cylinder head and cylinder barrel.
They are made by two different materials and then joint by Shrunk-fit method

Cylinder Barrel or Block

Made of alloy steel (Chrome-molybdenum or nickel-Molybdenum), the Cylinder resists the

pressure of combustion and provides a working surface for the piston. The cylinders are
usually secured to the crankcase by studs and nuts. One end of the cylinder is sealed by the
Cylinder Head, the movable piston sealing the other end.

About 30% of the heat generated during combustion is transferred to the cylinders. To
cool the cylinder there are two cooling methods used. Liquid Cooling has jacket around the
cylinders to allow for the flow of a liquid around them and carry the heat away. Air-Cooled
engines, have fins machined onto the cylinder to increase the surface area in contact with
air, which is used to dissipate the heat.

THE CYLINDER HEAD

The cylinder head is generally made of aluminium alloy to improve heat dissipation. It seals
one end of the cylinder to provide a combustion chamber for the mixture. The cylinder head
accommodates the Valves, Valve Guides and Sparking Plugs, and supports the valve Rocker
Arms. Valve Seats are cut into the cylinder head, which form gas tight seals with the valves.
The cylinder head may be detachable but more commonly it is screwed and shrunk onto the
cylinder.
Valve Guide - guides the valve in a straight path and keeps the valve concentric to its seat.
Usually the valve guide is pressed into the cylinder head.

Valve Seat - ground to form a gas tight seal with the face of the valve, cut at various angles
(30°or 45°).
 Valves - inlet and exhaust valves open and close the passages for the induction and
scavenging of the gases. The face of the valve is accurately machined to the same angle as
the valve seat.
The valve and seat are then lapped until a full contact is obtained. Exhaust valve stems are
sometimes hollow and partly filled with sodium to assist in cooling. They may be flat,
trumpet or mushroom shape.
Valve Springs - made of special spring steel, to ensure that the valves remain closed except
when operated by the cams. The springs are of the helical coil type, the usual practice being
for two springs to be fitted to each valve, one inside the other.
This provides a Safety Factor and helps to eliminate Valve Bounce. The springs are held
compressed between the cylinder head and the valve spring cap, the latter being located on
the valve stem by split collets.
VALVE OPERATING MECHANISM

The valve operating gear consists of a Camshaft (or camshafts) driven from the crankshaft
at Half Crankshaft Speed regardless of how many cylinders there are, or how they are
arranged.
The camshaft is designed so as to have one Cam Lobe to control the opening of each valve.
The camshaft is driven at half crankshaft speed because each valve is only required to open
and close once per working cycle, that is to say, once every two revolutions of the
crankshaft.

VALVE CLEARANCE
This is a small gap measured between the Rocker Pad; and the Valve Tip.
The valves are continuously heated by combustion and expand at a greater rate than the rest
of the operating mechanism. As the engine heats up, the small gap, or valve clearance
allows the valve to expand at its own rate.
The valve clearance becomes smaller but the valve still remains shut. The valve clearance is
measured between the rocker pad and the valve tip by feeler gauges and there is provision
made on the rocker arm for the clearance to be adjusted.
Excessive valve clearance will cause the valve to open late and close early. Too little
clearance will have the opposite effect of causing the valves to open early and close late and
may even prevent the valves closing at all, thereby producing an event called Popping back
into the Carburetor. The same effect can be caused by an inlet valve which is sticking in its
guide.
Some designs of engine use Hydraulic Tappets. These are self adjusting and operate with
no clearance and thus there is no tappet noise.

Lubrication System

FUNCTION OF THE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

The Primary function of the Lubrication system is to reduce friction and wear of the moving
parts.
It has also secondary functions as Cooling and cleaning.
The flow of oil through the engine helps to dissipate the heat away from the internal
components of the engine.
As the oil flows through the engine it also carries away the by-products of the combustion
process and ‘Cleans’ the engine.
The internal metal components are protecte against ‘Corrosion’ by the oil, which also acts a
‘Hydraulic Medium’ reducing the shock loads between crankshaft and bearing and so
reducing vibration. The oil can provide the power source for the operation of a hydraulic
variable pitch propeller.
The oil system can be used to give an indication of the power being developed by the engine,
and its condition. The oil system’s use as an ‘Indicating Medium’ is of great importance to the
pilot as it can give an early warning of mechanical failure or loss of power.

The ‘Reduction in Friction and Wear’ by the lubricant is of prime importance, but the
secondary functions of ‘Cooling, Cleaning, Protection, Hydraulic and Indicating
Mediums’ should not be ignored.

Requirements & Characteristics Of Lubricants

Viscosity It is the most important characteristics of an Oil/Lubricant. It is the friction force
between two layers of liquid which always resist to flow.
That means high viscosity difficult to flow and low viscosity easy to flow.
Viscosity depends on temperature and density.
Viscosity is inversely proportion to temperature and directly proportional to Density.

Flash Point: is the temperature at which a liquid will begin to give off ignitable vapors.
Fire Point: is the temperature at which there are sufficient vapors to support a flame.
Cloud Point: is the temperature at which its wax content, normally held in solution, begins
to solidify and separate in to tiny crystals.
Specific Gravity: is a comparison of the weight of the substance to the weight of an equal
volume of distilled water.
Aviation oils are classified numerically according to an approximation of their viscosity.
Classified under an SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) system.
SAE divides all oils into seven groups according to viscosity at either 130° or 210° F.
SAE 10 to 70 (SAE 20W)
“W” indicates that the oil is satisfactory oil for winter use in cold climates.
• Generally. commercial aviation oils are classified numerically, such as 80, 100, 140.
etc., which are an approximation of their viscosity as measured by a testing
instrument called the Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter.
• In this instrument a tube holds a specific quantity of the oil to be tested. The oil is
brought to an exact temperature by a liquid bath surrounding the tube. The time in
 seconds required for exactly 60 cubic centimeters of oil to flow through an accurately
calibrated orifice is recorded as a measure of the oil's viscosity.

The Sump
The Sump is a casing attached to the base of the crankcase, it collects the lubricating oil
after it has passed through the engine.
With some lubricating system the sump also acts the oil reservoir and all the oil is contained
within it. A filter is housed in the sump to trap any debris in this oil, so preventing damage to
the pumps.
THE WET AND DRY SUMP LUBRICATING SYSTEMS.
There are two lubrication systems in common use, these are the ‘Wet Sump’ and ‘Dry
Sump’ systems. The system used is normally dependant on the power output of the engine,
and role of the aircraft. The principle of lubrication of the engine is the same whichever
system is used, the principle difference between the two systems being the method used to
store the supply of oil.
Most light, non-aerobatic aircraft engines use the ‘Wet Sump’ system. In this system the oil
is stored in the bottom or sump of the engine. This simplifies construction but has number of
disadvantages:
• Lubrication difficulties arise during manoeuvres. The oil enters the crankcase, is flung
around by the revolving shafts with possible over-oiling of the engine, inverted flight
being particularly hazardous.
• The temperature of the oil is more difficult to control as it is stored within the hot
engine casing.
• The oil becomes contaminated and oxidizes more easily because of the continual
contact of the oil with hot engine.
• The oil supply is limited by the sump capacity.
DRY SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEM
As previously stated the principle of oil supply is the same for both systems. A ‘Pressure
Pump’ circulates the oil through the engine, and so lubricates the moving parts. In a dry
sump system, ‘Scavenge Pumps’ then return the oil to the tank to prevent the engine sumps
flooding.
The principal units in a typical reciprocating engine oil system includes an ‘Oil Tank’ (dry
sump), ‘Oil Filters’, ‘Pressure’ and ‘Scavenge Pumps’, ‘Oil Cooler’ (radiator), an ‘Oil
Pressure’ and ‘Temperature Gauge’, plus the necessary interconnecting oil lines, which are
all shown in given figure. This shows a dry sump system, for a wet sump system the oil tank
is not used.
THE OIL TANK
Oil tanks are made of sheet metal, suitably baffled and strengthened internally to prevent
damage due to the oil surging during maneuvers.
The tank is placed wherever possible at a higher level than the engine to give a gravity feed to
the pressure pump, and forms a reservoir of oil large enough for the engine’s requirements,
plus an air space. The air space allows for:-
• The expansion of the oil, and therefore it's greater volume as the oil absorbs heat from
the bearings
• The displacement of oil from the variable pitch propeller and other automatic
controlling devices.
THE SUCTION FILTER
A coarse wire mesh filter is fitted between the tank and pressure pump. It is designed to
remove large solid particles from the oil before it enters the pressure pump and so prevent
damage.
THE PRESSURE PUMP
The pump consists of two deep toothed spur gears rotating in a close fitting pump casing
and driven via the accessory housing. Oil is carried either side of the casing in the space
between the
gear teeth, and is made to flow. The outlet side of the pump is enclosed and restriction to
flow is given from the engine components to be lubricated. This gives a rise in system
pressure.
The actual oil pressure obtained will depend on the ‘Speed of the Pump’, the ‘Temperature
of the Oil’ and the ‘Resistance offered by the Components’.

Very high pressures are prevented by a ‘Pressure Relief Valve’ ( P.R.V.) across the inlet and
outlet connections which limits maximum pressure in the system. When the pressure
reaches a predetermined Figure, the valve opens and sufficient oil is returned to the inlet
side of the pump to limit the maximum oil pressure.
THE CHECK VALVE
(Non Return Valves, or One-Way Valves)
The oil tank may be at a higher level than the pressure pump to provide a gravity feed. When
the engine is stopped and the oil is hot and thin, there is sufficient pressure from the gravity
feed to force the oil through the clearances in the pressure pump so that the oil tank would
drain into the crankcase and the engine would be flooded with oil. This feature of Dry-Sump
operation is sometimes referred to as ‘Over-Oiling’. To prevent this a check valve is fitted.
This consists of either an lightly sprung loaded valve, or electrically-operated S.O.V. which
will hold back the oil until the engine is started.
THE PRESSURE FILTER
The pressure filter is fitted down stream of the pressure pump before the oil enters the
engine and is designed to remove very small solid particles before the oil passes to the
bearing surfaces. A spring loaded relief valve is fitted to by-pass the filter element when the
oil is cold, or if the element becomes blocked. It will also protect the engine if the pressure
pump breaks up.
THE SCAVENGE PUMP
The ‘Scavenge Pump’ returns the oil by pumping it from the sump back to the tank. When
the engine is stopped the oil in the crankcase will drain into the sump. As the engine is
started there will be a quantity of oil, which, if the pumps were the same size, would not be
removed.
In practice the scavenge pump capacity is 25% - 50% larger than that of the pressure pump.
OIL COOLER
The use of oil for cooling the internal components of the engine has already been
emphasised. If the oil itself gets too hot, it could fail as a lubricant. To prevent its
temperature rising too high a cooler is introduced in to the system.
When starting the engine from cold, the cooler matrix will be full of cold thick oil, and to
force the oil through the small oilways of the cooler would require a very high pressure. To
prevent damage the cooler a ‘Anti surge Valve’ is fitted to by-pass the matrix when the oil is
cold.
The temperature of the oil is effected by the three factors:
• The amount of heat generated in the engine (Power)
• The temperature of the cooling air
• The rate at which air flows through the cooler
 Lubricating oil for the engine is stored in the sump, which is attached to the lower side of
the engine. Oil is drawn from the sump through the suction oiI screen, which is
positioned in the bottom of the sump. After passing through the gear-type oil pump, the
oil is directed through the oil filter screen and along an internal gallery to the forward part
of the engine where the oiI cooler is located.
A bypass check valve is placed in the bypass line around the filter screen to provide for oil
flow in case the screen becomes clogged.
A nonadjustable pressure relief valve permits excess pressure to return to the inlet side of
the pump.
Oil temperature is controlled by a thermally operated valve which either causes the oil to
bypass the externally mounted cooler or routes it through the cooler passages.
Drilled and cored passages cany oil from the oil cooler to all parts of the engine requiring
lubrication. Oil from the system is also routed through the propeller governor to the
crankshaft and to the propeller for control of pitch and engine rpm.
The oiI temperature bulb is located at a point in the system where it senses oil
temperature after the oil has passed
through the cooler. Thus. the temperature gage indicates the temperature or the oil
before it passes through the hot sections or the engine.

Fuel System
TYPES OF FUEL
The preferred fuel currently used in aircraft piston engines is derived from mineral oil. The
fuel is a blend of Hydrogen & Carbon. Jet and diesel fuels are also derived from the oil. The
differing types of fuel are produced by a process called cracking. Aircraft piston engines use
a Gasoline fuel known as Avgas.
Equipment used for the dispensing of Avgas is colour coded Red to prevent cross
contamination with other fuels.
MANUFACTURING SPECIFICATIONS AND GRADES.
So that aviation gasoline will fulfill these requirements, it is manufactured to conform with
exacting ‘specifications’ that are issued by the Directorate of Engine Research and
Development (D.E.R.D.). The specification number for gasoline is D.E.R.D. 2485.
Fuel ‘grades’ lie within a specification and therefore carry a blanket D.E.R.D. number
followed by a grade not pre-fixed by the D.E.R.D. notification.
The most popular grades of AVGAS readily available today are:

Note;- although AVGAS 100 and AVGAS 100LL have the same 100 / 130 performance No.
they are however easily distinguished by their colour.
Some Aviation Authorities do allow the use of car petrol for some aircraft. This is generally
referred to as MOGAS (motor gasoline).

CALORIFIC VALUE
The Calorific Value of a fuel is a measure of the amount of heat that will be released during
combustion, and is measured in British Thermal Units (B.T.U.) per pound.
This varies with the chemical composition of the fuel, those with a high hydrogen content
being superior. The calorific value is related to specific gravity.
The higher the specific gravity the higher the calorific value.
Fuel System Requirements
1. The fuel system must supply fuel to carburetor or other metering device under all
condition of ground and air operation.
2. It must function properly at constantly changing altitude and in any climate.
3. The system should be free of tendency to vapor lock, which can result from changes
in ground and in-flight climatic conditions.

Vapor Lock
Normally the fuel remains in a liquid state until it is discharged into airstream and then
instantly changes to a vapor.
Under certain in the condition, however, the fuel may vaporize in the lines, pump and other
units.
“ The vapor pockets formed by this premature vaporization restrict the fuel flow through
units which are designed to handle liquids rather than gases. The resulting partial or
complete interruption of the fuel flow is called vapor lock.”
Causes for Vapor Lock:
1. Low fuel pressure
2. High Fuel Temperature
3. Excessive Fuel Turbulence.

Low Fuel Pressure

At high altitudes, the pressure on the fuel in the tank is low. This lowers the boiling point of
the fuel and causes vapor bubbles to form. This vapor trapped in the fuel may cause vapor
lock in the fuel system.
High Fuel Temperature
Transfer of heat from the engine tends to cause boiling of the fuel in the lines and the pump.
This tendency is increased if the fuel in the tank is warm. High fuel temperatures often
combine with low pressure to increase vapor formation. This is most apt to occur during a
rapid climb on a hot day. As the aircraft climbs, the outside temperature drops, but the fuel
does not lose temperature rapidly. If the fuel is warm enough at takeoff, it retains enough
heat to boil easily at high altitude.
Excessive Fuel Turbulence.
The chief causes of fuel turbulence are sloshing of the fuel in the tanks, the mechanical
action of the engine-driven pump, and sharp bends or rises in the fuel lines. Sloshing in the
tank tends to mix air with the fuel. As this mixture passes through the lines, the trapped air
separates from the fuel and forms vapor pockets at any point where there are abrupt
changes in direction or steep rises. Turbulence in the fuel pump often combines with the low
pressure at the pump inlet to form a vapor lock at this point.

Other Important Points

• Vapor lock can become serious enough to block the fuel flow completely and stop the
engine.
• To reduce the possibility of vapor lock, fuel lines are kept away from sources of heat;
also, sharp bends and steep rises are avoided.
 • The major improvement in reducing vapor lock, how- ever, is the incorporation of
booster pumps in the fuel system. These pumps keep the fuel in the lines to the
engine-driven pamp under pressure.
• To prevent the small amount of vapor which remains in the fuel from upsetting its
metering action, vapor eliminators are installed in some fuel systems ahead of the
metering device or are built into this unit.
Carburetor
Carburetor works on venturi Principle.
“ As the velocity of a gas or liquid increases, the pressure decreases. “
The carburetor must measure the airflow through the induction system and use this
measurement to regulate the amount of fuel discharged into the airstream.
As the air speeds up to get through the narrow portion, its pressure drops.
This pressure drop is proportional to the velocity and is, therefore, a measure of the
airflow. The basic operating principle of most carburetors depends on the differential
pressure between the inlet and the venturi throat.

Carburetor System
To provide for engine operation under various loads and at different engine speeds, each
carburetor has six systems:
1. Main metering
2. Idling
3. Accelerating
4. Mixture Control
5. Idle Cut off
6. Power enrichment or economizer
 Idle Cutoff System
The carburetor has an idle cutoff system so that the fuel can be shut off to stop the engine.
This system stops the fuel discharge from the carburetor completely when the mixture
control lever is set to “Idle cutoff” position.
***** Idle cutoff system incorporated with Manual mixture Control system. ******
Power enrichment or economizer System
The power enrichment system automatically increases the richness of the mixture during
high- power operation.
At cruising speeds a lean mixture is desirable for economy reasons, while at high-power
output the mixture must be rich to obtain maximum power and to aid in cooling the engine.
The power enrichment system automatically brings about the necessary change in the
fuel/air ratio.
It is a valve which is closed at cruising speeds and opens to supply extra fuel to the mixture
during high- power operation. Although it increases the fuel flow at high power, the power
enrichment system is actually a fuel saving device.

Carburetor Icing
There are three general classifications of carburetor icing that are common for all aircraft:
1. Fuel Evaporation Ice
2. Throttle Ice
3. Impact Ice.
Fuel Evaporation Ice:
Fuel evaporation ice or refrigeration ice is formed because of the decrease in air temperature
resulting from the evaporation of fuel after it is introduced into the airstream. It frequently
occurs in those systems where the fuel is injected into the air upstream from the carburetor
throttle, as in the case of float-type carburetors. It occurs less frequently in the systems in
which the fuel is injected into the air downstream from the carburetor.

Throttle Ice:
Throttle ice is formed on the rear side of the throttle, usually when the throttle is in a partially
"closed" position. The rush of air across and around the throttle valve causes a low pressure
on the rear side; this sets up a pressure differential across the throttle, which has a cooling
effect on the fuel/air charge. Moisture freezes in this low-pressure area and collects as ice on
the low-pressure side. Throttle ice tends to accumulate in a restricted passage. The
occurrence of a small amount of ice may cause a relatively large reduction in airflow and
manifold pressure.

Impact Ice:
Impact ice is formed either from water present in the atmosphere as snow or sub-cooled
liquid water, or from liquid water which impinges on surfaces that are at temperatures below
30 degree F. Because of inertia effects, impact ice collects on or near a surface that changes
the direction of the airflow. This type of ice may build up on the carburetor elbow, as well as
the carburetor screen and metering elements. The most dangerous impact ice is that which
collects on the carburetor screen and causes a very rapid throttling of airflow and power. In
general, danger from impact ice exists only when ice forms on the leading edges of the
aircraft structure.

Float – Type Carburetor

Float Type Carburetor Parts

The essential parts of float type carburetor are given as below:
1. The float mechanism and its chamber
2. The main metering system
3. The Idling System
4. The mixture control system
5. The acceleration system
 6. The economizer system

Float Mechanism:
A float chamber is provided between the fuel supply and the metering system of the
carburetor. The float chamber provides a nearly constant level of fuel to the main discharge
nozzle. This level is usually about 1/8 in. below the holes in the main discharge nozzle. The
fuel level must be maintained slightly below the discharge nozzle outlet holes to provide the
correct amount of fuel flow and to prevent fuel leakage from the nozzle when the engine is
not operating.
The level of fuel in the float chamber is kept nearly constant by means of a float-operated
needle valve and a seat. The needle seat is usually made of bronze.
“With no fuel in the float chamber, the float drops toward the bottom of the chamber and
allows the needle valve to open wide. As fuel is admitted from the supply line, the float rises
and closes the valve when the fuel reaches a predetermined level. When the engine is
running and fuel is being drawn out of the float chamber, the valve assumes an intermediate
position so that the valve opening is just sufficient to supply the required amount of fuel and
keep the level constant. “

Main metering System:

The main metering system supplies fuel to the engine at all speeds above idling and consists
of:
1. A venturi
2. A Main metering Jet
3. A Main Discharge Nozzle
4. A Passage Leading to idling system
5. The Throttle Valve
Since the throttle valve controls the mass airflow through the carburetor venturi it must be
considered a major unit in the main metering system as well as in other carburetor systems.
A typical main metering system is illustrated in below figure.
The Venturi performs three functions:
• Proportion the fuel/air mixture
 • Decreases the pressure at the discharge nozzle.
• Limit the airflow at full throttle.

The fuel discharge nozzle is located in the carburetor barrel so that its open end is in the
throat or narrowest part of the venturi.
A main metering orifice, or jet, is placed in the fuel passage between the float chamber and
the discharge nozzle to limit the fuel flow when the throttle valve is wide open.
Fuel passage between the float chamber and the discharge nozzle to limit the fuel flow when
the throttle valve is wide open.
When the engine crankshaft is revolved with the carburetor throttle open, the low pressure
created in the intake manifold acts on the air passing through the carburetor barrel. Due to
the difference in pressure between the atmosphere and the intake manifold, air will flow
from the air intake through the carburetor barrel into the intake manifold. The volume of
airflow depends upon the degree of throttle opening.
As the air flows through the venturi, its velocity increases. This velocity increase creates a
low pressure area in the venturi throat. The fuel discharge nozzle is exposed to this low
pressure. Since the float chamber is vented to atmospheric pressure, a pressure drop across
the discharge nozzle is created. It is this pressure difference, or metering force, that causes
fuel to flow from the discharge nozzle. The fuel comes out of the nozzle in a fine spray, and
the tiny particles of fuel in the spray quickly vaporize in the air.

Idling System
With the throttle valve closed at idling speeds, air velocity through the venturi is so low that it
cannot draw enough fuel from the main discharge nozzle; in fact, the spray of fuel may stop
altogether. How-ever, low pressure (piston suction) exists on the engine side of the throttle
valve. In order to allow the engine to idle, a fuel passageway is incorporated to discharge fuel
 from an opening in the low pressure area near the edge of the
throttle valve. This opening is called the idling jet.

With the throttle open enough so that the main discharge nozzle is operating, fuel does not
flow out of the idling jet. As soon as the throttle is closed far enough to stop the spray from
the main discharge nozzle, fuel flows out the idling jet.

Mixture Control System:

There are two types of mixture control we use in modern piston Engine.
1. Needle type Mixture Control System
2. Back Suction Mixture Control
Needle type Mixture Control System

With the needle-type system, manual control is provided by a needle

valve in the base of the float chamber. This can be raised or lowered by adjusting a control in
the cockpit. Moving the control to "rich" opens the needle valve wide, which permits the fuel
to flow unrestricted to the nozzle. Moving the control to "lean" closes the valve part way and
restricts the flow of fuel to the nozzle.
Back-Suction type Mixture Control System
The back-suction type mixture control system is the most widely used. In this system upon
the fuel in the float chamber so that it opposes the low pressure existing at the main
discharge nozzle. An atmospheric line, incorporating an adjustable valve, opens into the
float chamber. When the valve is completely closed, pressures on the fuel in the float
chamber and at the discharge nozzle are almost equal and fuel flow is reduced to maximum
lean. With the valve wide open, pressure on the fuel in the float chamber is greatest and fuel
mixture is richest. Adjusting the valve to positions between these two extremes controls the
mixture.

Accelerating System
When the throttle valve is opened quickly, a large volume of air rushes through the air
passage of the carburetor. However, the amount of fuel that is mixed with the air is less than
normal. This is because of the slow response rate of the main metering system. As a result,
after a quick opening of the throttle, the fuel/air mixture leans out momentarily.

To overcome this tendency, the carburetor is equipped with a small fuel pump called an
accelerating pump. A common type of accelerating system used in float carburetors is as
per in given figure. It consists of a simple piston pump operated through linkage, by the
throttle control, and a line opening into the main metering system or the carburetor barrel
near the venturi. When the throttle is closed, the piston moves back and fuel fills the
cylinder. If the piston is pushed forward slowly, the fuel seeps past it back into the float
chamber, but if pushed rapidly, it will emit a charge of fuel and enrich the mixture in the
venturi.
Economizer System ( Needle – Valve type)
A typical economizer system, as shown in given, consists of a needle valve which begins to
open when the throttle valve reaches a predetermined point near the wide-open position. As
the throttle continues to open, the needle valve is opened further and additional fuel flows
through it. This additional fuel supplements the flow from the main metering jet direct to the
main discharge nozzle.

Economizer System ( Pressure type)

A pressure-operated economizer system is shown in the figure. This type has a sealed
bellows located in an enclosed compartment. The compartment is vented to engine
manifold pressure. When the manifold pressure reaches a certain value, the bellows is
compressed and opens a valve in a carburetor fuel passage, supplementing the normal
quantity of fuel being discharged through the main nozzle.
 GAS TURBINE ENGINES INTRODUCTION

1. Jet propulsion can be described as the force which is generated in the opposite
direction to the flow of gas or liquid under pressure which is escaping through an
opening or hole.
2. It is essentially a reaction engine which operates on the principle of the Third Law of
Motion

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE GAS TURBINE ENGINE

1. The principle of the Gas Turbine Engine is basically the same as that of the piston
engine
2. They both propel a mass of air backwards
3. Force=Mass x Acceleration
In a gas turbine engine the Mass is the air delivered by the compressor.
Acceleration is the difference in the outlet velocity of the air,
to that of its inlet velocity , due to the addition of heat energy.

4. The force created by the mass of air and its velocity generates a reaction in the
opposite direction driving the aircraft forward * Jet reaction does not result from the
pressure of the Jet on the atmosphere, in all instances the resultant reaction or thrust
exerted on the engine is proportional to the mass or weight of air expelled by the engine
and the velocity change imparted to it.

THE WORKING CYCLE OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE

1. The working cycles of both the four stroke piston engine (the Otto cycle) and the gas
turbine engine (the Brayton cycle) are
very similar
2. Only one of the strokes is utilized in
producing power in piston engine, the
other three effectively absorbing power,
while in the gas turbine engine the 3
‘idle’ strokes have been eliminated, thus allowing more time for the burning of fuel
3. Gas turbine engine has greater power/ weight ratio than the piston engine

CONSTANT PRESSURE COMBUSTION

1. Combustion occurs at a constant pressure in the gas turbine engine.
2. This is achieved partially through the continuous process of the Brayton Cycle and the
fact that the combustion chamber is not an enclosed space
3. The use of low octane fuels and light construction methods can be used

THE TEMPERATURE LIMIT OF THE ENGINE

1. The turbo-jet is a heat engine
2. The higher the temperature attained in combustion the greater the expansion of the
gases and hence the greater efficiency of the engine.
3. There is however a limit to the amount of heat that can be released into the turbine
from combustion.
4. This limit is imposed by the materials from which we manufacture the nozzle guide
vanes and the turbine blades.

BOYLE’s LAW
If a given mass of gas is compressed at a constant temperature, the absolute pressure is
inversely proportional to its volume.
P×V=K
In practice we cannot compress a gas at a constant temperature.
CHARLE’s LAW
1. If a gas is heated at a constant pressure, the change in volume will vary directly with
the change in the absolute temperature, the change being the same for all perfect gases.
Thus, the volume of a given mass of gas which remains at a constant pressure is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature of that gas.
2. 𝑉𝑇=𝐾, Volume is directly proportional to absolute temperature
COMBINED GAS LAW
1. The product of the pressure and the volume of a quantity of gas divided by its absolute
temperature is a constant

𝑃×𝑉 𝑇=𝐾
2. This means that the product of the pressure and volume of the air throughout each
stage of the working cycle is proportional to the absolute temperature of the air at that
stage.

THE THREE MAIN STAGES WHEN THESE CONDITION CHANGES ARE

During compression
1. Work is done to increase the pressure and decrease the volume of the air.
2. There is a corresponding rise in its temperature.
3. Higher compression ratios give higher thermal efficiency and low specific fuel
consumption.
4. A decrease in temperature will increase air density and the compressor will have to
work harder on the air; this will be indicated by a drop in engine RPM, if not
compensated by the fuel control unit.

During combustion
1. The addition of fuel to burn with the air increases the temperature and there is a
corresponding rise in its volume at an almost constant pressure.

During expansion
1. When some of the energy in the gas stream is being converted to mechanical energy
by the turbine, there is a decrease in the pressure and temperature of the gas with a
corresponding increase in its volume.
DUCT DESIGN
1. As the air passes through the engine there are various changes demanded in its velocity
and pressure.
2. Throughout the compression stage, the air must be compressed but without any
appreciable increase in its velocity.
3. At the exhaust nozzle, where the pressure of the gas is dropped to that of ambient with
a considerable increase in its velocity.
4. Divergent duct will increase the pressure of the air after it leaves the final stage of the
compressor and before it enters the combustion chamber. This air, sometimes called
‘compressor delivery air’, is the highest pressure air in the engine
a. First an increase in pressure with no expenditure of energy in driving the compressor
b. A decrease in velocity which will serve in making the task of the combustion chamber
less difficult

5. Convergent duct is used to accelerate the gas as it passes through the nozzle guide
vanes on its way to the turbine blades.
a. The torque applied to the turbine blade is dependent, among other things, upon the
rate of gas flow into it
b. if we convert some of the considerable pressure energy of the gas stream into kinetic
energy

6. the design of these ducts is extremely important because the efficiency with which the
changes from velocity(Kinetic) energy to pressure energy and vice versa occur are
reflected in the overall efficiency of the engine

AIRFLOW THROUGH A PURE TURBO – JET ENGINE

When a compressor and turbine are joined on one shaft the unit is called a spool.
1. The energy required to drive the compressor is now extracted from the gases as they
pass through the turbine
2. The remaining energy is extracted to act as thrust as the gases pass to atmosphere via
the end of the jet pipe.
3. The flow follows conventional pattern from the compressor the air is fed into the
combustion chambers, fuel is now added to give the substantial increase in volume
required.

AIRFLOW THROUGH A TURBO PROP ENGINE

1. There are two main parts of a turboprop propulsion system – The Core engine and the
Propeller
2. The output from a turbo propeller engine is the sum of the shaft power developed at
the turbine and the residual jet thrust
SHP at Turbine + Residual Jet Thrust = Equivalent shaft horse power(ESHP)

3. The core engine is very similar to a basic turbojet having a compressor, burner and
turbine. However at the unit of main turbine the hot exhaust gas is passed through an
additional turbine, before entering the nozzle, unlike a basic turbojet, most of the energy
of the exhaust is used to turn this additional turbine
4. The gas expands in the turbine as drop in the temperature, pressure and velocity is
exchanged for the mechanical energy to drive the compressor and the propeller through
its reduction gear
AIRFLOW THROUGH A TURBO SHAFT ENGINE
1. The turbo-shaft engine can be thought of as a turbo-prop engine with the propeller
replaced by a shaft.
2. This type of engine normally used as the APU
3. Turbo – shaft engines incorporate a free power turbine
4. A free power turbine is one that is not connected to any of the compressors. This frees
it from the constraint of having to rotate at a speed that suits the compressor and this
gives it a much wider operating speed range.
5. The single spool turbo-shaft engine has a reverse flow combustion chamber system.
This allows the engine to be much shorter, stiffer and lighter than it otherwise would, but
does add the requirement for a centrifugal compressor to be used in the high pressure
stage. This allows for the air to be thrown out radially in order that it can enter the
combustion chamber in the correct direction.

AIRFLOW THROUGH A LOW RATIO BY-PASS ENGINE

1. The By-Pass Ratio of an engine is the ratio of the amount of air which is by-passed
around the hot core of the engine, to the amount of air which passes through the hot
core
2. A low ratio is considered to be 2 : 1, whereas a high ratio would be around 5 : 1.
3. The engine shown in a twin spool
4. The airflow as far as the end of the low pressure compressor is identical to that of a
pure turbo-jet, but then the airflow splits into two.
5. An amount depending on the by-pass ratio will flow down the by-pass duct and the
remainder continues into the high pressure (H.P.) compressor.
6. From the H.P. compressor the air flows through the combustion chambers and into the
turbine before it rejoins the by-pass air in the mixer unit of the exhaust system.
7. Specific fuel consumption is appreciably lower for the high ratio by -pass engine

AIRFLOW THROUGH A HIGH BY – PASS (TURBO – FAN) ENGINE

1. The triple spool front fan turbo-jet engine
2. The thrust of this type of engine is almost completely dependent on the by-pass airflow
which has a high mass and relatively low velocity
3. The air which passes through the intermediate and high pressure compressors has a
great deal of energy added in the combustion chambers, but this energy is required to
drive the compressors.
4. The rearmost, or the low pressure turbine, is responsible for extracting virtually all of
the energy that remains in the gas stream to drive the front fan.
5. There should be only residual thrust remaining when the hot gases emerge from the
turbine.
PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY

MODULAR CONSTRUCTION METHODS

1. Engine manufacturers, in an attempt to minimise the financial burden imposed upon

the users of their equipment in the event of failure, have started to use Modular
Construction Methods which facilitate changing sections of an engine rather than the
whole engine.
 AIR INLET
The engine air inlet is built into the airframe or the forward part of the nacelle installation.
It is so designed to provide a relatively turbulent free supply of air to the face of the low
pressure compressor or fan. The design of the intake duct is vital to the performance of the
engine under all airspeeds or angles of attack to avoid compressor stall.

The simplest form of intake is a single entrance circular cross section ‘pitot’ type. It is
normally straight in wing mounted engines, but can be shaped to form an ‘S’ shaped
duct for tail cone mounted engines (727, TriStar). Unstable airflow in an S duct can be a
common occurrence particularly during crosswind takeoffs.

The pitot type of intake maximises the use of Ram Effect and suffers the minimum loss of
Ram
pressure as altitude increases. Efficiency of this type of intake reduces as the aircraft
approaches sonic speed due to the formation of a shock wave at the intake lip.

The air inlet is usually divergent in a subsonic intake and this divergence allows a
reduction of velocity and an increase of pressure at the compressor face as the airspeed
increases.

The pressure within the intake of a gas turbine engine while it is being run on a
stationary aircraft is below ambient pressure. This is because of the high velocity
airflow through the intake. As the aircraft begins to move the pressure within the inlet
starts to rise. The point when inlet pressure returns to ambient is known as ram
pressure recovery. This point is usually reached at about Mach 0.1 to Mach 0.2.

As the aircraft speed increases even further the inlet produces more and more ram
compression which allows the engine compression ratio to increase. This in turn
generates more thrust without costing any increase in fuel flow

Secondary air inlet doors allow a supplementary airflow to reach the compressor face
during high power operation(RPM is high) when the aircraft is stationary or at low
airspeeds/high angles of attack.

SUPERSONIC INTAKES
1. Supersonic aircraft have to have a particular type of air intake because the engine
compressor face cannot cope with supersonic airflow.
2. Above supersonic speeds the intake must be capable of reducing the velocity of the
airflow below sonic velocity and control shock wave formation.
3. The supersonic diffuser gradually decreases in area from front to rear which has the
effect of reducing the air velocity down to below Mach 1.
4. Further reduction of velocity is achieved by a subsonic diffuser which increases in area
towards the compressor face

5. The control of shock waves that form on the air

inlet is also important to correctly decelerate the
air through the shock waves.
6. spill doors to allow excess air to be spilled from
the inlet without having its velocity changed.

MOVEABLE INTAKES
Moveable intake ramps change the cross sectional area of the intake (Concorde) moveable
centre body intake spikes (SR 71). This allows the shock wave(s) to be controlled to control
the airflow into the compressor face.

OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Take off
The engine air inlet is designed to maintain a stable airflow to the compressor face, anything
that
disrupts the airflow and causes it to be turbulent may cause he compressor to stall or surge.
 • The intake cannot cope with high angles of attack and be expected to maintain a
stable airflow.
• To avoid the possibility of stall and surge the procedure defined in the operating
manual must be followed which typically is to get the aircraft moving forwards before
smoothly increasing the power setting to the take off value by 60-80 knots.\

Icing

Inlet icing can occur if conditions are conducive, typically this would be if the ambient
temperature is below +10°C, there is visible moisture, standing water on the runway
or the RVR (Runway Visual Range) is less than 1000 metres. If these conditions exist
the pilot should activate the engine anti-icing system.

Damage

Damage to the intake or any roughness internally in the intake may cause the incoming air to be
turbulent and may disrupt the airflow into the compressor causing stall or surge. Be particular
during intake inspection to notice damage, uneven skin panels surface roughness etc.

Foreign Object Ingestion

Damage to compressor blades is invariably caused by ingestion of foreign objects while the aircraft
is on or close to the ground. Pay particular attention to the area on the ground in front of the engine
intakes prior to engine start to ensure that it is free of loose stones and other debris.
This is particularly important for wing mounted engines whose intake is close to the ground. It is no
coincidence that aft body mounted engines whose intake is above the aircraft fuselage suffer much
less with FOD damage.

In Flight Turbulence
Heavy in flight turbulence can not only spill the coffee but can seriously disrupt the airflow into the
engines. Using the operating handbook turbulence penetration speed and the correct RPM/EPR will
reduce the possibility of compressor malfunction. It may also be prudent or a requirement to
activate the continuous ignition to reduce the probability of engine ‘flame out’.

COMPRESSOR
The air must be compressed before having fuel added to it in the combustion chambers and subsequent expansion
in the turbines.

A secondary function of the compressor is to supply air for various purposes in the engine and aircraft.
This bleed-air is taken from any of the various pressure stages of the compressor. The exact location of the
bleed ports is dependent on the pressure or temperature required for a particular job. The ports are small
openings in the compressor case adjacent to the particular stage from which the air is to be bled.

Bleed air is often controlled through the use of a bleed valve. This can be mounted directly to the compressor
case or in the downstream ducting. Automatic and manual control of bleed valves is possible with the
primary function being to open and close the valve for passage of the bleed air into the pneumatic system.

Bleed air is utilized in a wide variety of ways. Some of the current applications of bleed air are:
1. Cabin pressurization, heating, and cooling;
2. Deicing and anti-icing equipment;
3. Pneumatic starting of engines;
4. Auxiliary drive units (ADU).

Types of Compressors
• Centrifugal flow
• Axial Flow

Axial flow compressors are normally found on turbofan engines which are widely used in aviation. Centrifugal
flow compressors are commonly used in turbo prop and turboshaft engines

CENTRIFUGAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS

The centrifugal-flow compressor consists of an impeller (rotor), a diffuser (stator), and a compressor
manifold.

Centrifugal compressors have a high pressure rise per stage that can be around 8:1. Generally centrifugal
compressors are limited to two stages due to efficiency concerns.
Centrifugal compressors have a high pressure rise per stage that can be around 8:1. Generally centrifugal
compressors are limited to two stages due to efficiency concerns.

The impeller : The impeller is usually made from forged aluminum alloy, heat treated, machined, and
smoothed for minimum flow restriction and turbulence.

. The impeller, whose function is to pick up and accelerate the air outwardly to the diffuser, may be either of
two types—single entry or double entry

The principal differences between the two types of impellers are size and ducting arrangement. The double-
entry type has a smaller diameter, but is usually operated at a higher rotational speed to assure sufficient
airflow.
The single entry impeller must be large in diameter to deliver the same quantity of air as the double-entry
type. This, of course, increases the overall diameter of the engine.

The diffuser is an annular chamber provided with a number of vanes forming a series of divergent passages
into the manifold. The diffuser vanes direct the flow of air from the impeller to the manifold at an angle
designed to retain the maximum amount of energy imparted by the impeller.
The compressor manifold diverts the flow of air from the diffuser, which is an integral part of the manifold,
into the combustion chambers. The manifold has one outlet port for each chamber so that the air is evenly
divided.

The centrifugal flow compressor's advantages are:

• High pressure rise per stage,
• Efficiency over wide rotational speed range,
• Simplicity of manufacture and low cost,
• Low weight, and
• Low starting power requirements.

The centrifugal flow compressor's disadvantages are:

• Its large frontal area for a given airflow and
• Losses in turns between stages.

AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR

The axial-flow compressor has t wo main elements: a rotor and a stator. The rotor has blades fixed on a
spindle. These blades impel air rearward in the same manner as a propeller because of their angle and airfoil
contour.

The rotor, turning at high speed, takes in air at the compressor inlet and impels it through a series of stages.

From inlet to exit, the air f lows along an axial path and is compressed at a ratio of approximately 1.25:1 per
stage.

The action of the rotor increases the compression of the air at each stage and accelerates it rearward through
several stages. With this increased velocity, energy is transferred from the compressor to the air in the form of
velocity energy.

The stator blades act as diffusers at each stage, partially converting high velocity to pressure. Each
consecutive pair of rotor and stator blades constitutes a pressure stage. The number of rows of blades
(stages) is determined by the amount of air and total pressure rise required.
Compressor pressure ratio increases with the number of compression stages. Most engines utilize up to 16
stages and more.
AIRFLOW CONTROL
Increasing the compression ratio of a compressor makes it progressively more difficult to ensure
that it operates efficiently over the whole of its speed range. This is caused by the fact that the
compression ratio of the engine falls as the speed of rotation of the compressor falls. Therefore, as
the engine slows down, the volume which the air takes up gets greater and greater, because it is not
being compressed so much.

The increased volume of air at the high pressure end of the compressor makes it difficult for it to
pass through the space available and so it slows down and in some cases can cause choking and
turbulence.

This reduction in axial velocity happens throughout the compressor and can cause a phenomenon
called stall, which if not checked can progressively worsen to produce surge, a situation where, in
the worst case, the airflow through the engine can instantaneously reverse its direction of flow.

STALL
VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANES
At low compressor speeds the V.I.G.V.s are angled to impart the greatest amount of swirl to the air, thereby
correcting the relative airflow to obtain the optimum angle of attack over the rotor blades. This optimum angle of
attack allows a smooth and rapid engine acceleration.

COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY

Combustion efficiency is the efficiency with which the combustor assembly extracts the potential heat actually
contained in the fuel. Modern gas turbine engines have a very efficient combustion cycle.

At high power operating conditions combustion efficiencies as great as 99% are achievable, and at idle the systems
will still give as much as 95%.

FUEL SPRAY NOZZLES

The nozzles have the task of atomising or vaporising the fuel to ensure that it is
completely burnt. This is no easy job considering the velocity of the airstream from
the compressor and the small distance allowed within the chamber for combustion
to occur.

Other problems are a result of the relatively low pressures attainable by the engine
driven high pressure fuel pump
at engine start. The pumps, driven by the high speed gearbox, are only rotating at
a minimal speed upon start selection and are incapable, at that speed, of providing
the high pressures (1,500 -2,000 p.s.i.) required to give a good spray pattern

It can be clearly seen here that an orifice of fixed size will only provide a finely
atomised spray at high fuel pressures, some other method must be found to
give sufficient atomization at start when fuel pressures are low.
THE AIRSPRAY SYSTEM
One principle utilised in obtaining the required spray pattern is that of a high velocity air stream to break up the
flow, this is the airspray system, it needs relatively low fuel pressures and so therefore can operate using a gear type
pump which is much lighter than the more sophisticated plunger type pump.

THE DUPLEX SYSTEM

The Duplex system, shown in Figure 16.11, effectively uses an orifice of variable size. At low fuel pressures, a
pressurising valve closes off the main fuel feed to the nozzle, the only supply coming from the primary fuel line.
The primary fuel line feeds the primary orifice, a much smaller hole which is capable of providing a fine spray at
lower pressures. When the engine accelerates during start, fuel pressure builds until the pressurising valve is
opened, allowing fuel to flow to the main orifice to supplement that from the primary orifice.
 TURBINE SECTION

The turbine transforms a portion of the kinetic (velocity) energy of the exhaust gases into mechanical energy
to drive the gas generator compressor and accessories. The sole purpose of the gas generator turbine is to
absorb approximately 60 to 70 percent of the total pressure energy from the exhaust gases. The exact amount
of energy absorption at the turbine is determined by the load the turbine is driving (i.e., compressor size and
type, number of accessories, and the load applied by the other turbine stages).

These turbine stages can be used to drive a low-pressure compressor (fan), propeller, and shaft. The turbine
section of a gas turbine engine is located aft, or downstream, of the combustion chamber. Specifically, it is
directly behind the combustion chamber outlet.

The turbine assembly consists of two basic elements: turbine inlet guide vanes and turbine blades.
The stator element is known by a variety of names, of which turbine inlet nozzle vanes, turbine inlet guide
vanes, and nozzle diaphragm are three of the most commonly used. The turbine inlet nozzle vanes are
located directly aft of the combustion chambers and immediately forward of the turbine wheel. This is the
highest or hottest temperature that comes in contact with metal components in the engine. The turbine inlet
temperature must be controlled or damage will occur to the turbine inlet vanes.

THE STRESSES IN THE TURBINE

a small turbine blade weighing only 2 ounces when stationary can exert a load of two tons while working at top
speed. This tensile loading, coupled with the tremendous heat, causes a phenomenon called creep, the stretching of
the metal of the blade beyond its ability to reform back to its original length.

Whatever materials have been used to produce the turbine, and however carefully the temperature and r.p.m. limits
of the engine have been observed, creep will cause the length of the blade to increase over a period of time and
engine operational cycles. A blade will have a finite life before failure occurs.

Turbine Material
The turbine blades of early gas turbine engines were manufactured from high temperature steel.

The next advance in turbine technology was the use of nickel based alloys, and these were subsequently superseded
by super alloys. These are a complex mixture of many different metals: chromium, cobalt, nickel, titanium, tungsten,
carbon etc. Super alloys have a maximum temperature limit of approximately 1,100°C. or, if they are cooled
internally, 1,425° C.

THE FREE (POWER) TURBINE

When a turbine is coupled to a compressor to form a spool, it must rotate at a speed which conforms to the
demanding requirements of the compressor, the speed of which is set at the point of best compression.
A free turbine is a turbine which is not connected to the compressor, it is connected only to the propeller or rotor
reduction gearbox. This allows the turbine to seek its optimum design speed. There are further advantages to the
free turbine, some of which are listed below:

• The propeller can be held at low r.p.m. during taxying, reducing noise pollution and wear on the brakes.
• Less starting torque required.
• A rotor parking brake can be fitted which eliminates the dangers inherent in having propellers rotating in
windy conditions on the ground

MULTI-SPOOL ENGINES

The power output of a turbine can be increased by increasing its diameter, but this of course would increase both
the drag factor, because of the larger size of the engine, and the stresses imposed through the greater centrifugal
forces created.

It is a fact that the efficiency of a turbine blade increases as its rotational speed increases (the losses reduce in
proportion to the square of the mean blade speed).

Unfortunately, the stresses on the blade increase in proportion to the square of the blade speed. It would seem that
the engine designer is locked into a vicious circle where any attempt to increase engine efficiency by increasing
turbine speed would require stronger blades, this would mean making them heavier which would mean greater
stresses and so on.

The advent of the high ratio by-pass engine with its much greater propulsive efficiency means that for a given thrust
it can have a smaller turbine, this to some extent circumvents the vicious circle problems mentioned above.

This type of engine features three spools, see Figure 17.3, the high pressure (H.P.) turbine driving the high pressure
compressor at relatively high speeds, and to the rear of that is the intermediate pressure (I.P.) turbine, driving the
intermediate pressure compressor through a shaft inside that of the high pressure turbine.

The rearmost, or the low pressure (L.P.) turbine, the illustration features one with two stages, drives the fan, which
is also the low pressure (L.P.) compressor. This rotates at the lowest speed of all.

The power developed by this turbine produces almost all the thrust of the engine through the reaction of the by-
pass air, which has a high mass flow moving at a speed which is relatively slow when compared with that of a pure
turbo-jet engine. The shaft which connects the low pressure turbine to the low pressure compressor runs inside
those connecting the H.P. and I.P. compressors and their turbines.
BLADE SHAPE
Nozzle guide vanes are of airfoil shape and form convergent ducts where some of the potential (pressure) energy in
the gas stream is converted to kinetic (velocity) energy. The turbine blades themselves can be:
• Impulse type, like a water wheel.
• Reaction type, which rotate as a reaction to the lift they create.
• A mixture of the two called impulse / reaction.

Given Figure shows an end on view of how the shape of the combination impulse / reaction blade changes from its
base to its tip. The shape change is accomplished by the blade having a greater angle at the tip than at its base. This
gives it a twist which ensures that the gas flow does equal work along the length of the blade and enables the gas
flow to enter the exhaust system with a uniform axial velocity.
Normally gas turbine engines do not use the pure impulse or pure reaction type of blades. The proportion of each
type of blade utilised is dependent upon the design requirements of the engine, in general the combination impulse
/ reaction is more commonly used. Impulse type turbine blades are used in air starter motors. It is very rare to find
pure reaction lading used, if it is, the nozzle guide vanes are designed to divert the gas flow direction without
altering the pressure of the gas.
TURBINE BLADE FIXING

The considerable stress imposed upon the turbine blade and the turbine disc when the engine is rotating at working
speed makes the method of fixing the blade to the disc extremely important.

The fir tree fixing is most commonly used on modern engines. The serrations which form the fir tree are very
accurately machined to ensure that the enormous centrifugal load is shared equally between them.
The blade is free in the serrations while the engine is not rotating, but the centrifugal force imposed during
operation holds it firmly in place. Figure 17.6 shows both the fir tree fixing and the turbine blade shroud, previously
mentioned.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
The maximum temperature that the turbine assembly can withstand limits the thrust or power available. Exceeding
the maximum temperature will cause irrepairable damage to the engine, therefore monitoring the turbine
temperature is imperative.
The temperature is measured by thermocouples placed in the gas flow somewhere in the turbine assembly, typically
after the high or low pressure turbine and termed Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT).

Other terms for gas temperature you may come across for older engines are: Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT),
Turbine Gas Temperature (TGT), Jet Pipe Temperature (JPT). So named because of the position of the
thermocouples.

In modern engines the thermocouple probes are fitted inside selected fixed nozzle guide vanes to enable
temperature to be sensed without the probe being battered by the high velocity gas flow. As the engine is
accelerated to produce more thrust (or more SHP) the EGT will increase in proportion with the extra fuel flow and
vice-versa.

THE EXHAUST SYSTEM

EXHAUST SECTION

The exhaust section of the gas turbine engine consists of several components. Although the components
have individual purposes, they also have one common function: they must direct the flow of hot gases
rearward in such a manner as to prevent turbulence and, at the same time, impart a high final or exit velocity
to the gases.

The exhaust section is located directly behind the turbine section and ends when the gases are ejected at the
rear in the form of a high-velocity exhaust gases. The components of the exhaust section include the exhaust
cone, tailpipe (if required), and the exhaust nozzle. The exhaust cone collects the exhaust gases discharged
from the turbine section and gradually converts them into a solid flow of gases. In performing this, the
velocity of the gases is decreased slightly and the pressure increased. This is due to the diverging passage
between the outer duct and the inner cone; that is, the annular area between the two units increases
rearward.

The exhaust cone assembly consists of an outer shell or duct, an inner cone, three or four radial hollow struts
or fins, and the necessary number of tie rods to aid the struts in supporting the inner cone from the outer
duct.
THRUST REVERSER'S

As aircraft have increased in gross weights with higher landing airspeeds, the problem of stopping an aircraft
after landing has greatly increased. In many instances, the aircraft brakes can no longer be relied upon solely
to slow the aircraft within a reasonable distance, immediately after touchdown.

Most Thrust Reversers are two types

mechanical-blockage and aerodynamic-blockage.

Mechanical blockage is accomplished by placing a removable obstruction in the exhaust gas stream, usually
somewhat to the rear of the nozzle. The engine exhaust gases are mechanically blocked and diverted at a
suitable angle in the reverse direction by an inverted cone, half-sphere, or clam shell. (Figure 7-8) This is
placed in position to reverse the flow of exhaust gases. This type is generally used with ducted turbofan
engines, where the fan and core flow mix in a common nozzle before exiting the engine.
In the aerodynamic blockage type of thrust reverser, used mainly with unducted turbofan engines, only
fan air is used to slow the aircraft. A modern aerodynamic thrust reverser system consists of a translating
cowl, blocker doors, and cascade vanes that redirect the fan airflow to slow the aircraft.
If the thrust levers are at idle position and the aircraft has weight on the wheels, moving the thrust levers aft
activates the translating cowl to open closing the blocker doors.
THE JET PIPE

The gases which discharge from the turbine must exit in the correct direction and at the optimum velocity to
provide the thrust of the turbo-jet engine, while in the turbo-prop engine the turbine gas temperature and back
pressure at the turbine are to a large extent dictated by the design of the outlet nozzle.

The temperature of the gases entering the exhaust system can be between 550°C and 850°C. This can rise to as high
as 1,500°C if afterburners (reheat) are used.

The fuselage of the aircraft, if it has the exhaust system running through it, must be protected from these
temperatures, this is done by both allowing a clearance between the jet pipe and the aircraft skin through which air
is allowed to circulate, and insulating the jet pipe with some form of fibrous material sandwiched between thin
layers of stainless steel.
JET PIPE DESIGN

The gas velocity leaving the turbine can be between 750 - 1,250 feet per second, this is somewhere around .5 Mach. If
this gas has to negotiate a long jet pipe before being ejected into the atmosphere to provide thrust, a great deal of
turbulence will be caused within the pipe, this will lower the efficiency of the engine and reduce its thrust.

The Given Figure shows the basic layout for the jet pipe of an aircraft without afterburners. Although the shape of
the outer casing appears to be convergent at the point where the gas leaves the turbine, the shape of the volume
within the casing is in fact divergent.

This is made possible by the insertion of the exhaust cone, a conical shaped device positioned close up to the
turbine disc rear face. As well as helping to reduce the velocity of the gases leaving the turbine before they pass
down the length of the jet pipe, so minimising turbulence, the exhaust cone also prevents the hot gases flowing
across the disc face, further reducing disturbance, and preventing overheating of the disc.

The exhaust gases travel down the jet pipe to atmosphere via the convergent propelling nozzle. This increases the
gas velocity to speeds of Mach 1 (the speed of sound in relation to the temperature of the gases) in a turbo-jet engine
at virtually all throttle openings above idle. At this velocity, sonic speed, the nozzle is said to be choked.

The term ‘choked’ implies that no further increase in velocity can be obtained unless the gas stream temperature is
increased, for instance with the assistance of ‘reheat’.
GAS PARAMETER CHANGES AND EXHAUST MACH NUMBERS IN BOTH A CONVERGENT
AND A CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT NOZZLE

In the convergent exhaust duct, the shape of the duct accelerates the gas. In a turbo-jet, the gas flows at sub-sonic
speed at low thrust levels only, at almost all levels above idle power the exhaust velocity reaches the speed of sound
in relation to the exhaust gas temperature, at this point the nozzle is said to be ‘choked’. This means that no
further increase in velocity can be obtained unless the temperature is increased.

When the gas enters the convergent section of the convergent-divergent nozzle its velocity increases with a
corresponding fall in static pressure. The gas velocity at this point now reaches the local speed of sound (Mach 1).
As the gas flows into the divergent section it progressively accelerates towards the open exit, the reaction to this
increase in momentum is a pressure force acting on the inside wall of the nozzle. A component of this force which
acts parallel to the longitudinal axis of the nozzle produces the further increase in thrust.

THE LOW RATIO BY-PASS ENGINE EXHAUST SYSTEM

Having two gas streams to pass to atmosphere makes the exhaust system of the by-pass engine a slightly more
complex affair. The low ratio by-pass engine exhaust, see the Figure, combines the by-pass air and the hot exhaust
gases in a mixer unit, this ensures thorough mixing of the two streams before they are ejected into the atmosphere.

THE HIGH RATIO BY-PASS ENGINE EXHAUST SYSTEM

Figure 18.5 shows two methods used to exhaust the cold by-pass air and the hot exhaust gases. The top illustration
shows the standard method whereby the hot and cold nozzles are co-axial and the two streams mix externally.
Greater efficiency can however be obtained by fitting an integrated exhaust nozzle. Within this unit the two gas
flows are partially mixed before ejection to atmosphere.
NOISE SUPPRESSION

The Given Chart shows relative sound levels from various sources, some of the highest among them being aircraft
engines.
Although an aircraft’s overall noise signature is the combination of sounds from many sources, the principal agent
is the engine. Airport regulations and aircraft noise certifications governing the maximum noise level which aircraft
are allowed to produce, have forced rigorous research into ways of reducing that noise.
The most significant sources of noise from the engine originate from the compressor (the fan in high ratio by-pass
engines), the turbine and the exhaust. Although the noises which spring from these various sources all obey slightly
different laws and mechanisms of generation, they all increase with greater relative airflow velocity.

With a pure jet engine, the noise of the exhaust is of such a high level that the noise of the compressor and the
turbine is insignificant, except at very low thrust conditions.

The exhaust noise of a by-pass engine drops because of the reduction in velocity, but because they are handling a
much greater power, the turbines and the low pressure compressor generate a higher noise output.

In the case of a high ratio by-pass engine (5 to 1), the noise from the jet exhaust has reduced to such a degree that the
noise from the low pressure compressor (the fan) and the turbine become predominant.

Having reduced noise from the main source, it was logical to suppose that engine manufacturers would then
concentrate on lowering the levels of noise from the rest of the engine, the fan and the turbine.

The use of noise absorbing material in the by-pass duct and the engine intake, was extremely efficient in reducing
noise in that region, further down the engine, in the hotter zones, slightly different materials were used to great
advantage in the same quest for noise reduction.

The disadvantages of these materials is that they add a small percentage in weight, and their skin friction is slightly
higher, together they cause a slight increase in fuel consumption.
 WATER INJECTION SYSTEMS

In conditions of high altitude and / or high temperature the use of water injection can restore the thrust of a turbo-
jet engine and boost the output of a turbo-prop engine. The water injection system is typically activated by moving
the throttle to the ‘take-off’ position.

The power output of a gas turbine engine depends to a large extent upon the mass of air flowing through it. In
conditions of high altitude and / or high temperature, the density, and therefore the mass of the airflow through the
engine decreases, causing a reduction of thrust or shaft horse power.

To restore, or with some types of engine, boost, the power output of that engine, the airflow can be cooled with
water.
METHODS OF INJECTION

Some centrifugal compressor engines, and some small American designed axial flow compressor engines, injected
the water into the engine intake. Unfortunately water distribution was not of the best and the quantity of water had
to limited so as not to cause an engine flame out.

As was mentioned in the previous paragraph, injection of water into the combustion chamber increases the mass
flow through the turbine relative to that through the compressor. Because the turbine has no extra work to do to
obtain this increase mass flow, there is a related decrease in the pressure drop across it. This results in an increase in
the amount of power available either to drive the propeller through a Free Turbine, or as an increase in the Jet Pipe
Pressure.

WATER METHANOL INJECTION

A pure water injection system does have some drawbacks as it may freeze at high altitude as aircraft climbs.

It would be logical to require an injection fluid that did not freeze, thus methanol is added to the water. This serves
primarily as an anti-freeze, there is however an additional bonus achieved by using methanol. By injecting coolant
into the combustion chamber, the T.G.T. is lowered dramatically which somewhat lowers the power available
(remember that the turbo-jet is a heat engine).

Methanol, being an alcohol fuel, burns, and adds to the temperature of the gases, raising the T.G.T. back to its
original level.

The proportion of methanol added to the water must also be carefully controlled, a ratio of 40% methanol to 60%
water (by Volume) ensures that the T.G.T. limits should never be exceeded during use of the water methanol
system.

THRUST AUGMENTATION BY AFTERBURNING

The terms after burning and thrust augmentation generally pertain to military engine applications. The terms
are used to describe the same system. Normally, this is used to increase the thrust of the engine up to double
the original thrust. The required additions to the exhaust nozzle for this system are a flame stabilizer, fuel
manifold, flame holder, igniter, and a variable area exhaust nozzle.
After the engine has reached full power under normal operation, the power lever can be advanced to activate
the afterburner. This allows more fuel to flow into the exhaust nozzle where it is ignited and burned.

Some low-bypass turbofan engines used in military aircraft use bypass (fan air) to flow into the exhaust
nozzle.

Since fuel is being burned in the exhaust nozzle, the heat buildup around the nozzle is a problem. A special
type of liner is used around the nozzle to allow cooler air to circulate around the nozzle.

somewhat like a single burner can combustion chamber. Operation in the afterburner mode is somewhat
limited by high fuel consumption, which can be almost double normal consumption.

Links
(1362) Lubrication Part 1 - Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines #22 - YouTube
(1362) Lubrication Part 2 - Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines #23 - YouTube
(1362) How Does an Afterburner Work? - YouTube

THRUST
INTRODUCTION

In accordance with Newton’s third law, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Or by formula:
F = M a (Force = Mass x acceleration)
Or
Thrust = W (V0 - V1)
W = Mass of air in lbs (kilograms)
V1 = Inlet velocity ft/sec (metres/sec)
V0 = Exit velocity ft/sec (metres/sec)
A turbo-jet running in a choked condition will have the addition of pressure thrust.
Thrust = W (V0 - V1) + Pressure Thrust

The power of a turbo-jet is measured in thrust and displayed by a P7 or EPR gauge which are
thrust meters. A turbopropeller’s output is measured in shaft horsepower (SHP) and displayed
by a torque meter.

EQUIVALENT SHAFT HORSEPOWER (ESHP)

ESHP is the unit of power output for turboprop and some turboshaft engines.
ESHP = SHP + HP from jet thrust

Under static conditions one shaft horsepower equals approximately 2.5 pounds of thrust.
The gas turbine engine can give a small mass of air a large acceleration (low bypass ratio
turbojet)
or a large mass of air a small acceleration (high bypass ratio turbo- fan, or turbo prop)

The thrust or shaft horsepower developed must then be dependent on the mass of air entering
the
engine and the acceleration given to that mass as is passes through the engine, it will be affected
by changes in altitude, temperature and airspeed which all have a bearing on the efficiency of
the engine and therefore the gas energy available for conversion into thrust or SHP.

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (SFC)

“The amount of fuel consumed to produce a pound of Thrust”
To maintain an economical engine the ratio of fuel consumption to thrust or SHP must be as low
as possible. This is the Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) and is measured in pounds of fuel used
per hour per pound of thrust or SHP.

VARIATION OF THRUST WITH RPM

• The amount of thrust produced by a turbo-jet is proportional to its RPM.

• The higher proportion of the thrust is produced at compressor speeds higher than 80-85% HP. RPM. At
engine idle for a twin spool engine the HP RPM will be of the order of 50-60% and the LP RPM about 25%.

VARIATION OF THRUST WITH ALTITUDE

• As aircraft altitude increases both temperature and pressure decrease. The fall of pressure causes a
reduction in air density and therefore a loss of thrust as altitude increases.
• The fall of temperature increases the air density so that the mass flow of air into the engine increases and
the thrust increases.
• The combined effect of temperature and pressure reduction are that thrust will decrease but at a lower rate
than if the pressure alone was reducing.

VARIATION OF THRUST WITH TEMPERATURE

• As temperature decreases air density increases and the mass of air for a given engine speed increases
therefore thrust increases. To maintain the compressor speed however more fuel must be added or the
compressor will slow down.
• The opposite will happen in warmer air which is less dense, thrust will decrease because of the reduced
mass flow and the compressor will speed up unless fuel flow is reduced.
• In cold weather the denser air allows the engine to develop the required take off thrust before the limiting
temperature has been reached because of the maximum available pressure ratio across the compressor
(power limiter). These are called part throttle or flat rated engines whereby the take off rated thrust can be
achieved at throttle settings below full throttle position.
 VARIATION OF THRUST WITH AIRCRAFT SPEED

Theoretically as aircraft speed increases thrust decreases. If you look at the thrust equation then assuming that the
exit velocity remains the same then if the inlet velocity increases then it follows that the thrust will decrease.

The Increase in Ram Ratio (below) increases the mass flow therefore fuel flow has to be increased causing an
increase of sfc as the net thrust decreases.
RAM RECOVERY

As the aircraft speed increases the inlet converts some of the extra velocity into pressure by the shape of the intake
(Ram Recovery).

EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON SHP

• As aircraft altitude increases a turboprop engine suffers a similar loss of power as density
reduces.
• Shaft Horsepower and net jet thrust reduce (EHSP reduce)
• As density reduces fuel flow reduces but the specific fuel consumption remains essentially
the same.

EFFECT OF AIRCRAFT SPEED ON SHP

• As airspeed increases on a turboprop engine the ram effect into the intake causes the SHP to increase, as net
jet thrust decreases.
• Fuel burn increases in line with additional mass flow but sfc goes down.
 Gas Turbine Engine Fuel

INTRODUCTION
GAS TURBINE FUELS

FUEL COLOUR
Turbine fuels are not dyed, they retain their natural colour which can range between a straw yellow to completely
colourless.

CLOUDY FUEL

If a fuel sample appears cloudy or hazy then there could be a number of reasons. If the cloudiness appears to rise
quite rapidly towards the top of the sample then air is present, if the cloud falls quite slowly towards the bottom of
the sample then water is present in the fuel. A cloudy appearance usually indicates the presence of water.

JET FUEL ADDITIVES

FSII (Fuel System Icing Inhibitor).
A certain amount of water is present in all fuel. The water, which is normally dissolved within the
fuel, gives rise to the following fuel system problems:

Icing As an aircraft climbs to altitude the fuel is cooled and the amount of dissolved water it can
hold is reduced. Water droplets form and as the temperature is further reduced they turn to ice
crystals which can block fuel system components.

Fungal Growth and Corrosion

A microbiological fungus called Cladasporium Resinae is present in all turbine fuels. This fungus
grows rapidly in the presence of water to form long green filaments which can block fuel system
components. The waste products of the fungus are corrosive, especially to fuel tank sealing
substances. The inclusion of FSII in the fuel will help to overcome these problems.

HITEC (Lubricity Agent).

A lubricity agent is added to the fuel to reduce wear in the fuel system components.

Static dissipater additives partially eliminate the hazards of static electricity generated by the
movement of fuel through modern high flow rate fuel transfer systems.

Corrosion inhibitors protect ferrous metals in fuel handling systems, such as pipelines and
storage tanks, from corrosion.

WATER IN THE FUEL

Water is always present in fuel, the amount will vary according to the efficiency of the manufacturer’s quality
control and the preventive measures taken during storage and transfer

Water Drains
If the fuel can be allowed to settle after replenishment then the water droplets, being heavier than the fuel, will fall
to the bottom of the tank and can then be drained off through the water drain valve.

Fuel Heater
The fuel can be heated by one or other means before it is passed fed the engine fuel system.

BOILING
The temperature at which a fuel boils will vary with the pressure on its surface. As an aircraft climbs, the pressure
on the surface of the fuel reduces and with that reduction comes an increased likelihood that the fuel will boil and
form vapour.

THE AUXILIARY POWER UNIT (APU)

As aircraft became more complex a need was created for a power source to operate the aircraft systems on the
ground without the necessity for operating the aircraft’s main engines. This became the task of the Auxiliary
Power Unit (APU).

The use of an APU on an aircraft also meant that the aircraft was not dependent on ground support equipment at an
airfield. It can provide the necessary power for operation of the aircraft’s Electrical, Hydraulic and Pneumatic
systems.

The APU can use the same fuel system as the main engines so reducing the need for additional systems. The type of
engine layout normally used is that of the Free Turbine, Turbo Shaft Engine

Some aircraft use air bled from the compressor of the APU to power aircraft’s pneumatic system, but it is more
common for the free turbine to drive a separate Load Compressor to supply these services.
APU OPERATIONS IN FLIGHT

The APU was further developed so that it could also be operated in the air, providing a back-up source of power to
the systems in the event of an engine failure. This requirement has become more important with the introduction of
twin engine aircraft now flying long haul routes under Extended Twin Operation’s (ETOPS) regulations.

The design philosophy behind the APU is to keep it simple, rugged and reliable. It must however be able to be
started in flight at high altitudes, and continue to operate under load at even higher altitudes. For example the
L1011 (Tri-Star) can start its APU up to 25,000ft and it will deliver power up to 31,000ft.

APU CONTROL AND OPERATION

The pilot has very little in the way of indication when starting and running the APU compared to the aircraft’s
main engines. Extensive use is made of Automatic Sensors which will Shut the APU Down in the event of an APU
fire, system malfunctions or operating limits being exceeded. Like all engines using air as its working fluid, power
output
is reduced at higher altitudes where air density is reduced. The Automatic Shut Down acts as a governor device
protecting the APU against over loading.
The APU is normally positioned in part of the airframe where its operation will not cause harm to personnel
working around the aircraft whilst it is on the ground. This is normally the tail of the aircraft.

The APU’s turbo shaft engine can easily be started by an electric starter motor powered from the aircraft’s
battery. When started the APU is usually allowed to stabilise in RPM and temperature before it is used to power the
aircraft’s systems.
The APU is in operation normally on the ground during start and taxi of the aircraft and operated in the air as
previously stated in the event of failure of a main engine. It is also normally selected prior to landing.
 Propellers

Propellers
A propeller converts shaft power
from the engine into thrust.
Thrust from the propeller is equal to the
mass of air accelerated rearwards multiplied

by the acceleration given to it.

A mass is accelerated rearwards and the
equal and opposite reaction drives the

aircraft forwards.

Definitions

❖ Blade Angle or Pitch

The angle between the blade chord and the plane of

rotation.
 Blade angle decreases from the root to the tip of the blade
(twist) because rotational velocity of the blade increases from
root to tip.

For reference purposes, the blade angle is measured at a point75%

of the blade length from the root.

❖ Geometric Pitch

The geometric pitch is the distance the propeller would

travel forward in one complete revolution if it were moving
throughthe air at the blade angle.

❖ Effective Pitch

The distance which it actually moves forward in each

revolutionis called the “effective pitch” or “advance per
revolution”.
 ❖ Propeller Slip

The difference between the Geometric and the Effective

Pitchis called the Slip.

❖ Blade Twist
Sections near the tip of the propeller are at a greater distance from
the propeller shaft and travel through a greater distance.

Tip speed is therefore greater.

The blade angle must be decreased towards the tip to give aconstant
geometric pitch along the length of the blade.

A small blade angle is called “fine pitch”(For T/0,Climb)

A large blade angle is called “coarse pitch”. (For Cruise)

❖ The Helix Angle

The angle that the actual path of the
propeller makes to the plane of
rotation.

❖ Angle of Attack
 The angle between the blade chord and the relative airflow is
the angle of attack (α).

The angle of attack (α) is the result of propeller

rotationalvelocity (RPM) and aircraft forward
velocity (TAS).

BLADE ANGLE= HELIX ANGLE + AOA

Fixed Pitch Propeller

 ❖ A “fixed pitch” propeller at constant RPM.
Increasing TAS
decreases the angle of attack of the propeller.

❖ A “fixed pitch” propeller at a constant TAS.

Increasing RPM
Increases the angle of attack of the propeller.

Aerodynamic Forces on the Propeller

The shape of the section will generate a pressure differentialbetween
the two surfaces.
The surface which has the greater pressure is called the
“pressure face” or “thrust face”.
When the propeller is giving forward thrust, the thrust face is the
rear, (flat) surface.
The pressure differential will generate an aerodynamic force, the
total reaction, which may be resolved into two components, thrust
and propeller torque.

Thrust
A component at right angles to the plane of rotation.
The thrust force will vary along the length of each blade.
Thrust will cause a bending moment on each blade, tending to
bend the tip forward.

Torque (Propeller)
Torque is the equal and opposite reaction to the propeller
being rotated, which generates a turning moment about the
aircraft longitudinal axis.

Propeller torque also gives a bending moment to the blades, but

in the opposite direction to the plane of rotation.
 ❖ Propeller Efficiency

The efficiency of the propeller can be measured from the ratio,

Power out / Power in.

The power extracted (out) from a propeller, “Thrust

Power”, isthe product of Force (Thrust) × Velocity (TAS).
The power into the propeller, “Shaft Power” is engine torque
(Force) × Rotational Velocity (RPM).
The efficiency of the propeller can be expressed as:

Propeller Efficiency = Thrust Power /Shaft Power

Variation of Propeller Efficiency with Speed
For a fixed pitch propeller, increasing TAS at a constant RPM
reduces the blade angle of attack. This will decrease thrust.

The effect of this on propeller efficiency is as follows:

At some high forward speed the blade will be close to zero lift
angle of attack and thrust, and therefore Thrust Power, will be
zero.(propeller efficiency will also be zero.)

There will be only one speed at which a fixed pitch

propeller isoperating at its most efficient angle of attack
and where the propeller efficiency will be maximum.

As TAS is decreased, thrust will increase because blade angle of

attack is increased.
Thrust is very large, but the TAS is low so propeller efficiency will
be low.
Thus no useful work is being done when the aircraft is, for
instance, held against the brakes at full power prior to take-off.

The efficiency of a fixed pitch propeller varies with forward

speed.

If blade angle can be varied as TAS and/or RPM is changed, the

propeller will remain efficient over a much wider range of aircraft
operating conditions
 ❖ Variable Pitch Propellers

Adjustable pitch propellers

• These are propellers which can have their pitch adjusted on the
ground by mechanically re-setting the blades in the hub.

Two pitch propellers

• These are propellers which have a fine and coarse

pitch setting which can be selected in flight. Fine pitch
can be selected for take-off, climb and landing and
coarse pitch for cruise.
• They will usually also have a feathered position.

(Variable pitch) Constant speed propellers

• Modern aircraft have propellers which are controlled
automatically to vary their pitch (blade angle) so as to
maintain a selected RPM.
• A variable pitch propeller permits high efficiency to be obtained
over a wider range of TAS, giving improved take-off and climb
performance and cruising fuel consumption.

Constant Speed Propeller

 During the early stages of the take-off
roll. (Low TAS, high RPM)

The RPM is set to maximum

and the TAS is low.
The angle of attack is optimum
and maximum available efficiency
is obtained.
As the aircraft continues to
accelerate, the TAS will
increase, which decreases
the angle of attack of the
blades.
The constant speed unit (CSU)
senses the RPM increase and
increases pitch to maintain the
blade angle of attack constant.

At high forward speed in level flight.

As the TAS increased, the CSU continually increased the blade angle
(coarsened the pitch) to maintain a constant blade angle of attack.
Windmilling

If a loss of engine torque occurs

(the throttle is closed or the
engine fails), the prop’ will “fine
off” in an attempt to maintain the
set RPM.

The relative airflow will

impinge on the front surface of
the blade and generate drag
and “negative propeller
torque”.
The propeller will now drive the
engine.

The drag generated by a

windmilling propeller is very
high.
Feathering
Following an engine failure on a twin engine aeroplane the
increased drag from the windmilling
propeller will seriously degrade
climb performance, limit range and
add to the yawing moment caused
by the failed engine which will affect
controllability.
By turning the blades to their zero
lift angle of attack, no propeller
torque is generated and the propeller
will stop, reducing drag to a
minimum.
 Power Absorption
A propeller must be able to absorb all the shaft power developed
by the engine and also operate with maximum efficiency.

The critical factor is tip velocity.

If tip velocity is too high, the blade tips will approach the local
speed of sound and compressibility effects will decrease thrust
and increase rotational drag.

Supersonic tip speed will considerably reduce the efficiency

ofa propeller and greatly increase the noise it generates.
This imposes a limit on propeller diameter and RPM, and the TAS
at which it can be used.

Solidity
To increase power absorption, several
characteristics of the propeller can be
adjusted.
Propeller solidity is the ratio of the total frontal
area of the blades to the area of the
propeller disc.

Solidity can be achieved by:

Increasing the chord of each blade
Increasing the number of blades.

Increasing the number of blades beyond

a certain number (five or six) will reduce
overall efficiency.

To increase the number of blades efficiently, two

propellers rotating in opposite directions on the same
shaft are used.
 These are called contra-rotating propellers

Moments and Forces Generated by a Propeller

Due to its rotation a propeller generates yawing, rolling and pitching
moments. These are due to several different causes:
Torque reaction.
Gyroscopic precession.
Spiral (asymmetric) slipstream effect.
Asymmetric blade effect.

Torque Reaction
Because the propeller rotates clockwise, the equal and opposite
reaction (torque) will give the aircraft an anti-clockwise rolling
moment about the longitudinal axis.
During take-off this will apply a greater down load to the left wheel,
causing more rolling resistance on the left wheel making the aircraft
want to yaw to the left.
In flight, torque reaction will also make the aircraft want to roll to the
left.

Torque reaction will be greatest during high power, low

airspeed (IAS) flight conditions.
Torque reaction can be eliminated by fitting contra-rotating propellers.
Gyroscopic Effect
A rotating propeller has the properties of a gyroscope - rigidity inspace
and precession.
The characteristic which produces “gyroscopic effect” is
precession.
Gyroscopic precession is the reaction that occurs when a force is
applied to the rim of a propeller, the reaction occurs 90° ahead
in the direction of rotation and in the same direction as the
applied force.
As the aircraft is pitched up or down or yawed left or right, a force is
applied to the rim of the spinning propeller disc.
Note: Gyroscopic effect only occurs when the aircraft pitches
and/or yaws.
Pitch down - forward force on the top, force emerges 90° clockwise,
left yaw.
Left yaw - forward force on the right, force emerges 90° clockwise,
pitch up.
Right yaw - forward force on the left, force emerges 90° clockwise,
pitch down.
Spiral Slipstream Effect
As the propeller rotates it produces a backward flow of air, or
slipstream, which rotates around the aircraft.
Due to the direction of propeller rotation (clockwise) the spiral
slipstream meets the fin at an angle from the left, producing a
sideways force on the fin to the right.

Spiral slipstream effect gives the aircraft a yawing moment

to the left.
Spiral slipstream effect can be reduced by:

the use of contra or counter-rotating

propellers.a small fixed tab on the
rudder.
the engine thrust line inclined slightly to the right.
offsetting the fin slightly.
Asymmetric Blade Effect
This gives the down-going propeller blade a greater effective angle of
attack than the up-going blade.

The down-going (right) blade will generate more thrust.

The difference in thrust on the two sides of the propeller disc
will give a yawing moment to the left with a clockwise rotating
propeller in a nose-up attitude.
Asymmetric blade effect will be greatest at full power and low
airspeed (high angle of attack).