Periodicity
IGCSE Class Notes (During Online Teaching)
Periodic Table : The arrangement of elements in increasing order of their atomic
number such that, elements with similar physical and chemical properties are
grouped together
Modern Periodic law: The recurrence of Physical and Chemical properties of an
element is a function of its atomic number
In a periodic table elements are grouped together in groups and periods
Group: The group number denotes the number of electrons in the
valence(outermost shell)
The column number(i.e., The vertical column number) denotes the group number
Therefore,
Group Elements Number of electrons in the valence Valency
Number shell
I Li, Na,K,Rb,Cs,Fr 1 +1
II Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, 2 +2
Ba, Ra
III B, Al, Ga,In,Tl 3 +3
IV C, Si,Ge,Sn,Pb 4 +4,-4
V N,P,As,Sb,Bi 5 -3
VI O,S,Se,Te,Po 6 -2
VII F,Cl,Br,I,At 7 -1
0 He, Ne, Ar, Kr, 8, He has only two electrons in its 0
Xe,Rn outermost(only) shell
H is not in any group and is considered as a group in itself
Reason : It has only 1 electron in its only shell
Valency: (NOT to be confused with Valence shell electrons)
Number of electrons required to attain nearest noble gas configuration
Valency can also be defined as – Combining capacity of an element
For groups I –IV, The valency and the number of electrons in the valence shell is
the same
For elements from Group V to group VII
Valency is (Group Number – 8)
The reason being – An element is said to be stable when it has 8 electrons in its
outermost shell
Remember in all bonding, The Valence shell needs to have 8 electrons, this is
termed as Octet Rule
Octet Rule – Every element tends to attain 8 electrons in its valence shell to form
stable compounds during the formation of a chemical bond
Since Valency is 0 for elements like Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe,Rn- They are termed as Group 0
elements
He: He atomic number is 2, The maximum capacity of the first shell is 2, and
therefore, He , H, Li, Be, B (to some extent) would acquire stability when they gain
the electron configuration of He
i.e., their combining capacity is zero
Chemical Bond :- The force of attraction between a pair of valence shell electrons
of two different atoms
Ionic Bond : Formed between Oppositely Charged ions
Electrostatic or Electrovalent force of attracgtion between Cations(Positively
charged ions) and Anions( negatively charged ions)
Cations are formed by loss of valence shell electrons, for the elements to attain
their nearest noble gas (group zero) configuration
For cations to be formed, the elements Must have low Ionization energy
Ionization Energy : The minimum energy required by an element to lose its
electron from the valence shell of an Isolated gaseous atom
Across the period, electrons are added to the same shell. As a result, the number
of positive and negative charges increase as we move across the period. Thus,
their seperation turns difficult(i.e, removeal of electron gets hard) across the
period
Hence Ionization energy increases across the period
Down the group
i. The number of shells increase, as a result the distance between the Nucleus
and the valence shell increases, thus their separation gets easier and hence
Ionization energy decreases
ii. Screening or Shielding effect – The decrease in the nuclear charge
experienced by an outer shell electron due to the presence of inner shell
electrons. The more the number of inner shell, the greater will be the
shielding effect Thus ionization energy decreases down the group
Anions are formed by gain of electrons to the valence shell, for the elements to
attain their nearest noble gas (group zero) configuration
To form anions, the electron affinity has to be high
Electron Affinity – The energy released when an electron is gained to the valence
shell of a gaseous isolated atom
Across the period, the nuclear charge increases, as electrons are added to the
same shell, hence, electrons can be easily gained by the valence shell and
thereby, the electron affinity increases across the period
Down the group
i. The shell number increases, therefore the distance between the valence
shell and the nucleus increases, therefore ability to gain an electron
decreases
ii. Due to shielding effect of the inner shell electrons, the effective nuclear
charge experienced in the valence shell is less than the actual nuclear
charge. Thus, the ability to gain electrons decreases
Thus, electron affinity decreases down the group
Covalent Bond : - Force of attraction between valence shell of two different
atoms by mutual sharing(i.e., without the gain or loss of electrons)
Co – Together, Valent – Electrons in the valence shell
Homonuclear Molecules/Homonuclear Covalent Bonds : - The combining
atoms are of the same elements .
For example, H , F , Cl , Br , I , O , N , P , S
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 8
They can be diatomic(involving only two atoms) , as with H , F , Cl , Br , I , O , N
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Or, Polyatomic as with P , S 4 8
Heteronuclear Molecules : - The combining atoms are of different elements
They can again be Diatomic as with HF, HCl, HBr,HI, ICl,IBr,IF, ClF, CO
Polyatomic as with : H O, NH , CH , CO , C H etc
2 3 4 2 2 4
Ionization Energy: minimum energy required to remove an electron from the
outermost shell of a gaseous isolated atom
We know that, any charged particle will behave as a magnet.
Thatz the reason, when people receive an electric shock and if we touch them
bare hand, we too would get struck
Both the nucleus as well as the electron are charged particles
When the nucleus is weak and the electron is far away, the separation becomes
easier.
For instance, when we have a weak magnet a piece of iron bit far away from the
magnet, then the separation of iron from magnet is easier
Now replace, magnet with nucleus and piece of iron with electron
The horizontal row – indicates, electrons are added to the same shell
The vertical column – denotes, the number of electrons in the valence shell
Group I elements – Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs all have one electron in their outermost shell
To write electron configuration –
The first row, or the first shell can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons
Hence, the first row of the periodic table can have only two elements, namely-
H(Z =1) and He(Z=2)
The third element, Li(Z=3) = 2,1 group I
Be (Z=4) 2,2 group II
O (Z =8) 2, 6 group VI
Number of maximum electrons, that can be filled in any shell is given by the
relation,
N electrons
maximum
(in a shell) = 2(n) , where, n is the shell number
2
Therefore, the first shell can accommodate, a maximum of 2(1) = 2(1) = 2 2
electrons
The second shell can accommodate, 2(2) = 2(4)=8 2
Hence, the second shell can have 8 elements, Li Be B, C, N, O, F, Ne
The third shell, can have a maximum of 2(3) = 2*9 = 18 2
i.e., the third shell can accommodate 18 elements, therefore, the third row
should have 18 elements
but, the third row has only 8 elements and not 18
Reason – each shell has certain subshells
The discussion of which is beyond the scope of our syllabus
We will learn more about subshells in AS Chemistry
Write the electron configuration of P (Z=15), 2, 8, 5
Write the electron configuration of K(Z=19) – 2,8,9 (Wrong)
The actual way would be – 2,8,8,1 for K, Z =19
For Ca (Z =20) – 2,8,8,2
For Sc (Z=21) – 2, 8,8+1,2 = 2,8,9,2
Shell will be denoted by –n
And subshell will be denoted by – l
Electrons are filled in increasing order of n+l values
1s2
2s 2p
2 6
3s 3p 3d
2 6 10
4s 4p 4d 4f
2 6 10 14
5s 5p 5d 5f
2 6 10 14
6s 6p 6d
2 6 10
7s 7p
2 6
Let us consider, 1s – n =1, l = 0 (Since s subshell is designated with the number
0)say you are I year 1, i.e., your shell number is 1
The subshell is like a junior to the shell
So, only juniors to year 1 students are the Montessori, whom we designate as
year 0
For 1s, n+ 1 values , i.e. sum of shell and subshell number = 1 +0 =1
Hence 1s is filled first
The s subshell can accommodate a maximum of two electrons
That is the reason we denote 1s 2
H – 1s , He – 1s
1 2
The second shell, i.e., year 2 can have, the Montessori as well as year 1 as juniors
Therefore, shell 2 has two subshells, s which has a designated number of 0 and p,
which is designated with a number 1
Therefore, the second shell can have
2s 2p , subshell p can accommodate a maximum of 8 electrons
2 6
Li(Z=3) – 1s 2s
2 1
Be (z =4) – 1s 2s
2 2
B(Z=5) – 1s 2s 2p
2 2 1
For 2s, the sum of the shell and subshell = 2+0 = 2
For 2p, the sum of shell and subshell value = 2+1 (since, p is assigned a value of 1)
Ne (Z=10) = 1s 2s 2p2 2 6
The p subshell, can accommodate only a maximum of 6 electrons
Na (Z =11) - 1s 2s 2pt for 3d =3+2 3s
2 2 6 1
For 3s, the sum of the shell and subshell = 3+0 = 3
For year 3, the juniors are , year 0(s=0), year1(p=1), year 2 (d=2)
K (Z =19) - 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d (WRONG)
2 2 6 2 6 1
Remember, p can accommodate only a maximum of 6 electrons
The third shell can have 3d = shell number 3 and subshell number 2
So, the sum of the shell number + subshell number = 3 + 2 = 5
Now come to 4s, for 4s, shell number – 4, subshell number is 0 , therefore, sum of
the shell number and the sub shell number for 4s = 4+0 , which is less than that of
the sum of the shell number and subshell number for 3d = 3 +2 = 5
Hence, electrons are added to 4s subshell before the filling of 3d subshell
It is for this reason that, the electron configuration of K (Z=19) = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 6
4s (Correct)
1
Thus, we show the electron configuration of K as 2,8,8,1(Correct) and NOT as
2,8,9(WRONG)
The numbers – 1,2,3 …. Denote shell number
The letters – s, p, d, f denote type of subshell, each subshell is given a number –
for instance, s =0, p =1, d =2, f =3
Electrons are filled in such a way that, the electrons get added in increasing order
of the sum of the shell number and the subshell number
Let us consider, 3d and 4s
For 3d, the sum of shell number(3) and the subshell number (d subshell has a
number assigned with a value of 2), therefore, 3d = 3 + 2 = 5
For 4s, the sum of shell number(4) and the subshell number (s subshell has a
number assigned with a value of 0),thus, 4+0 = 4
Now, 4s (i.e., 4+0) < 3d (3=2) = 5
Write the electron Configuration of Fe(Z=26) =2,8,14,2
1s n + l = 1 +0 =1
2
n electrons =2
2s n+ l = 2 + 0 = 2
2
2p n+ l = 2 +1 = 3
6
n electrons =8
3s n+ l = 3 + 0 = 3
2
3p n+ l = 3+ 1 = 4 3d n+ 1 = 3+2 = 5
6 6
n electrons = 14
4s n+ 1 + 4+0 = 4
2
n electrons =2
Draw the electron configuration of Br(Z=35) = 2,8,18,7
1s (n + l = 1 +0 =1)
2
n electrons =2
2s n+ l = (2 + 0 = 2) 2p (n+ l = 2 +1 = 3)
2 6
n electrons =8
3s n+ l = (3 + 0 = 3) 3p (n+ l = 3+ 1 = 4) 3d (n+ 1 = 3+2 = 5) n
2 6 10
electrons = 18
4s n+l = (4 + 0 = 4) 4p (n+l = 4+1 =5)
2 5
n electrons =7
Draw the electron configuration of Pb(Z=82)- 2,8,18,32,18,4
1s (n + l = 1 +0 =1)
2
n=2
e
2s (n+ l = 2 + 0 = 2)2p (n+ l = 2 +1 = 3)
2 6
n =8
e
3s (n+ l = 3 + 0 = 3)3p (n+ l = 3+ 1 = 4) 3d (n+ 1 = 3+2 = 5)
2 6 10
n = 18
e
4s (n+l = 4+0= 4)4p (n+l = 4+1 =5) 4d (n+l = 4+2 =6)4f (n+l=4+3=7)
2 6 10 14
n = 32
e
5s (n+l=5+0=5)5p (n+l=5+1=6) 5d (n+l=5+2=7)
2 6 10
n = 18
e
6s (n+l=6+0=6)6p (n+l=6+1=7)
2 2
n =4
e
Draw/Write the electron configuratgion of Te(Z=52)
1s (n + l = 1 +0 =1)
2
n=2 e
2s (n+ l = 2 + 0 = 2)2p (n+ l = 2 +1 = 3)
2 6
n =8
e
3s (n+ l = 3 + 0 = 3)3p (n+ l = 3+ 1 = 4) 3d (n+ 1 = 3+2 = 5)
2 6 10
n = 18
e
4s (n+l = 4+0= 4)4p (n+l = 4+1 =5) 4d (n+l = 4+2 =6)
2 6 10
n = 18
e
5s (n+l=5+0=5)5p
2 4
n =6
e
From the examination point of view
*Remember this way
Fourth row elements
K = 2,8,8,1
Ca = 2,8,8,2
Sc-Zn : 2,8,8+x,2 where x is the column(vertical number)number from Sc(column
1) to Zn(Column 10)
Cu(Z=29) – 2,8,8+9,2 = 2,8,17,2
Mn(Z=25) – 2,8,8+5, 2 = 2,8,13,2
Ni(Z=28) – 2,8,8+x, 2 =
In the fourth row, from Ga-Kr, the electron configuration would be –
2,8,18,Z-28, where Z is the atomic number of the element
Ga(Z=31) – 2,8,18,31-28 = 2,8,18,3
For 5 row elements
th
- Rb (Z = 31; 2,8,18,18,1)
- Sr (Z = 38; 2,8,18,18,2)
-From Y-Cd ; 2,8,18,8+x,2
Ru(Z=44) – Ru is in row(Horizontal series) 5 and column (Vertical Series)
6 (from Y-Cd)
The electron configuration would be – 2,8,18,8+6,2 = 2,8,18,14,2
where x is the column number (Y – Column1 to Cd – Column 10)
-From In – Kr
2,8,18,18,Z- 46, Z is the atomic number
For 6 row elements
th
Cs (Z =55; 2,8,18,18,8,1)
Ba (Z =56; 2,8,18,18,8,2)
La (Z=57; 2,8,18,18,9,2)
From Ce-Lu; 2,8,18,18+y,9,2
where y is the column number 1-14(Ce – Column 1 and Lu – Column
14) MOSTLY WILL NOT be asked
From Hf-Hg; 2,8,18,32,9+x,2
where x is the column number (Hf – Column 2 to Hg – Column 10)
-From Tl-Xe
2,8,18,32,18, Z= 78, where Z is the atomic number
For 7 row elements
th
Fr (Z=87; 2,8,18,32,18,8,1)
Ra (Z =88; 2,8,18,32,18,8,2)
Ac (Z=9; 2,8,18,32,19,8,2)
From Th-Lr; 2,8,18,32,19+y,8,2)
where y is the column number from 1-14(Th- Column 1 to Lr- Column
14) MOSTLY WILL NOT be asked
NOTE:
K, Ca are in 4 row and electrons are added to the fourth shell
th
While Sc-Zn are ad aded in the 4 row but, electrons are added to the third shell
th
Again, from Ga-Kr, the electrons are added to the fourth shell
Rb, Cs are in the fifth row, and electrons are added to the 5 shell
th
Elements from Y to Cd are in the fifth row, electrons are added to the fourth shell
Octet rule: An atom is stable when it has 8 electrons in its outermost shell
(Exception, He). Every element shares or looses/gains electrons to attain 8
electrons in their outermost. i.e., thrive to reach their nearest noble gas
configuration.
A Na atom has atomic number 11, therefore it has 11 Protons -11(+1) and 11
electrons – 11 (-1)
So overall charge on Na atom is +11 – 11 = 0, like any neutral atom
The electron configuration of Na – 2,8,1
It has to either gain 7 electrons or lose an electron
Elements on the left hand side of the periodic table have low ionisation energy,
i.e., require low energy to lose an electron
Therefore sodium loses an electron to form Na species
+
The reason for positive charge is it has an electron , but the proton number
remains the same
i.e., the effective charge on Na after losing an electron is
11(+1) + 10(-1) = +11 -10 = +1
For Calcium Chloride would be CaCl 2
For Aluminum Chloride the formula would be : AlCl 3
Al is neutralised by 3 Cl-
3+ -
Aluminium Oxide has the formula Al O 2 3
Relative atomic mass is defined as the ratio of the mass of an atom of an
element to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of C-12
A mole is defined as the basic unit of amount of substance
One mole of any element will have 6.02*1023 atoms
So, if we consider Hydrogen, the simplest of all the elements,
The mass of 1 atom of H would be 1 g/6.02*1023
Remember, the atomic mass number of H is 1
The basic unit of all substances is – mole
1 mole of any element will have Avogadro number of Atoms, i.e., 6.02*1023
atoms
Therefore, Avogadro stated that – 1 mole of any substance would weigh in
grams, the atomic mass number of the element
i.e., 1 mole of H will weigh 1 g
1 mole of He will weigh 4 g
1 mole of Cu will weigh 63 g
1 mole of O would weigh 16 g
1 mole of Silver would weigh 108 g
1 mole of C would weigh 12 g
So, 1 atom of H, i.e., 6.02*1023 atoms of H would weigh 1/(6.02*1023) g
Relative atomic mass, it has NO Units
Relative atomic mass of 1 atom of H = {1g/(6.02*1023)}/{(1/12)[12
g/(6.02*1023)]}
12/(6.02*1023) is the mass of 1 atom of C
Now, we are taking 1/12 of the mass of 1 atom of C-12 to make the
denominator as 1
As we find,
Relative atomic mass of 1 atom of H = {1g/(6.02*1023)}/{([12
g/(12*6.02*1023)]} = 1
For example,
(1/2) 5 can be rewritten as 5/2
(1/x)(y/z) = y/xz
Consider 1/x as 1/12
Y as 12
And , z as 6.02*1023
Similarly,
Relative atomic mass of 1 atom of Na (mass number 23)
= Relative atomic mass of 1 atom of Na = {23g/(6.02*1023)}/{(1/12)[12
g/(6.02*1023)] = 23
Relative atomic mass of 1 atom of N (mass number 14)
= Relative atomic mass of 1 atom of N = {14g/(6.02*1023)}/{(1/12)[12
g/(6.02*1023)] = 14
6.02*1023 atoms of any element will weigh the atomic mass number of that
element in grams
Say, one box of any chocolates will have 50 number of such chocolates
for example, 1 box of Kitkats have a price of 150 USD, i.e. 50 kitkats is
USD 150
How many will 1Kitkat cost
150 USD/50
One box(i.e., 50 pieces) of Dairy Milk will cost , say 500 USD
Each dairy milk will be 500 USD/50
The chocolate price want to be made standard with reference to price of
dairy milk
So, the relative price of 1 box of kitkat will be = (150 USD/50
Pieces)/[(1/500 USD)(500 USD/50pieces)]
Now replace 500 with 12, the atomic mass of C
And 50 with 6.02*1023
150 with mass number of element under consideration
1 atom of O will weight 16(atomic mass number of O)/6.02*1023 atoms
1 atom of C -12 will weigh
12/6.02*1023
But, we need the denominator as 1 and not as 12
For this reason, we take 1/12th of mass of 1 atom of C-12
Relative is always a ratio
Say for example, a cheetah runs 3 times faster than a deer
i.e., relative of speed of cheetah with respect to deer = speed of
cheetah/speed of deer
now, take the ratio of the masses of 1 atom of O to one atom of C-12
this will be
[16 g/ (6.02*1023)]/ {12 g/(6.02*1023)} = 16/12
To make the denominator as unity
The denominator has to be divided by the same number
For this reason, we take 1/12th of the atom of C-12
Now, relative atomic mass of O = 16/[(1/12)*12] = 16
Q. Determine, the relative atomic number of P, Mass number 31
One mole, i.e., 6.02*1023 atoms of P-31 would weight – 31 g
Therefore, 1 atom of P-31 would weigh = 31 g/6.02*1023
This has to be related to the mass of 1 atom of C-12
Atomic mass number of C-12 = 12 (6 Protons , 6 neutrons)
i.e., 6.02*1023 atoms of C-12 Weigh 12 g
therefore, 1 atom of C-12 would weigh 12 g/6.02*1023
thus, relative atomic mass of P-31 = [31 g/(6.02*1023)]/[12 g/(6.02*1023)]=
31/12
however, denominator has to be standardized to 1
and hence, we take 1/12th of the mass of C-12
Relative atomic mass of P-31 = 31/[(1/12)*12] = 31
