Soil Improvement

Deep Dynamic Compaction

 Deep Compaction

There exist three types of compaction for deeper layers

DYNAMIC COMPACTION

VIBRO-COMPACTION

STONE COLUMNS

2
Deep Dynamic compaction
It is the compaction by repeated dropping of heavy weight from a crane on the ground
surface. Deep compaction techniques are required when in–situ soil extending to large
depths does not meet the requirements of performance criteria specified for the
expected loading and environmental conditions.
This technique has been used to:

 Increase soil density, friction angle and stiffness

 Increase soil bearing capacity
 Reduce foundation settlements
 Reduce seismic subsidence by reducing the liquefaction potential for planned
structures
 Permit construction on fills.

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Principles of Dynamic compaction:

- Dynamic Densification

- Dynamic Consolidation

- Dynamic Replacement
 Dynamic densification
• Dynamic compaction is a ground improvement technique
that densifies soils and fills by dropping a heavy weight
repeatedly on the ground at regular intervals to densify
soils at depth.

• When dynamic compaction is used on unsaturated

granular geomaterial, the impact by a heavy tamper
immediately displaces particles to a denser state,
compresses or expels air out of voids, and reduces the
volume of voids.

• It is a Cost effective method for densifying

loose sands and silty soils up to 15 to 30 feet
deep.
Dynamic Consolidation

Theory have explained that saturated fine-grained soil can also be improved by
repeatedly dropping a tamper. They attributed dynamic consolidation to two main
mechanisms:
- The compressibility due to the presence of micro bubbles
- The change of permeability of the soil mass due to the creation of fissures

Dynamic Replacement

When a clayey soil is too soft and has too low permeability, it is not effective to be
densified or consolidated during and after tamping. Instead of improving the soil,
the soil can be displaced by tamping and replaced by stones or coarse
aggregates. The process of dynamic replacement involves tamping, backfilling, and
continued tamping until stone columns are formed, as shown in Figure. The
design of dynamic replacement is similar to that for stone columns to be
discussed later.
 Advantages
1. Deep dynamic compaction can improve a large area of geomaterials in a relatively short
time at low cost. It is very effective in densifying loose and partially saturated fill with
less than 15% fines.
2. Dynamic compaction can change a heterogeneous geomaterial to a more uniform,
denser, and stronger material. The major equipment needed for this method is a crane
and a tamper, which are readily available from many contractors.

 Limitations
1. Deep dynamic compaction is generally less to not effective to improve saturated clayey
soils. Special measures have to be taken for this method to be reasonably effective for
these soils, such as providing drainage and/or dewatering and having a long
waiting period for dissipation of excess pore water pressure. Piezometers are needed to
monitor generation and dissipation of excess pore water pressure. It is suitable for the
following conditions:
• Loose and partially saturated fills
• Saturated free-drained soils
• Silts with plasticity index less than 8
• Clayey soil with a low degree of saturation (moisture content lower than plastic limit)
2. Impact by deep dynamic compaction induces noise, vibration, and lateral movement,
which may cause problems to nearby buildings, substructures, and utility lines.
This method often requires instrumentations to monitor vibration, noise level, and
ground movement.
3. The tamping work may cause flying debris, which poses danger to workers onsite
4. The mobilization cost may be high when large crane and tamper are used.
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS CONSIDERATIONS

A. Site Investigation

Before the design of deep dynamic compaction, a geotechnical investigation

is required to evaluate the site conditions, which includes:

• Geomaterial profiles including geomaterial type, particle size, fine content,

degree of saturation, and Atterberg limits

• Relative density of cohesionless geomaterial

• Groundwater level

• Possible voids

• Possible presence of hard lenses within the depth of improvement

• Possible sensitive soil

B. Influence Factors

The design of deep dynamic compaction should consider the following influence
factors:
1. Geomaterial type
2. Depth and area of improvement
3. Tamper geometry and weight
4. Drop height and energy
5. Pattern and spacing of drops
6. Depth of crater
7. Number of drops and passes
8. Degree of improvement
9. Induced settlement
10. Environmental impact (vibration, noise, and lateral ground movement)
1. Geomaterial type
Zone 1: is the most favorable one for Dynamic compaction as the degree of saturation
is low, the permeability of soil mass is high and the drainage is good.

Zone 2: is the intermediate zone between the most favorable and unfavorable zone for
dynamic compaction. Silts, clayey silts and sandy silts falls into this category. Normally
those have permeability in the order of 10- 5 to 10-8 m/s.
Dynamic compaction works in these deposits, but because of lower permeability than
the desired value, the energy must be applied by using multiple passes. Sufficient time
should be allowed between the passes to allow excess pore water pressure to
dissipate. Sometimes it takes days to weeks to dissipate.

Zone 3: is the most unfavorable zone for dynamic compaction operation as the
permeability is very low as less than 10-8 or 10-9 m/s. Thus, for the clayey saturated
soil it takes a lengthy time to dissipate excess pore water pressure. This makes
dynamic compaction quite impractical for these deposits. Furthermore, the degree of
improvement is generally minor.
2. Depth and area of Improvement

The depth of improvement depends on the project requirement for desired

performance. For example, a loose and saturated sand layer, susceptible to
liquefaction, should be improved to the depth below which no liquefaction
will occur.

• Primary concern
It Depends on the:
 Soil conditions
 Energy per drop
 Contact pressure of tamper
 Grid spacing
 Number of passes
 Time lag between passes
• The depth up to which compaction is caused by fall of heavy weight can be
calculated by the Leonardo equation as shown below:

Field data show that the depths of improvement for granular soils are mostly up to
10 m while those for cohesive soils and clay fills are limited to 5 m.
Poran and Rodriguez (1992) suggested an approach for design of dynamic compaction
scheme in a project based on the approximate shape of the area compacted which is
assumed as follows
1. The required significant depth of densification is obtained from
Where DI = significant depth of densification (m)
WH= Weight of hammer (metric ton)
h = height of drop (m)

2. From the figure given above, DI = b

3. Determine DI/D = b/D where D is the width of the square tamper

4. Using the plot given by Poran and Rodriguez (1992),determine the magnitude of
N WH h /Ab for the value of b/D obtained

5. Since the magnitude of WH , h, A=D*D (for squared Tampers) and b are known (or assumed),
the number of hammer drops N can be estimated .

6. With known value of N WH h/Ab, determine a/D and thus a.

The grid spacing for dynamic compaction may now be assumed to be equal to or some what
less
than a.
3. Tamper Geometry and Weight
Most tampers are made of steel or steel shell infilled with sand or concrete and have a
circular or square base with an area of 3–6 m2 or larger. Tampers with smaller base areas (3–
4 m2) are commonly used for granular soils while those with large base areas (larger than 6
m2) are used for cohesive soils. The weight of a tamper typically ranges from 5 to 40 tons.

4. Influence of Cable Drag

The Cable attached to the tamper causes friction and reduces the velocity of tamper which
makes the free fall of tamper more efficient

5. Drop Height and Energy

• The drop weight Wt may range from 5 to 40 tons
• The drop height Hd typically varies from 10 m to 40 m
• The energy per drop in practice mostly ranges from 800 to 8000 KN⋅m
• Shock waves are generated, they travel to considerable depth, rearranging the soil
formation to a denser and more compact state
Hd = (WtHd) 0.54

WtHd = energy per drop of tamper (ton-m)

6. Pattern and Spacing of Drops
• The drop locations are typically located on a grid pattern, the spacing of which is
determined by the subsurface conditions and foundation loading and geometry.
• Done systematically in a rectangular or triangular pattern in phases.

• Each phase can have number of passes; primary, secondary, tertiary, etc.

3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m

LEGEND

Primary Pass
18 m

Secondary Pass

18 m

(a) (b)
• Spacing between impact points depends upon:
• Depth of compressible layer
• Permeability of soil
• Location of ground water level
• Deeper layers are compacted at wider grid spacing, upper layer are compacted with
closer grid spacing
• Spacing of drop points (s1 or s2) is commonly selected to be 1.5–2.5 times the
diameter or width of a tamper (s1 and s2 are often equal to create uniform
compaction).
• Compaction often starts with drop points at larger spacing (e.g., phase 1-1 and phase
1-2) to densify deeper soil layers. Drop points at smaller spacing (e.g., phase
2) are to densify shallower soil layers. The secondary phase of compaction uses a lower
energy tamper to cover the whole site.

Layout of drop points 18

7. Depth of Crater

A crater is formed under each tamper drop and its depth increases with the number of
drops. High-energy compaction can induce a crater of 1.0–1.5 m deep.
Rollins and Kim (2010) proposed empirical formulas to estimate crater depth, dcd, in
soils with a low degree of saturation after dynamic compaction:
For a rough estimate:

For a more accurate estimate:

Dynamic compaction on soil with a high degree of saturation would result in deeper crater
depth.
 8. Number of Drops and Passes
The number of drops and passes can be estimated based on the applied energy on a site.
The applied energy (AE) at each drop point location can be calculated as follows:

The total applied energy is the sum of the energy applied during high- energy passes plus
ironing pass. Unit applied energy (UAE) is defined based on the depth of improvement
as follows:
The Chinese Ground Improvement Technical Code (China Academy of Building Research,
2000) sets the following criteria to determine the number of drops from trial tamping
work:
• The average vertical displacement induced by the last two drops is not greater than
50 mm. When high drop energy is used, it should not be greater than 100 mm.
• No large heave occurs around the crater.
• The crater should not be so deep that lifting of the tamper becomes difficult.
9. Degree of Improvement
The degree of improvement depends on:
• Geomaterial type
• fine content
• groundwater table
• applied energy
• drop layout
• time.
The below figures show the average SPT N values, CPT tip resistance, and pressuremeter
(PMT) limit pressure above the improvement depth. The Table provides upper bound test
values after dynamic compaction. The table can be used as target values for dynamic
compaction preliminary design. The actual degree of improvement should be evaluated by
in situ testing after compaction.
10. Induced Settlement
• After each pass of dynamic compaction, construction equipment, most commonly
bulldozers are used to level the ground surface.
• Ground settlement (also called subsidence) is measured based on the current ground
elevation as compared with the initial elevation.
• In unsaturated soil, the settlement occurs immediately after compaction. In saturated
soil, however, the settlement increases gradually with time after the initial compression
under each compaction.
• Most of the settlement results from filling large craters induced by tampers. The
approximate induced settlement as percent of improvement depth is provided in the
below table . The induced settlement can also be estimated based on the crater depth
Presence of Soft Layer

When a soft layer exists near the ground surface, it may not be able to support the
equipment for dynamic compaction operation or absorb applied energy so that limited
energy is transmitted to soil at depth. Under such a condition, this soft layer should be
excavated or stabilized by a stabilizing layer (typically 0.3–1.2 m thick) to provide a stable
working platform for dynamic compaction equipment and to limit crater depth.
The most favorable material for the stabilizing layer is a coarse-grained geomaterial, such
as gravel, crushed stone, or building rubble. An extra-thick stabilizing layer reduces the
depth of improvement below the stabilizing layer; therefore, it should be avoided.

Presence of Hard Layer

When a hard layer to a certain thickness (1–2 m) exists near the ground surface, it
distributes the applied energy over a wide area so that the energy transmitted to the
depth is greatly reduced. As a result, the depth and degree of improvement are
reduced. Under such a condition, the hard layer should be removed or loosened. When
a hard layer is thin, however, a tamper may penetrate this layer and deliver proper
energy to the underlying layer
High Groundwater Table
It is a general requirement for dynamic compaction that the groundwater table should
be 2 m below the ground surface. When the groundwater table is within 2 m, dynamic
compaction likely encounters some difficulties. Typically, a crater depth ranges from 1.0
to 1.5 m. Dynamic compaction generates excess pore water pressure so that the
groundwater rises and enters the craters. The geomaterial and water can be intermixed
during compaction. To avoid such a problem, the groundwater table should be lowered
by dewatering or additional fill should be added to increase the distance from the
ground surface to the groundwater table.

Elapsed Time Dynamic

Compaction induces excess pore water pressure if the geomaterial is saturated. The
excess pore water pressure can accumulate under multiple drops of impact if the
geomaterial is not pervious. The accumulated excess pore water pressure reduces
geomaterial strength, destabilizes the ground, and minimizes the densification. Under
such a condition, the number of drops in each phase or pass should be limited. An
elapsed time is needed between two phases or passes to allow the dissipation of the
excess pore water pressure. For sandy soil, the dissipation of the excess pore water
pressure is rapid and can complete within a few minutes. However, the geomaterial
with fine contents may take a few days to weeks to dissipate the excess pore water
pressure. To shorten the time for pore water pressure dissipation, prefabricated vertical
drains or vacuum dewatering have been used.
Design Parameters and Procedure

The influence factors discussed above are the design parameters for deep dynamic
compaction. The following procedure may be followed for design of deep dynamic
compaction:
1. Based on geotechnical profile and potential problem, select the depth of
improvement.
2. Based on geomaterial type and degree of saturation, select the nc value.
3. Calculate the required energy per blow for the high-energy impact using the
proper equation based on the required depth of improvement.
4. Estimate the drop height using the proper equation and then the tamper weight
5. Based on the applied energy guidelines, the unit applied energy UAE can be
selected based on the geomaterial type
6. Calculate the required total applied energy, AE total
7. Based on the geomaterial type and degree of saturation near the ground surface,
the required unit applied energy for the ironing pass can be selected using the
proper table
8. Calculate the required applied energy for the ironing pass using the proper
equation with an assumed crater depth (typically 1.0–1.5 m).
9. Calculate the required total applied energy for high-energy compaction by
subtracting the required applied energy for the ironing pass from the total
required applied energy.
10. Based on the tamper diameter, estimate the spacing of drops.
11. Based on the required total applied energy for high-energy compaction and the spacing
of drops, calculate the required number of drops (round up to an integer number). If
the required number of drops on one location is greater than 10, multiple passes or
phases are required.
12. Estimate the crater depth.
13. Select target performance values after improvement.
14. Estimate the settlement after improvement based on the table or crater depth.

Example
A 5-m-high highway embankment is to be constructed over a landfill that has a fine-grained
soil cover underlain by a soil mixture with the total thickness ranging from 5.0 to 8.2 m. This
soil mixture includes primarily silts and clays with construction waste (concrete blocks, brick
fragments, etc.). At certain locations, there are voids and loose pockets within the landfill.
Standard penetration tests performed prior to ground improvement indicate SPT values
ranging from about 5 to 20 with an average of 10. The predicted settlement ranged from 140
to 274 mm. Dynamic compaction is selected to reduce the anticipated total and differential
settlements. The required SPT N value after improvement should be at least 20. The surface of
the landfill is strong enough to support the dynamic compaction equipment. Leachate inside
the landfill was at a relatively shallow depth (approximately 2.5 m from the existing surface).
To minimize the generation of excess pore water pressure, multiple pass construction may be
needed. The contractor has an 18.2-ton tamper that has the diameter of 1.5 m and the height
of 1.5 m.
You are requested to provide a preliminary design for the dynamic compaction project and
estimate the settlement after compaction.
Solution
1. Considering the thickness of the landfill typically ranging from 5.0 to 8.2 m, the depth
of improvement is selected as 8.2 m.
2. Based on the composition of the landfill, it can be considered as a semipervious soil
deposit. Since the landfill has a high degree of saturation, the nc value is selected as
0.35.
3. As a result, the required energy per blow can be computed as follows:
WtHd = ( 8.2/ 0.35 )2 = 550 t-m
4. The contractor provided an 18.2-t tamper, therefore, the required drop height is 550 t-
m/18.2 t = 30.2 m. Based on the equation , the estimated drop height is also 30.2 m.
5. Based on the applied energy guidelines, the unit applied energy for landfills ranges
from 600 to 1100 kJ/m3. The average unit applied energy is 850 kJ/m3, therefore, the
required total applied energy is AEtotal = 850 kJ/m3 × 8.2 m = 6970 kJ/m2 = 6.97 MJ/m2.
6. Ironing passes are typically used to compact the geomaterial near the surface, which is
close to the depth of the craters. Typically, the crater depth ranges from 1.0 to 1.5 m.
The geomaterial above the landfill is most likely fine grained. Since the geomaterial
near the surface is above the groundwater table, the unit applied energy for the
semipervious fine-grained soils of 300 kJ/m3 may be used for the ironing passes.
Therefore, the required total applied energy for ironing passes is AEIP = 300 kJ/m3 × 1.5
m = 450 kJ/m2 = 0.45 MJ/m2.
7. The required total applied energy for high-energy compaction is AEHEP Np = 6.97 MJ/m2
– 0.45 MJ/m2 = 6.52 MJ/m2
8. To allow for pore water pressure dissipation during energy application, multiple passes
are needed. Assume two passes are adopted. The required applied energy for each
pass is AEHEP = 6.52 MJ/m2/2 = 3.26 MJ/m2.
9. Typical drop spacing is 1.5–2.5 times the tamper diameter. The factor of 2.0 is selected
for this site, that is, drop spacing = 2.0 × 1.5 m = 3.0 m (assuming a square pattern).
10. The number of drops at each specific drop point location can be computed by

Select the number of the drops for each pass at 6. the figure below depicts the layout of
tamper drops.
11. For the number of drops at one location at 6 for each pass, the crater depth can be
estimated as follows: dcd = 0.075√WtHd = 0.075√ 550 = 1.75 m
The allowable crater depth for construction is 1.5 + 0.3 = 1.8 m, which is the same as the
estimated crater depth expected in the field; therefore, it is OK.
12. Based on the FHWA guidelines, the upper bound of SPT N value after dynamic
compaction ranges from 20 to 40. The induced settlement for uncontrolled fill ranges
from 5 to 20%. If the average percentage (i.e., 13%) is considered, the possible induced
settlement is 0.13 × 8.2 m = 1.10 m. However, based on the estimated crater depth, the
expected settlement may be estimated as follows (assume the crater diameter is the
same as the tamper diameter and no heave). The area ratio of improvement, defined as
the area of each crater to the influence area of each tamping point, is:

the induced settlement by two passes of dynamic compaction = 2 × 0.20 × 1.75 = 0.70 m.
If heave is considered, the induced settlement will be smaller.