ADVERTISING RESEARCH

Advertising research is a detailed study on a particular subject,

which leads to a successful and effective campaign. Advertising
research also decides the success of an advertising campaign
by measuring the impact over its audience. The purpose of
advertising research is to either establish a brand image or to
improve one. Research also helps in arriving at a creative idea.
Measurement of advertising effectiveness is extremely
important. Effective advertisements have a positive impact on
the sales of a product. Advertising research sets targets for
each objective, and then determines whether those objectives
have been achieved. If advertising objectives are in terms of
sales or market share, advertising research finds out if there
has been increase in sales or market share, and if they can be
attributed to the campaign. The objective of advertising is not to
merely make people remember or like the advertisements.
Recall of advertisements can at best be the first step leading to
sales.
Advertising Research helps in
 Developing creativity: when all the information is accessible,
a well- formed strategy could be designed to develop the
organization further.
 Improves your position in the field: Advertising research
enables a company to find a suitable time and ways to launch
their products.
 Rank Brand image: Advertising research enables
comparisons between organizations. So, it helps a company to
know its place in the market compared to others.
 Predicts likely issues: Advertising research predicts
forthcoming problems that an organization might face.
 Increases awareness: Advertising research increases the
knowledge about the market, which helps in building a brand
campaign.
 Analyses changing market: Knowing your customer is very
important for any business. A customer’s attitude is subject to
change with the change in market conditions. Advertising
research analyses these changing attitudes of your customers.
 Public feedback: Advertising research records the feedback of
your audience.
 Results: Final campaigns that are created are based on the
results of the research.

Pre-testing advertising research is carried out to test the ads

before the launch of the advertising campaign. Pre-testing
research is an important part of the advertising research, as it
decides the key points on which the brand will be built. It factors
in preferences of the consumers, public surveys, and finding
out the target audience’s reaction to the brandThe pre-test
phase of the advertising research helps at this point. The pre-
test phase includes a detailed study of target audience and the
brand. This phase will decide if the idea will be accepted or
rejected. As the pre- test advertising research majorly focuses
on the target audience, it will help the agency to figure out the
tastes of the public and work accordingly. Pre-testing provides
a final opportunity to check whether the original idea is still
coming through, and whether that the ad does resonate with
the intended audience. This helps the agency to optimize their
campaigns before they go into the tedious process of
production. As soon as things are approved, the campaign can
be run on various platforms.
Concept testing: This route is a major part of the creative plan.
This covers effectiveness and the basic communication
concept.
Theme testing: An advertising campaign is based on a
subject, which may revolve around various themes.
Copy research: After a lot of brain storming, the ideas get
noted down and are transformed into a crisp and precise copy.
Focus Group Pre-Test
A focus group is shown alternative commercials and asked to
discuss their likes, dislikes and understanding of each one.
Stills from the proposed commercial are shown on a TV screen
with a voiceover. This is an inexpensive but realistic portrayal of
what the commercial will be like if it is shot. The method
provides important inputs from target customers themselves
rather than solely relying on view of the advertising agency.
Folder Technique
Press advertisements are pre-tested using folder techniques. If
two advertisements are being compared, two folders are
prepared containing a number of advertisements with which
test ads will have to compete for attention. The test ads are
placed in the same position in each folder. Two matched
samples of around 50-100 target consumers are given one of
the folders and asked to go through it. Respondents are then
asked to state which advertisements they have noticed
(unaided recall). They are then shown a list of advertised
brands and asked such questions as which one was most liked,
which was least disliked and which they intend to buy. Attention
is gradually focused on the test advertisement and respondents
are asked to recall its content.
Post Testing Advertising Research. The effectiveness of
the brand campaign is assessed in the post-testing research. A
study is conducted to see if the advertisement has been
successful in creating or increasing awareness about the brand
or service of the client. Ultimately it will determine, if the
advertisement has been able to influence customers or not.
Post-testing advertising research helps to monitor the brand’s
performance, including awareness, preference product usages
and attitudes. Post- testing research involves a tracking
process.
Tracking can be done in many ways, which are:
Inquiry & Coupon Response: These experiments are
conducted in a field. The consumers are sent an inquiry form
related to the brand, which they are asked to fill. The responses
describe the effectiveness of the brand advertisements.
Split-run Tests: This enables comparison testing between two
or more ads in the same position, and publication, with each ad
reaching a comparable group of audience.
Recall Tests: The respondents are asked to answer what they
have seen, heard or read about the brands, without allowing
them to look at or listen to those ads while answering.
Sales Test Method: This is the direct method where the
effectiveness of the brand can be specified. This is done by
directly measuring the sales of the product or service once the
campaign has been initiated.

Common Research Methods

Quantitative Methods: Survey research

Qualitative Methods: In depth interviews, Focus groups, Expert
Panels, Observational Research.

Product Appeal, Advertising Message, Advertising Media

Selection and Advertising Effectiveness Research

The researches may be conducted as follows:

1. Product Appeal Research.

2. Advertising Message (Copy Testing) Research.

3. Advertising Media Selection Research.

4. Advertising Effectiveness Research.

Product Appeal Research:

The attitude of the target group towards a particular product or

brand is of importance to study the consumer behaviour. This
attitude is known as the Product Appeal.

Generally, there is a stability of a set of attitude towards salient

features of a product. A consumer compares and evaluates a
brand with this set of attitude, which is also known as “back
group”. It is important to study these salient characteristics of a
product and the perceptions of the consumer at different
segments.

The product appeal is to be designed, considering the

favourable factors of a product. It will be the task of the
marketer to change the unfavourable image of target group
towards the product or the brand presented, into a favourable
one.

The features of a product should be highlighted cautiously,

considering the attitudes of the consumers. The salient features
of attraction may be different in different segments of market.
An attempt should be made to reinforce the salient features in
the product advertisement.

Advertising Message Research:

Message of the advertisement is of great importance to create

an impact and to project the product in the market.

Consumers’ attitude and the effect of message may be

identified and measured. The advertiser should locate salient
characteristics of a particular market segment and should
design the product appeal and the relevant message
accordingly. Instead of critising the competitor’s brand, the
advertiser should highlight the positive features of the brand
advertised, through well directed message.

The techniques like depth interviews and projective tests may

be conducted to estimate and measure the spontaneous and
emotional responses. Various methods of testing techniques
may be adopted to measure the effectiveness of the message.

The methods are as follows:

i. Copy testing
ii. Before test or Pre-testing

iii. Portfolio tests

iv. Consumer-jury tests

v. Rating scales

vi. Simulated sales tests

vii. Psychological tests

i. Copy testing – The purpose of this test is to appraise the

degree of communication effect of the advertisement to the
consumer. The motivation of the consumer to purchase the
product is another objective of this test.

ii. Pre-testing – Before the advertisement is released for full run

in a medium, these tests are conducted to make modifications
or improvements.

iii. Portfolio tests – In this method a number of dummy

advertisements are put in a folio along with the advertisement
to be tested. The views and impression on the advertisement
copies shown are collected from selective respondents.

iv. Consumer-jury tests – In this method a panel of jury is

formed, comprising hypothetical consumers. The members of
jury are asked to respond on the advertisement copy placed
before them. They are requested to give their ratings on the
same, starting with the best and coming down to the worst one.
It tends to separate the very weak advertisement from the very
strong advertisement.

v. Rating scale – It provides a list against which the

advertisements are rated. It helps to single out good and bad
elements of an advertisement.

vi. Simulated Sales Test – In this method, different

advertisement copies are displayed at different stores. The
volume of increase in sales will be considered as the indicator
of effective advertisement.

vii. Psychological Tests – These tests undertake various

research methodology like word association, sentence
completion, depth interviewing etc.

Advertising Media Selection Research:

The decision making process in media selection is based on

the following fundamental issues:

i. Choice of a particular medium or combination of media viz.

T.V., radio or print.

ii. Selection of national, regional or local level media.

iii. The periodicity or the interval of the media use.

Type # 4. Advertising Effectiveness Research:

There can be various alternative strategies for varying degree

of effects on the target audience. Different statistical models
may be applied to measure the scale of effectiveness and
generation of motivational attitude among the prospective
consumers.

Various techniques for the measurement of advertisement

effectiveness may be adopted like –

i. Coupon Research:

Coupon research may be conducted through mail order trading.

To evoke inquiries, some special offers are made; the replies
are analysed and the effectiveness of different publications are
evaluated.

Experiments can be made with the relative pulling power of

various publications at different regions. ‘Split run’ may be
conducted to evaluate the relative appeal.
‘Reader Service’ of different magazines involves the readers.
Necessary information are supplied by the advertisers, if
required.

The audience response may be measured through –

a. Questionnaires Response:

The questionnaires are formed and sample procedures are

generated to obtain records of media activity such as radio
listening, television viewing, newspaper reading etc.

The objective of this method is to gather, wide variety of

information with the help of well-designed questionnaire. It is
economical and can be selected on the regional arid territorial
basis.

Mechanical Device may also be installed to ascertain the

acceptance of different media. The procedures and the
methodology are more complicated, but the result can be
obtained quickly in more unbiased fashion.

Personal Interview technique is time consuming and also

expensive. The Recall Tests deal with asking the respondent
what he can recall or remember about an advertisement. The
recall is obtained, using both aided and unaided recall
techniques. The respondents are asked to play back everything
they can remember.

All responses are recorded verbatim. Another method known

as Penetration, Comprehension, Recall, Believability method or
P.C.R.B. Method which can be used to test whether the
advertisement has penetrated in the mind of consumer. The
Progressive tests method is used to measure the advertising
effectiveness in terms of sales. These tests are designed to
measure various stages of buyer awareness, preference,
intention to purchase in relation to effectiveness of advertising.
The tests are simple and easy to execute and the
advertisement effectiveness is measured immediately.

Advertising Research – Applications: Evaluating

Advertising Effectiveness, When and What to Measure,
Concept Testing, Copy Testing and Concurrent Testing

The advertising research is an application of marketing

research aimed at the measurement of advertising
effectiveness.

The following are typical applications in Advertising Research:

1. Evaluating Advertising effectiveness

2. When and what to measure

3. Concept testing

4. Copy testing

5. Concurrent testing.

1. Evaluating Advertising Effectiveness:

Evaluation of advertising is often a critical factor in marketing

success. A slight change in an advertising campaign brought
about through some form of evaluation can lead to significant
increases in sales and profits. In a highly intense competitive
environment, a rational evaluation can provide a company with
an edge over its rivals. Evaluation also gives business some
means of control over the tremendous sums of money spent on
marketing communications. Thorough and accurate evaluations
increase chances of success of the marketing communication
programme, but also strengthens the morale of the people
associated with the campaign.

Advertisers tend to ask three basic questions before measuring

the effectiveness of a campaign:
i. Why to measure?

ii. When to measure?

iii. What to measure?

These questions assume important dimension because of the

following reasons:

i. Cost:

ii. Research Problems:

Advertising people are uncertain about the methodologies that

research organizations use and the criteria they test for.
Research activities tend to be divided into developmental
research, which is used to develop a campaign and evaluative
research, which is used to evaluate the effectiveness of the
marketing communications campaign. There is frequent
disappointment with the limitations of research. Planners are
often confused with tests that only measure communications
effects, such as awareness and recall. There are few tests
which isolate and reveal a direct causal relationship between
advertising and sales.

iii. Disagreement over What to Test:

It is very often difficult to ascertain as to which aspect of the

campaign to test. The sales manager may want to assess the
impact of promotion on sales, whereas the corporate hierarchy
may be more concerned about the company’s image. Disputes
over what to test can sometimes lead to no testing.

iv. Creativity Objections:

Most creative people do not like copy testing. They say it

inhibits their creativity. Because many tests are inexact and
measure only one aspect of communication, such as
awareness, copywriters often protest that they do not measure
the full impact of an ad.
v. Time:

Copy testing and other effectiveness measures take time;

executive judgment and creative decisions must sometimes be
made quickly.

2. When and What to Measure:

There are at least four stages of a campaign during which it is

common to use some type of evaluative testing:

i. At the beginning of the creative process i.e., concept testing

ii. In the middle and at the end of the creative process i.e., copy
testing

iii. While the advertising is appearing in the media i.e.,

concurrent testing

iv. After the advertising has appeared in the media i.e., post
testing.

3. Concept Testing:

Concept testing is a form of evaluative testing used by planners

to get a feel for whether their ideas and strategies are likely to
be on target. The purpose of this type of testing is to get
feedback from the customers before a lot of time, money and
efforts are spent on producing expensive ads. Concept testing
is as much a check on the strategic development of the
campaign as it is on specific executions. The testing tends to
be somewhat exploratory in nature, although a frame work of
ideas and concepts have been developed.

Among the concepts which are evaluated are product names,

slogans, campaign themes, advertising claims or promises and
the basic product positioning. Later during the copy-testing
phase, specific variables that affect the execution of an ad can
be tested (such as the selection of music, choice of words use
of art or humour, and arrangement of these elements). This is
also a good stage to evaluate end users. Celebrity
endorsement is usually expensive hence it is imperative to get
some feedback on it before contracts are signed. Because
concept testing tends to be exploratory in nature, the research
techniques tend to be more qualitative than other types of
testing.

Among the more common ways of gathering information are

the following:

(a) Focus Groups

(b) Mall intercepts

(c) One to One interview.

One of the keys to obtaining information that is meaningful is

being sure that the subjects in the test groups are
representative of the target audience. In evaluative research, it
is better to measure the effects of an ad on an individual
consumer without the potential biases that sometimes result
from one member of a group influencing another. Because of
potential problems with interaction effects, mail intercepts and
one to one interviews are generally more appropriate for
concept testing. The information obtained from concept testing
is generally used to firm up message strategy as well as to
evaluate the elements within the strategy.

4. Copy Testing:

Most of the evaluative research conducted by companies and

the agencies falls into the category of copy testing. Because
the testing takes place before the ads are run in the media it is
often referred to as pretesting. Copy testing is normally used to
predict the effectiveness of an advertisement or a campaign. It
also helps understand the advertisement so it can be
developed further. Copy testing is efficacious in identifying
television commercials that generate sales. Although this is
helpful information to know, the typical copy testing is not able
to establish a functional relationship between an ad and sales.
The value of most copy tests is derived from the ability of the
test to evaluate the effectiveness of an ad defined in terms of
some criterion such as awareness, presentation or reliability.
There are two types of tests; diagnostics, to help planners
understand the strengths and weaknesses of an ad; and
evaluative tests, which commonly focus on one of three criteria
– communication playback, reliability and persuasion.

Diagnostics is a type of testing designed to improve ads. In

very rare case a diagnostic test tells a creative person how to
improve a commercial, however they suggest what is wrong in
an ad. These tests are used to pretest television commercials
at the rough stage. In a typical 30 second commercial there
Eire numerous scenes and within each scene there are a
number of elements that can be manipulated. In a general
diagnostics test, viewers are exposed to a television
commercial and then subjected to a series of open-ended
questions about reactions to specific elements as well as
structured statements to which they indicate their agreement or
disagreement.

Frame by Frame Diagnostics:

They are frequently used to help marketers understand why a

television commercial has not tested very well. These tests can
provide clues as to which parts of a commercial are connecting
with viewers and which parts of a commercial do not. Frame-
by-Frame tests evaluate consumers reactions to the individual
scenes in the advertisement. The consumers are invited to a
mini theatre to view a series of commercials.

The viewers are instructed to press buttons indicating how

much they like or dislike what they are seeing. Later an
interviewer queries audience members about the reasons for
their reactions to specific scenes. Frame-by-Frame diagnostics
provide the researcher with clues as to the parts within the
advertisement that work well and those that do not. These
clues can be used to guide the creative team.

Communication Playback:

It is a type of test used for both diagnostic and evaluative

purposes. The intent of this test is to evaluate whether or not
the essential points within an ad have been communicated. The
ability of respondents to recall specific information about an ad
is an important measure of effectiveness. Viewers are often
asked to re-create visual and verbal elements of an ad in their
own words. Researchers usually pay special attention to the
consumers recall of the brand name, specific attributes or
qualities of the product, the main selling message, reactions to
music, special effects, main characters, key phrases, and story
lines.

Physiological Techniques:

These techniques are designed to measure the physiological

responses of the viewer’s sensory system. Two most
commonly used devices are the tachistoscope, or t-scope and
eye-movement camera.

1. The tachitoscope or t-scope is like a slide projector with a

shutter attached to it that is able to vary the amount of time
picture is shown on a screen. In the beginning of the test, the
image of the ad will flash on the screen so briefly that it will be
below a respondents threshold of awareness. Gradually as the
researcher lengthens the amount of time the images are on the
screen, viewers are increasingly able to perceive various
elements or messages in the ad. Interviewers then question
respondents about the advertisement.

2. In the eye-movement camera, viewers are seated in front of

a desk with a large mechanical device. While they are viewing
test ads, a sensor directs an almost invisible beam of infrared
light at one of the viewer’s eyes. The beam follows the viewer’s
eye and superimpose the path the eyes follow onto a layout of
the ad. An analyst is then able to determine which element in
the ad first received the viewers’ attention (that is dominant
point of entry), which path the viewer followed next within the
ad and finally, how much time each element was viewed.

The above physiological techniques are suitable for testing of

advertisements designed for print media; howsoever measuring
television commercials can be tedious and expensive. So
researchers test them in a wide range of forms. An unfinished
ad is subjected to the viewers and they are asked to give their
views on them.

The following are among the most common stages of

unfinished commercials used in tests:

1. Storyboards – A series of visceral forms and serial of key

audio used to represent a proposed commercial.

2. Animatic – A film or of a series of drawing with audio used to

represent a proposed commercial.

3. Photometric – Film or videotape of a series of photographs

with audio used to represent a proposed commercial.

4. Repomatic – Footage taken from other existing commercials

and spliced together.

5. Liveamatic – Video tape of live endorser photographed for a

proposed commercial, can be close to a finished commercial
but does not necessarily use actual sets or celebrity who will be
used in the actual commercial.

Requirements of a Good Copy Testing:

i. The copy testing system should provide measurements that

are relevant to the objectives of advertising.

ii. A good copy testing is one that requires agreements about

how the result will be used in advance of each specific test.
iii. A good copy testing system should provide for multiple
measurements because single measurements are generally
inadequate to access the performance of an ad.

iv. A good copy testing system should be based on a model of

human response to communication the reception of a stimulus,
the comprehension of a stimulus and the response of the
stimulus.

v. A good copy testing system recognizes that the more

finished a piece of copy is, the more soundly it can be
evaluated.

5. Concurrent Testing:

This type of testing refers to reaction that takes place while the
campaign is running in the market place. It can be of two types
Tracking studies and Coincidental studies.

i. Tracking Studies:

The basic idea behind tracking is to keep a close contact with

what consumers are thinking, feeling and doing.

Companies want to know about:

1. Awareness of the product and Brand

2. Attitude of the customer

3. Communication efficacy

4. Reported product usage

5. Satisfaction drive

The techniques for tracking studies are:

1. Telephone Interview with customers to identify their

response to the Ad.
2. Diaries – Consumers are asked to keep a record of various
activities such as brand purchase, brand switches and
response to sales promotional campaigns.

3. Mall intercepts – Interviewing the customer at the point of

purchase.

4. Product audits – To analyse the movement of advertised

brand from the points of purchase.

ii. Coincidental techniques are designed mainly to evaluate or

measure advertising and media usage. While consumers are
exposed to the media, the telephone interview is the principle
means by which information is obtained. The interviewers
usually ask questions pertaining to what the respondents were
doing just before they answered the telephone. The advantage
of this technique is reduction in measurement error due to
memory loss. The technique is rarely used now days.

Post Testing:

Post testing refers to testing at the end of the campaign

whereas concurrent testing is done for an ongoing campaign.

Post testing can be divided into two types:

1. Test measuring communication effects,

2. Test measuring behavioural effects.

The following criteria are among the most popular used for post
testing:

i. Recognition (A communication effect)

ii. Recall

iii. Attitudes, Awareness and Likeability

iv. Sales (Behavioural effect)

v. Enquiries.

Advertising Research – Purposes of Development: Idea

Generation, Concept Testing, Audience Definition and
Audience Profiling

Developmental advertising research is used to generate

advertising opportunities and messages. It helps the creative
and the account team figure out things such as the target
audience’s identity, “street language”, usage expectations,
history, and context.

It provides critical information used by creatives in actually

producing ads. It is conducted early in the process so there is
still an opportunity to influence the way the ads come out.
Because of this, many consider it the most valuable kind of
advertising research.

The purposes served by developmental research include the

following:

1. Idea Generation:

Sometimes an ad agency is called on to invent new ways of

presenting an advertised good or service to a target audience.
The outcome might take the form of a new product launch or a
repositioning strategy for an advertiser.

2. Concept Testing:

Many times advertisers also need feedback about new ideas

before they spend a lot of money to turn the idea into a new
marketing or advertising initiative. A concept test seeks
feedback designed to screen the quality of a new idea, using
consumes as the final judge and jury.

Concept testing may be used to screen new ideas for specific

advertisements or to assess new product concepts. How the
product fits current needs and how much consumers are willing
to pay for new product are questions a concept test attempts to
answer. Concept test of many kinds are commonly included as
part of the agenda of focus groups to get quick feedback on
new product or advertising ideas. Concept testing is also
executed via survey research when more generalization
feedback is desired.

3. Audience Definition:

Market segmentation and targeting are among the first and

most important marketing decisions a firm must make. The goal
of market segmentation is to identify target audiences that
represent the best match between the firm’s market offering
and consumers’ needs and desires, and then target them with
effective advertising. Basic data about audience sizes along
with their demographic profiles are absolutely critical in this
process. Furthermore, new market opportunities are commonly
discovered when you get to know your audience.

4. Audience Profiling:

Perhaps the most important service provided by developmental

advertising research is the profiling of target audiences for the
creative. Creative need to know as much as they can about the
people to whom their ads will speak. This research is done in
many ways. One of the most popular is through lifestyle
research.

Advertising Research – Development Methods: Focus

Groups, Field Work and Other Methods

1. Focus Groups:

A focus group is a brainstorming session with 6 to 12 target

customers who have been brought together to come up with
new insights about the good or service. With a professional
moderator guiding the discussion, the consumers are first
asked some general questions; then, as the session
progresses, the questioning becomes more focused and moves
to detailed issues about the brand in question.

Advertisers tend to like focus groups because they can

understand them and observe the data being collected. While
focus groups provide an opportunity for in depth discussion with
consumers, they are not without limitations.

Even multiple focus groups represent a very small sample of

the target audience, and advertisers must remember that
generalization is not the goal. The real goal is to get or test a
new idea and gain depth of information. Greater depth of
information allows for a greater understanding of the context of
actual usage and its subtleties.

It also takes great skill to lead focus groups effectively. If the

group does not have a well trained and experienced moderator,
some individuals will completely dominate the others. Focus
group members also feel empowered and privileged them have
been made expert by their selection, and they will sometimes
give the moderator all sorts of strange answers that may be
more a function of trying to impress other group members than
anything having to do with the product in question.

2. Field Work:

Field work is conducted outside the agency (i.e., in the “field”),

usually in the home or site of consumption. Its purpose is to
learn from the experiences of the consumer and from direct
observation. Consumers live real lives, and their behaviour as
consumers is intertwined throughout these real lives.

More and more researchers are attempting to capture more of

the real experiences of consumers. Advertising researchers
can make better messages if they understand the lives of their
target audience, and understand it in some rich context.
Various types of qualitative research attempt to do this.
This general type of research uses prolonged observation and
in depth study of individuals or small groups of consumers,
typically in their own social environment. This work is usually
accomplished through field work, or going to where the
consumer lives and consumes.

The advertising industry has long appreciated the value of

qualitative data and is currently moving to even more strongly
embrace extended types of fieldwork. Cool hunts do this by
getting researchers to actually go to the site where they believe
cool resides, stalk it, and bring it back to be used in the product
and its advertising.

Other Methods:

Projective techniques are designed to allow consumers to

project thoughts and feelings (conscious or unconscious) in an
indirect and unobtrusive way onto a theoretically neutral
stimulus. Projective techniques share a history with Freudian
psychology and depend on notions of unconscious or even
repressed thoughts. Projective techniques often consist of
offering consumers fragments of pictures or words and asking
them to complete the fragment.

The most common projective techniques are association tests,

sentence or picture completion, dialogue balloons, and story
construction. While there is little doubt that people can, and do,
project, the trustworthiness, validity, and usefulness of these
techniques are often suspect.

Association tests ask consumes to express their feelings or

thoughts after hearing a brand name or seeing a logo. In
sentence and picture completion, a researcher presents
consumers with part of a picture and sentence with words
deleted and then asks that the stimulus be completed.

The picture or sentence relates to one or several brands of

products in the category of interest
One specific method that has enjoyed growing popularity in
developmental applications is the Zaitman Metaphor
Elicitation Technique (ZMET). This technique claims to draw
out people’s buried thoughts and feelings about products and
brand by encouraging participants to think in terms of
metaphors.

A metaphor simply involves defining one thing in terms of

another. ZMET draws metaphors from consumers by asking
them to spend time thinking about how they would visually
represent their experiences with a particular product or service.
Participants are asked to make a collection of photographs and
pictures from magazines that reflect their experience.

In depth interviews with several dozen of these metaphor-

collecting consumes can often reveal new insights about
consumers’ consumption motives, which then may be useful in
the creation of products and ad campaigns to appeal to those
motives.

Advertising Research – Problems

The problems generally faced in the advertising research are:

a. Weakness in research methodology

b. The time and cost constraints

c. The problematic effect of advertising on sales

It is experienced that, difficulty arises due to the inherent

problems in the research methodology. The advertising
research involves lot of time and cost and the top management
feels frustrated due to delay in result or findings.

A. The ‘Pre-test’ Methods may be analysed as follows:

1. Comprehension and Reaction Test:

The advertiser is interested to know whether the ad or
commercials convey the meaning intended. The message
generated should be translated in the same fashion as intended
by the advertiser. Advertisers are also interested to know the
reactions of the ad and effects on the consumers. Generally to
test the comprehension and reaction, the advertisers and the
agencies conduct personal interviews, group interviews, in-
depth interviews etc. from the sample size of respondents
ranging from 50 to 200.

2. Consumer-Jury Test:

A panel of jury is selected from the representative target market

to evaluate the effectiveness of the ad designed for the purpose
of campaign. The panel members are asked to rate a collection
of ad copy or layouts, and are requested to give their
comments and ranking according to their preferences. This
method is generally accepted as representative view points of
the prospective audience.

The limitations of this method cannot be overlooked.

The negative aspects of this methodology may be pointed out

as follows:

1. The jury members often feel themselves as self-appointed

experts – Being appointed as a jury member, a person
sometimes tries to play the role of a critique, unnecessarily
overstressing minor issues. The basic object of evaluation of
the general perception of the ad exposure may be frustrated, if
this approach is followed by the jury members.

2. Ranking in order of merit or paired comparison method is

tedious boring task – The jury members face difficulties in
ranking the ad layout if the number of ad alternatives are large.
Supposing that, in case of 10 ads, it may be ranked comfortably
the best two ads or the worst two ads. But the ranking of all the
ads in order of merit or based on paired comparison method, it
will be quite cumbersome and boring job for the respondents
with increasing number of alternatives.

3. A Halo effect may defeat the objective – It may be possible

that a particular jury might either rank an ad to be totally good
or bad without considering all the attributes or by overlooking
the specific aspects. In such a case there is a possibility of the
defeat of evaluation.

4. Specific aspects of advertisement may overshadow the

objectivity – The advertising copy, the message or the appeal
may be overshadowed by the influence of colourful attractive
pictures or other emotional effects. The jurists may be over-
influenced unnecessarily on less important but more highlighted
issues.

B. Post Tests of Broadcast Commercials:

1. Day-After Recall Tests:

In broadcasting media Burke Day-after recall test is a well-

known methodology, generally practiced by the experts in the
field. This form of test may be useful for the organisations if the
tests are conducted on large number of samples which will
involve lot of cost.

The limitations of this type of test are as follows:

i. In day-after recall (DAR) tests the respondents are asked to

verbalize the message. Hence the emotional appeals are
neglected in this test.

ii. The recall scores depend on the influence of the

programmes in which the ad appears. Hence the scores may
vary in different programmes.

iii. If the respondents are aware that they will be tested on the
next day, the participants shall pay more attention on the
commercials. Naturally, the recall test result shall not reflect the
actual level of recall.

In spite of the above disadvantages the DAR tests are

conducted on natural setting in the field and shall provide more
realistic response profile.

2. Test Marketing:

It is a method to test the commercials in specific selected test

markets, before releasing the advertisement for full-run in the
national market. In this form of testing, a high degree of control
can be attained if the test is designed successfully. A variety of
factors may be tested, including reactions to the ads, special
offers, effects of various budget sizes etc.

The limitations of this methodology may be described as

follows:

i. It is a very costly affair.

ii. It is quite time consuming process.

iii. The competitors may intrude and intervene in the research

process.

If the negative aspects can be effectively minimised this

process of testing methodology shall provide sufficient insight
into the effectiveness of advertising, in a controlled natural field
setting.