DOI: 10.

15613/hijrh/2016/v3i1/111730
 ISSN (Print): 2349-4778
HuSS: International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol 3(1), 27–35, January–June 2016 ISSN (Online): 2349-8900

History of Numbers and Fractions and Arithmetic

Calculations in the Tamil Region: Some Observations
V. Selvakumar*
Department of Epigraphy and Archaeology, Tamil University, Thanjavur - 613010,
India; [email protected]

Abstract
The Tamil inscriptions of the medieval period provide a very detailed account on the land measures in minute fractions. In
the Medieval period, the villages were completely measured and documented, especially in the fertile Kāviri delta and other
cultivable areas, for accurately assessing tax. The land measurements are discussed in terms of various units of measures,
especially miniscule fractions, and the calculations of taxable and tax-free areas are also specified in some of the inscriptions.
This paper presents a preliminary account of the fractions, numbers and arithmetic calculations found in the Medieval Tamil
inscriptions.

Keywords: Arithmetic Calculation, History of Science, Land Administration, Medieval Measurements, Tamil Fractions

1. Introduction calculations. Specific symbols or markers were used to

identify these fractions, apart from specific words. The land
In the study of history of science, the development and measurement, weight and volume measurements of vari-
use of concepts related numbers, fractions and arithmetic ous materials donated to the temple are also listed out in
calculations form an important component. There is a lot minute detail, in the inscriptions. In the medieval period,
scope to research on the history of science and traditional there were accountants who calculated the land area and
knowledge systems in India, and when we look at this sub- assessed them for tax, and maintained detailed accounts of
ject objectively, without any emotional attachment and the lands and taxes to be collected.
pride, there is much to learn from these traditional concepts The use of numbers or counting, perhaps began in
of science, which can be very useful for academic under- the prehistoric period, when people calculated the num-
standing as well as for imparting cognitive skills among ber of people, fruits and other countable elements that
the youngsters as part of the contemporary education. In were essential for their day-to-day activities. Nowadays
the area of history of numbers, arithmetic calculations and people tend to visualize the figures such as 10, 100, 200
mathematics in India, much research has been done [1, and 1000 as complete; but, the perception of these deci-
6], and in this paper, I present a preliminary survey of the mal based numbers as complete entities is nothing, but our
numbers, fractions and arithmetic calculations that were own imagination. The number of body parts such as head,
used in Tamil region in the historical period. eyes, fingers that humans have perhaps helped in counting
Simple arithmetic calculations were used for day-to- numbers in the very early stages of history. In the Indian
day accounting and for the assessment of land revenue tradition, the earliest reference to numbers comes from the
during the medieval period. The Tamil inscriptions, litera- Védic texts; many other early Indian texts have informa-
ture and palm-leaf manuscripts serve as important sources tion on large numbers (e.g. VālmÁki Rāmāyana mentions
for understanding the fractions, numbers and arithmetic about very high numbers [6, 11] (e.g. 1057). Symbols for

*Author for correspondence

Note: The author acknowledges the Indian National Science Academy for the financial support to pursue this research.
 History of Numbers and Fractions and Arithmetic Calculations in the Tamil Region: Some Observations

numerals are also found in the Asokan inscriptions, and in relation to 100 and 1000, respectively. Based on these
also in the Nānéghat inscription [6]. It appears that the features, it can be argued that eight-based numeral system
decimal system might have developed in India from the was probably used in the Tamil region in the early period.
Harappan times [6]. Different systems were used in India However, this proposition needs to be investigated further.
for denoting numbers in the historical period. In the BhÂta The manner in which numbers are mentioned in Tamil
Samkya system, numbers were identified by objects or has a pattern much different from Sanskrit. “Eleven” is
ideas. The KaÇapayāti system seems to have been devel- written in Tamil as ‘ten plus one.’ However, in Sanskrit,
oped by Vararuci, an astronomer and mathematician from “one” is mentioned first and then ten, e.g. ékādasi, 11. The
Kérala, belonging to the medieval period. In this method, French language has a system of writing numbers, which is
different letters are assigned numerical values, and words similar to Tamil.
or sl½kās are formed; for example, “nanajnanapragalbhah”
in this system means the figure of 43,20,000 [11].
3. Tamil Numerals and their
Symbols
2. Numbers in Tamil
Tamil numerals and symbols are mentioned in the Tamil
Different symbols were used in Tamil Nadu for denoting Inscriptions and they are also found in the palm-leaf man-
numbers. The Brahmi inscriptions have evidence for the uscripts. In the inscriptions, the numbers are mentioned in
use of numbers, according to Iravatham Mahadevan [9]. a specific pattern. There are separate symbols for 1 to 10,
At Azhakankulam (Alakankulam), the Early Historic site, 100 and 1000, and these symbols are combined to covey
numerals are found on pottery. However, the numbers, a specific figure. There is no place value system here. The
fractions and arithmetic calculations are found more fre- number 88 is conveyed with the symbols of “8,10,8,” which
quently in the inscriptions from the medieval times. The means the first two figures have to be multiplied and the
medieval inscriptions give the numbers as figures and last figure has to be added. The number 800 was written as
sometimes also as text, perhaps to make sure no error 8, 100= then it has to be read as 800. For example, Kali year
appears in their reading and interpretation. The Tamil 4820 would be written as 4, 1000; 8, 100; 2, 10 = 4820 (with-
work of Kaõakkatikāram by Kāri Nāyanār is an important out any punctuation in between). The numbers are placed
medieval work on mathematics [8]. This tradition of using as they spelled in Tamil language, twenty-four would be
Tamil numerals has continued to this day, although in the spelled as “irup attu nāôgu”= 2,10,4. Tamil inscriptions and
limited circles of Tamil studies and among Tamil scholars manuscripts have the various symbols used for numbers,
during the modern (colonial) period, when the so called fractions and various land, weight and volume measures.
Arabic numerals were introduced. As a result of the change Recently, Tamil Virtual Academy (TVA) under the control
in the use of numerals during the modern period, nowa- of Government of Tamil Nadu has created a document in
days many people cannot understand the traditional Tamil register of the Unicode Consortium (UC) [22] (Table 1) for
numerals. creating standard symbols for digital records.
The traditional Tamil numerals of the contemporary
period very much resemble the Tamil letters/characters
that have specific phonetic value. For example, the Tamil
4. Fractions
letter அ (a) stands for the number 8 and வ stands for quar- The knowledge of fraction is generally traced to the Védic
ter (1/4). Kālamégappulavar, a famous poet of the modern period [21]; but there are chances for their use in the
period, made a pun, using the symbols of letters “8” and Harappan culture, since the Harappans were involved in
“1/4.” In a poem, he mentions about “8 1/4 (eÇÇékāl) laÇ- extensive commercial activities. Fractions were frequently
canamé” which means “avalatcanam,” (=ugly). used in the medieval inscriptions of Tamil Nadu. The word
The word “eõ’ in Tamil denotes numeral in a general arai in Tamil refers to half and interestingly, arai means
sense and it also denotes the number eight. Perhaps, eight waist part of the humans. The term kāl refers to leg in Tamil
was seen as a complete or the largest number in the Tamil and perhaps, the term derived from the length of one por-
tradition. In Tamil system, the numbers 1 to 8 are men- tion of human leg. Mukkāl refers to ¾ and it written as three
tioned as individual numbers, while 9 is mentioned as one quarters. A few of the smaller fractions such as araikkāl
less than 10. Earlier the term tondu was used to refer to 9. (1/8), araiyéaraikkāl (1/16) are referred to as mākāõi or
The term “onpatu” for nine, actually means one less than vÁsam. Mā refers to 1/20, kāõi refers to 1/80. Muôtiri refers
10. Similarly, the numbers 90 and 900 are also mentioned to the fraction of 1/320. However, Subrahmanian [20] lists

28 Vol 3(1) | January–June 2016 | HuSS: International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
 V. Selvakumar

Table 1. Numerals, fractions and their symbols

Figures in Words Numerals Multiplication of Symbol 1 Symbol 2 TVA2014
°yiram 1000

NÂÃu 100

Pattu 10

Onpatu 9

EÇÇu 8

ézhu 7

°Ãu 6

aintu 5

Nāôgu 4

MÂnÃu 3

Iraõdu 2

OnÃu 1

Mukkāl ¾

Arai ½

Kāl ¼

Nālumā 1/5 4 x 1/20

Araikkāl 1/8 ¼x½

Irumā 1/10 2 x 1/20

Mākani, vÁsam 1/16 (1/20+1/80=5/80=1/16)

Mummākāõi 3/16 =3/16

Mummā 3/20 3 x 1/20

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 History of Numbers and Fractions and Arithmetic Calculations in the Tamil Region: Some Observations

Mā 1/20

AraivÁsam 1/32

Araimā 1/40

KālvÁsam 1/64

Kāõi 1/80 1/20 x ¼

MukkālvÁsam 3/64
Mukkāõi 3/80

Araikāõi 1/160 1/320 x ½

Muôtiri 1/320

Araikāõimuôtiri 3/320 1/320x1/160

KÁzh arai 1/640 1/320x1/2 (Bharathiyar n.d
201-204)
KÁzh mukkāl 3/1280 1/320 (muôtiri) x 3/4 (Bharathiyar n.d
(mukkāl) 201-204)
KÁzh kāl 1/1280 1/320 (muôtiri) x 1/4 (kāl) (Bharathiyar n.d
201-204)
KÁzh nālumā 1/1600 1/320x4/2 (Bharathiyar n.d
201-204)

KÁzh araikkāl 1/2560 1/320 (muôtiri) x 1/8 (Bharathiyar n.d

(araikkāl) 201-204)
KÁzh irumā 1/3200 1/320 (muôtiri) x 2/20 (Bharathiyar n.d 201-
(irumā) 204)

KÁzh mummā 3/6400 1/320 (muôtiri) x 3/20 (Bharathiyar n.d

(mummā) 201-204)
KÁzh vÁsam 1/5120 1/320 (muôtiri) x1/16 (Bharathiyar n.d 201-
(vÁsam) 204)

KÁzh orumā 1/6400 1/320 (muôtiri) x1/20 (Bharathiyar n.d

(mukkāõi) 201-204)
KÁzh araimā 1/12800 1/320 (muôtiri) x 1/40 (1/2 (Bharathiyar n.d
mā) 201-204)
KÁzh mukkāõi 3/25600 1/320 (muôtiri) x3/80 (Bharathiyar n.d
(mukkāõi) 201-204)
KÁzh kāõi 1/25600 1/320 (muôtiri) x1/80 (kāõi) (Bharathiyar n.d
201-204)
KÁzh araikkāõi 1/51200 1/320 (muôtiri) x1/160 (Bharathiyar n.d 201-
(araikkāõi) 204)
KÁzh muôtiri 1/102400 1/320 (muôtiri) x 1/320 (Bharathiyar n.d 201-
(muôtiri) 204)
Immi -1 (Immimuôtiri) 1/1075200 1/102400 (kÁzh muôtiri) x (Bharathiyar n.d
1/10.5 201-204)

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 V. Selvakumar

Immi -2 1/2150400 1/102400 (kÁzh muôtiri) x Half of immi 1

1/21
Nunmuôtiri 1/3225600 Immi 1 x 1/3
Aticāram 1/1838400 1/320 x 1/5745 (Bharathiyar n.d 201-
204)
Mummi 1/23654400 1/102400 x 1/231 11 times smaller than
immi 2
Cinnam 1/32256000 Immi 1 x 1/10
KÁzh kÁzh muôtiri 1/32768000 1/320x1/320x1/320
Aõu 1/165580800 1/102400 x 1/1617 Seven times smaller than
mummi
Guõam 1/1490227200 1/102400 x 1/14553 9 times smaller than aõu
Pandam 1/7451136000 1/102400 x 1/72765 Five times smaller than
Guõam
Pāgam 1/44706816000 1/102400 x 1/436590 6 times smaller than
Pandam
KÁzh kÁzh kÁzh muôtiri 1/10485760000 1/320x1/320x1/320x1/320
Vintam 1/312947712000 1/102400 x 1/3056130 7 times smaller than
Pāgam
Nāgavintam 1/5320111104000 1/102400 x 1/51954210 17 times smaller than
viôdham
Sintai 1/74481555456000 1/102400 x 1/727358940 14 times nāgaviôdham
Katirmunai 1/489631109120000 1/102400 x 1/14547178800 Muthukumar 2014
Kuralvalaippidi 1/9585244364800000 Muthukumar 2014
VeÒÒam 1/575114661888000000 Muthukumar 2014
Nuõmaõal 1/57511466188800000000 Muthukumar 2014
Térttugal 1/2323824530227200000000 Muthukumar 2014

the value of a kāõi as 1/64 and muôtiri as 1/256, and per- 1/320x1/320x1/320x1/320x3/4x1/20 [7]. Subbarayalu [17,
haps these fractions were based on a different calculation 18] has argued that such small fractions mentioned in the
system, and probably a mā had a value of 1/16 in this sys- inscriptions for land areas resulted due to the reduction
tem. It might have been an early system or it was not widely (madakku) of the area based on several parameters.
used in Tamil Nadu and disappeared in the early medieval There are a lot of variations in the use of terms to denote
period. A similar term, kani used in Karnataka has a value the minute fractions and more detailed work is necessary
of 1/64, according to Jagadish and Hegde [5]. In Andhra on the original manuscripts, i.e. the primary sources. Many
Pradesh too the term denotes the fraction of 1/64. of the publications on numbers and fractions, available
Other minute fractions below muôtiri (1/320) were on the Internet, which were obviously collected from the
mentioned as kÁzh, which means below muôtiri. KÁzharai early publications, list different figures for the Tamil words
means muôtiri multiplied by arai (1/320 x ½= 1/640), and referring to fractions [2, 12, 15]. In the work Iniya Tamizh
kÁzh muôtiri means 1/320 x 1/320 = 1/102400. Some of these Ilakkanam by Cuddhananta Bharathiyar, kÁzh araikkāni is
fractions were represented by different symbols (Table 1). listed as 1/512000, perhaps this figure appears due to typo-
Fractions such as immi muôtiri and nuõmuôtiri are found graphical error; but, the correct figure is 51200, since it is
in Kaõakkatikāram [8]. The TanjāvÂr BrihadhÁswara 1/320 x 1/160 [3].
temple inscriptions have references to minute fractions
and the term kÁzh has been referred to for such fractions 5. Large Numbers
below 1/320. A unit of the last series kÁzh kÁzh kÁzh muôtiri
x 1/2 is used in the TanjāvÂr temple inscription refers to the Very large numbers were known to Indians. The ancient
fraction of 1/5242,8800000 of a véli, according to Venkayya Indian texts have references to numbers as large as 10145
[23]. Another inscription mentions about the fraction of [4]. The large number of āmbal is mentoined in the

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 History of Numbers and Fractions and Arithmetic Calculations in the Tamil Region: Some Observations

Sangam Tamil texts. Although the text does not mention 6.1 K½l or Danda
about the exact nature of the number, from other sources
K½l or Danda refers to the measurement rods. They are
we know that it is a very large numer (=1021). Terms such
found in various names in the inscriptions, and often
as tamarai, āmbal, veÒÒam are found in the Sangam texts
their length is mentioned in terms of their size in cān or
and the Paripātal lists neytal, kuvaÒai, āmbal, saôgam,
span, cubit or muzham or foot or aÇi. These measurement
kamalam and veÒÒam (Paripātal 2: 12-15). The term k½ti
also occurs in PuÃanānÂÃu (18: 5-6; 202:7 ). Several works rods were used for building and temple constructions and
such as Tolkāppiyam a nd Kambarāmāyanam mention also for land measurements. Different types of rods such
about large numbers [2, 15]. It appears that several terms as 16 span, 8 span, 22 span rods were used for measuring
were used for the numbers and there are variations in the lands [14]. The span was defined as consisting of 12 aôgu-
defintion of numbers. For example, the term Mahapadma lam or viral. Twenty-four aôgulam or viral units formed
was used in ancient India for 1012 and 1034 [4]. a muzham or cubit. Sixteen-span rod was one of the com-
monly used measurement rods and the measurement rods
of the medieval period are marked in the temples and on
6. Technical Terms rock surfaces (Selvakumar 2014, 2015). Perhaps, each vil-
Several technical terms related to measurement of linear, lage had its own measurement rod and hence they were
area, volume and weights in the inscriptions. A few of the conveyed as “ivvurpaÇi,” (according the measurement rod
important terms are described as shown in Table 2. system of this village) when the land was converted into
the scheme of measurement of particular village.

Table 2. Large Numbers mentioned in Tamil/Indian system

Number Formula Name As in Bhagavathy 2003/
Shanmugan 2006
10 101 Pattu
100 10 2
NuÃu
1000 10 3
°yiram
10,000 104 Pattāyiram
1,00000 105 Nurāyiram
10,00000 10 6
Pattulatcham
10000000 10 7
K½ti
100000000 108 Pattuk½ti AÃputam [4]
1000000000 109 Tolluõ NigaraÃputam
10000000000 10 10
Kumbam
100000000000 1011 AÃputam Kanam/ Kanagam
1000000000000 1012 Itiyam KaÃpam
10000000000000 10 13
NigaraÃputam NikaÃpam
100000000000000 10 14
Patumam
1000000000000000 1015 Nelai/Karvam Sangam
10000000000000000 10 16
Vellam/Samutiram
100000000000000000 10 17
Sangam [4] Anniyam/Antiyam
1000000000000000000 1018 Ilanji Mattiyam/Artam
10000000000000000000 10 19
Artam Parartam
100000000000000000000 10 20
VeÒÒam Puriyam
1000000000000000000000 10 21
°mbal/Puiyam BrammakaÃpam
(k½ti k½ti k½ti= mukk½ti)
10000000000000000000000000 1025 Mukk½ti
100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 10 57
Mahāyugam [11]

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 V. Selvakumar

6.2 Kuzhi (15 x 2) = 30 + (2 x ¾)= 1.5 + (2 x 3/20)= 6/20 = 31 ¾

+ 1/20
Kuzhi is the Tamil term for pit and it has been used in the
sense of area. An area covered by one k½l by one was called Or 2 x (63/4+3/20)
a kuzhi. It was commonly used as the basic measurement 2 x 315+3/20
unit for area. One hundred kuzhi units formed one mā 2 x 318/20= 636/20=31+16/20=31+3/4+1/20
unit. 100 or 128 or even higher number of kuzhi units (128
and 256) formed one mā, in some instances, and twenty The term perunkuzhi mentioned here, perhaps meant a
mā units formed one Véli, the major area unit of measure- larger measurement rod which was employed for measure-
ment for land. This unit of measurement is still used in ment.
many parts of Tamil Nadu; more particularly in the Kāveri For the above mentioned piece of land, another land
delta region. There is another term peruôkuzhi found in was given in exchange and its size was
the inscription perhaps refers to larger unit of kuzhi area. 8 ¼ kol by 3 ¾ 2/20 kol = 33/4 x (15/4 + 2/20) = 75+2/
20= 77/20
6.3 Madakku (Reduction) 33/4x 77/20= 2541/80= 31 +61/80=31 +3/4+1/80
Madakku is a method of reduction of the area from one
Actually the land given exchange for the original piece
unit to another unit [7, 17–19]. Most probably, when an
of land was slightly less and it is only 31 mukkāle kāõi;
area measured by a smaller scale unit was converted on the
however, it is mentioned as 31 ¾ + 1 mā (1/20). Perhaps,
basis of a larger scale, the process was called madakku. It
they intentionally ignored the small variation in the land.
was a kind of reduction process, in which a large area can
be reduced to a small area.
7.2 Another Inscription from NallÂr
6.4 Virivu (Expansion) Another inscription from the same temple issued in the
30th year of Rājarāja III talks about the same issue and men-
Virivu refers to expansion of a smaller area into a larger
tions about another land area (ARE 31/1995).
area on the basis of smaller measurement rod.
Here a piece of land is mentioned as 2 k½l by 28 k½l =
56 kuzhi.
7. Arithmetic Calculation in 28 x 2 = 56
Inscriptions
Here another tem uriya kuzhi is mentioned.
The inscriptions mention about the lands that had to be The area of 87.5 kuzhi is mentioned as uriya kuzhi for 56
taxed and the area that had to be exempted from tax, such kuzhi, which means an equivalent unit in another scheme
as temple lands, settlement areas cremation ground. Here of measurement. We can deduce the approximate variation
two samples of arithmetic calculations from the inscrip- in the expansion of the measurement rod here. The unit
tions are analysed. of 2 k½l in one scheme becomes 2.5 k½l in the new scheme
and therefore 28 k½l units become 35 k½l units; therefore,
7.1 NallÂr Inscription 25 percent increase per unit.
NallÂr in Pāpanāsam taluk of Tanjavur district has a Siva 2.5 k½l by 35 k½l = 87.5 kuzhi.
shrine called Kalyāna sundaréswarar temple. An inscrip-
If the original measurement rod measured 16 spans, the
tion, issued during the 3rd regnal year of Rājarāja III
new one would be 20 spans or if the original specimen was
(1218 CE) found in this temple [10] (Marxiya Gandhi and
8 spans or feet in length, the new rod would be 10 spans or
Ramachandran 2004:138, TNAD No 32/1995) mentions
feet. This case proves that the land measurement was done
about the area of the land that was exchanged for another
different scales and for the conversion of the land from one
piece of land meant for the passage for carrying the dead
measurement system to another, they just used arithmetic
body, which created a dispute in the village.
calculation.
The area is mentioned as 2 k½l, in north-south, by 15 ¾
+3/20 (patinaðjé mukkālé mÂnÃu mā) on the east-west,
and the total area was 31 ¾+1/20 peruôkuzhi or square 7.3 Madakku: Reduction of Area
kuzhi, in the inscription. In the medieval period, several measurement rods were
When we multiply the above numbers, we get used and sometimes the areas were reduced for taxing

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 History of Numbers and Fractions and Arithmetic Calculations in the Tamil Region: Some Observations

purpose using simple calculations and they are mentioned however, they must have been different, since the ratio of
as tarmiÇÇu madakki [17–19]. 6.0822 does not seem to conform to the traditional fraction
An inscription from Vaidyanāta Temple at units, and hence, more research is necessary.
Tirumazhavādi [16] issued in the 26th year of Rājadhirāja
mentions about the land calculation and its conversion. D. Calculation of Half of an area
The two measurement units are compared here; however, Another calculation in the above mentioned inscription is
it may not be accurate, and could be only assumption, about the half of the reduced area (see, B After Reduction),
since the definition of véli, mā and the size of the measure- which is called “sempāti.’
ment rods varied greatly. Hence if we do not know all the
parameters, proper comparison is not possible. However, The original area is:
an attempt is made here assuming the véli units in the two Onpatumā araikkāõi muôtirikaik kizh mukkāle
schemes discussed here are same. mumāvarai araikkāõi
9 mā + 1/160+ 1/320 (3/4+ 3.5/20+ 1/160)
A. The original size of the land is mentioned as:
According to the inscription, half of the above is
iraõdéi mukkālé orumā varaikkāõi muôtirikaik kÁzh
mukkāl 4.5 mā+ muôtirikaik kÁzh mukkāle nāôngumākkāõi
2 ¾, 1 mā, ½ kāõi, muôtirikaik kÁzh mukkāl muôtirikai
2 ¾ véli + 1 mā= In the above case, the reduction by half of 9 mā and
2 ¾ x 20=55 +1 = 56 mā + araikkāõi is clear, and the result is 4.5 mā+ 1/320.
½ kāõi (1/160) muôtirikaik kÁzh mukkāl Now let us check, if they have reduced muôtirikaik kÁzh
(1/320+¾x1/320) mukkāle mummāvarai araikkāõi properly into two halves.
1/160+1/320+3/1280
56 mā + 1/160+1/320+3/1280 muôtirikaik kÁzh mukkāle mummāvarai araikkani=
56/20+1/160++1/320+3/1280 1/320+1/320x (3/4x3/20+1/40+1/160)
3584+8+4+3/1280 = 3599/1280= 1/320+1/320 x (120+24+4+1/160)= 149/160
2¾=3520+ 79/1280 1/320+1/320x149/160
1/320+149/51200
B. After Reduction 160+149/51200
The land that originally had 3599/1280 was reduced =309/51200
(taramiÇÇu madakki) Half of 309/51200, according to the inscription is
After reduction, it became,
=kÁzh mukkāle naôgumākkāõi muôtirikai.
Onpatumā araikkāni muôtirikaik kÁzh mukkāle
1/320x (3/4+4/20+1/80+1/320)
mummāvarai araikkāõi
1/320 x (240+64+4+1/320)
9 mā + 1/160+ 1/320+1/320(3/4+ 3.5/20+ 1/160)
1/320x 309/320
1/320+1/320(3/4+ 3.5/20+ 1/160) =
= 309/102400
1/320+1/320x (3/4x3/20+1/40+1/160)
1/320+1/320 x (120+24+4+1/160)= 149/160 The result of the above division is perfect, which proves
1/320+1/320x149/160 the accuracy of the calculation of fractions during the
=1/320+149/51200 medieval period, i.e. from the Chola times.
=160+149/51200=309/51200
9 mā+1/160+309/51200
9/20+1/160+309/51200
8. Discussion
23040+320+309/51200=23669/51200 Reference to large numbers is found in the Sangam texts.
The Sangam Chola king Karikālan is said to have given
C. Comparing A and B
16,00,000 coins to KatiyalÂr urutirankaõõanār, the poet
For comparison, A can be converted into who composed the text Pattinappālai. The inscriptions
= 3599/1280x40/40 = 143960/51200 provide the details of fractions and their calculation very
A) 143960/51200 and B) 23669/51200 minutely. The conception of large numbers are more
Now it is clear that after reduction, A becomes 6.0822 notional, one can reach large numbers just by repeating
times smaller, assuming the size of the véli is same; a large number, for example, k½ti k½ti k½ti k½ti. However,

34 Vol 3(1) | January–June 2016 | HuSS: International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
 V. Selvakumar

the story found in the work Lalitavistāra about Buddha’s Financial Practices. Land registers and surveyors: Measuring
learning related to mathematics does prove that the large lengths and areas. 2012.
numbers were taught to students [13]. There are many 6. Joseph, G.G. The crest of the peacock. Princeton: Princeton
theories on the origin of the place value system and one University Press, 2011.
suggests that it came up in India [6, 13]; but, these ques- 7. Karashima, N. KÁl in the Description of Land-extent in Chola
Inscriptions: Effort to Build a Centralized State by Rajaraja I.
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AdhAram, vol. 1, pp. 45-48, 2006.
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more critical study is required on these aspects; but it The Sixth Century A.D. U S A and Chennai: Cre-A, Harvard
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according to the size of the measurement rod. Hence, the cial reference to Ganitasarasangraha of Mahavira [PhD.
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directly compared to another system, without going into
12. Muthukumar. Ancient Tamil Units. 2014. Available: http://
the various parameters involved.
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ous operations related to land assessment. The medieval 14. Shanmugam, P. The Revenue System of the Cholas 850-1279.
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