Module 12

Expansion and Conflict

Essential Question
What was gained and lost as Americans expanded into the Southwest?

About the Photo: This S­ panish mission In this module you will learn about how the United States acquired lands
in San Antonio was the site of the Battle of in the Southwest.
the Alamo, which was fought in March 1836
during the Texas Revolution. After losing this What You Will Learn …
battle, “Remember the Alamo!” became a Lesson 1: The Texas Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
The Big Idea In 1836 Texas gained its independence from Mexico.
rallying cry for Texans during the battle that
followed. Lesson 2: The Mexican-American War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
The Big Idea The ideals of manifest destiny and the outcome of the
Mexican-American War led to U.S. expansion to the Pacific Ocean.
Lesson 3: The California Gold Rush. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Explore ONLINE! The Big Idea The California gold rush changed the future of the West.
VIDEOS, including...
• Heading West
• Independence for Texas
• The Mexican-American War
• The Gold Rush
• Search for the Mother Lode
• Statehood
Document-Based Investigations
Graphic Organizers
Interactive Games
Image Carousel: Texas Settlers
Image with Hotpots: Ranch Life

388 Module 12
Timeline of Events 1820–1855 Explore ONLINE!

United States World

1820
1821 Mexico wins its independence
from Spain.

1827 The United States and Great Britain

agree to continue joint occupation of
Oregon Country.

1830

1833 Antonio López de Santa Anna is

elected president of Mexico.

1835 The Texas Revolution

breaks out at Gonzales.

1838 Californios revolt unsuccessfully

against the Mexican government.

1840 Pioneers begin traveling 1840

West along the Oregon Trail.

1842 China gives Great Britain

control of the island of Hong Kong.

1846 The United States declares

war against Mexico.

1848 Gold is discovered in

California on January 24.

1850

1854 Commodore Matthew Perry

negotiates a trade treaty with Japan.
1855

Expansion and Conflict 389

Reading Social Studies
Theme Focus:
Economics and Geography
In this module you will read about how the United States continued to extend
its boundaries, this time to the southwest. You will find out about Texas’s fight for
independence from Mexico and Mexico’s war with the United States. Finally, you
will read about the California gold rush that brought thousands of people west.
As you read each lesson, you will see how economic issues affected the growth of
different geographic areas.

Reading Focus:
Vocabulary in Context
Writers sometimes give you clues to a word’s meaning in the same or a nearby
sentence. Those clues are usually definitions, restatements in different words, or
comparisons or contrasts. But what do you do if you do not know the word and
the writer doesn’t think to give you a direct clue?
Use Broader Context Clues If the writer does not give you one of those direct
clues, you have to try to figure out the meaning of the word for yourself.
1. Read the whole paragraph and look for information that will help you figure
out the meaning.
2. Look up the word in the dictionary to be sure of its meaning.

Notice how a student used information from the whole paragraph to learn the
meaning of two unknown words.

In 1844, the Whig Party passed I’m not sure about annexation.
up Tyler and chose Senator The southerners convinced Clay to be for it.
Henry Clay of Kentucky as Maybe I’ll understand if I read some more.
its ­presidential ­candidate. At
first opposing ­annexation, Clay
changed his mind due to pressure
from southern ­politicians. The
Democratic Party chose former Oh, both presidential candidates
Tennessee governor James K. favored acquiring Texas and Oregon.
Polk to oppose Clay. Both candi- Maybe annexation means almost the
dates strongly favored acquiring same thing as acquiring. I’ll check the
Texas and Oregon. dictionary.

390 Module 12
You Try It! Key Terms and People
Lesson 1
Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
The following passage is from the module you are about empresarios
to read. Read the passage and then answer the questions. Stephen F. Austin
Antonio López de Santa Anna
Alamo
Battle of San Jacinto
American Settlement in the Mexican
Lesson 2
Cession The war ended after Scott took Mexico manifest destiny
City. In February 1848, the United States and James K. Polk
Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, vaqueros
which officially ended the war and forced Mexico Californios
Bear Flag Revolt
to turn over much of its northern territory to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
United States. Known as the Mexican Cession, this Gadsden Purchase
land included the present-day states of California, Lesson 3
Nevada, and Utah. . . . John Sutter
In exchange for this vast territory, the United Donner party
States agreed to pay Mexico $15 million. In addi- forty-niners
prospect
tion, the United States assumed claims of more than placer miners
$3 million held by American citizens against the
Mexican government.

Refer to the passage to answer the following questions.

1. Do you know what the word cession means? What
clues in the first paragraph can help you figure out
what the word might mean? Use those clues to write
a definition of cession.
2. Look up cession in a dictionary. How does your defi-
nition compare to the dictionary definition?
3. In your experience, what does the word assume
usually mean? Do you think that meaning is the one
used in the second paragraph? If not, what do you
think assume means in this case?
4. Look up assume in a dictionary. Does one of its
meanings match the one you came up with?

As you read Module 12, use context clues to figure out

the meanings of unfamiliar words. Check yourself by
looking the words up in a dictionary.

Expansion and Conflict 391

 Lesson 1

The Texas Revolution

If YOU were there . . .

The Big Idea You are the father of a large farm family in Missouri.
In 1836 Texas gained its
There is not enough land for everyone, so you’re looking
independence from Mexico. for another opportunity. One day, a land agent comes
to town. He is looking for people to settle in Texas. The
Main Ideas Mexican government is offering generous tracts of land
■■ Many American settlers moved to colonists. However, you have to become a citizen of
to Texas after Mexico achieved
Mexico and follow Mexican laws.
independence from Spain.
Would you decide to move your
■■ Texans revolted against
­Mexican rule and established
family to Texas? Why or why not?
an independent nation.

Key Terms and People American Settlers Move to Texas

Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla By the early 1700s Spain’s colony in Mexico was thriving.
empresarios However, in the territories to the north—which included
Stephen F. Austin the modern states of California, Arizona, New Mexico, and
Antonio López de Santa Anna
Texas—the situation was very different. Few ­Spaniards lived
Alamo
in these largely barren territories. The Spanish government,
Battle of San Jacinto
though, feared losing territory to attacks by neighbors. They
wanted to establish settlements that would secure the ­Spanish
claim to what we now call the Southwest.
However, the Spanish did not form colonies like the English
had on the East Coast. Instead, they established small
individual settlements. Among them were three major types
of settlements. Missions were religious settlements. Each
mission housed a small number of priests and others who
worked to teach local Native Americans about Christianity
and the Spanish way of life. The Native Americans also grew
crops to feed themselves and the priests. To protect the
missions from attacks, the Spanish built presidios, or forts.
The soldiers based at a presidio could ride out to defend
the priests at any nearby missions. Finally, the Spanish also
created towns, sometimes called pueblos, near some missions.
In these towns, Spanish citizens would live, grow crops, and
raise cattle. Although missions, presidios, and towns were
often located near each other, each had to be able to support

392 Module 12
 Settling Texas
Stephen F. Austin
(standing, in black coat)
and other settlers were
empresarios—they
contracted with the
Mexican government to
bring settlers to Texas
in exchange for land of
their own.

itself. No one could depend entirely on support from others or from Spain
to guarantee its survival.
The political situation in the Southwest changed when Mexicans moved
to overthrow Spanish rule in the early 1800s. In September 1810 Father
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Mexican priest, led a rebellion of about
80,000 poor Indians and mestizos, or people of Indian and Spanish ances-
try. They hoped that if Mexico became independent from the Spanish
monarchy, their lives would improve.
Hidalgo’s revolt failed, but the rebellion he started grew. In 1821 Mexico
became independent. In 1824 it adopted a republican constitution that
declared rights for all Mexicans. The new Mexican government contracted
with empresarios, or agents, to bring settlers to Texas. They paid the
agents in land.
In 1821 one young agent, Stephen F. Austin, started a Texas colony
on the lower Colorado River. The first 300 families became known as the
Old Three Hundred. Austin’s successful colony attracted other agents, and
American settlers flocked to the region. These Anglo-American settlers,
most of them Protestant, became known as Texians. The Mexican resi-
dents of Texas, the Tejanos, were Catholic. The two groups generally lived
in separate communities. Over time, Texas developed a culture that was
distinct from the rest of Mexico and from the United States.
In exchange for cheap land, settlers had to obey Mexican laws. But
Academic some settlers often explicitly ignored these laws. For example, despite
Vocabulary restrictions on slavery, many brought slaves. Concerned that it was losing
explicit fully
revealed without
control of the growing American population, Mexico responded. In 1830 it
vagueness banned further settlement by Americans. Angry about the new law, many
Texans, as they came to be known, began to think of gaining independence
from Mexico.

Expansion and Conflict 393

 By 1834 Mexico came under the rule of General Antonio López de Santa
Reading Check Anna. He soon suspended Mexico’s republican constitution and gave himself
Find Main Ideas more power. To the already unhappy Texans, this was too much. They felt the
Why did settlers
move to Texas? time had come to fight for independence.

Texans Revolt against Mexico

In October 1835 the Mexican army tried to remove a
cannon from the town of Gonzales, Texas. Rebels stood
next to the cannon with a flag reading “Come and take it.”
After a short battle, the rebels drove the Mexican force
away, keeping the cannon. Within a few months, the Texas
rebels formed an army and captured the key settlements
of Goliad and San ­A ntonio. The Texas Revolution, also
In 1836, when
known as the Texas War for Independence, had begun. American settlers
in Texas rebelled,
Texas Independence On March 2, 1836, Texans declared Mexican president
their independence from Mexico. The new Republic of General Santa Anna
Texas was born. Both the declaration and the constitution personally marched his
army into San Antonio.
that shortly followed were modeled after the U.S. docu-
ments. The Texas constitution, however, made slavery legal.
Delegates to the new Texas government chose politician David Burnet as
president and Lorenzo de Zavala as vice president. Another revolutionary,
Sam Houston, was named to head the Texas army. Austin went to the United
States to seek money and troops.
Battle at the Alamo The Texans’ actions angered Santa Anna. He began
assembling a force of thousands to stop the rebellion.
A hastily created army of Texas volunteers had been clashing with Mexican
troops for months. Near San Antonio, the Texans occupied and fortified the
Alamo, a former mission that became an important battle site in the Texas
Revolution. Volunteers from the United States, including frontiersman Davy
Crockett, joined Texans such as Colonel Jim Bowie in the Alamo’s defense.
The rebels, numbering about 200, hoped for reinforcement from other
parts of Texas. For almost two weeks, from February 23 to March 6, 1836, the
Texans held out. Colonel William Travis managed to get a message to other
Texans through enemy lines:

“I call on you in the name of Liberty, of patriotism, and everything dear

to the American character, to come to our aid with all dispatch [speed]
. . . VICTORY OR DEATH.”
—William Travis, from a letter written at the Alamo, 1836

Before dawn on March 6, the Mexican army attacked. Despite heavy losses,
the army overcame the Texans. All the defenders of the Alamo were killed,
though some civilians survived. Following a later battle at Goliad, Santa Anna
ordered the execution of 350 prisoners who had surrendered. Texans were
enraged by the massacres. Mexican leaders hoped that these terrible defeats
would convince the Texans to stop fighting. However, the battles had the
opposite effect. Outraged by the harsh treatment Texan soldiers had received,
the people of Texas vowed to fight on.

394 Module 12
 Battle of San Jacinto Santa Anna now chased the untrained forces of Sam
Houston. Outnumbered, the Texans fled east. Finally, they reorganized at
the San Jacinto River, near Galveston Bay. There, the Texans took a stand.
Santa Anna was confident of victory, but he was careless in choosing
the site for his camp. On the afternoon of April 21, 1836, while Mexican
troops were resting, Houston launched a surprise attack. The Texan
forces swarmed over the camp, shouting, “Remember the Alamo!” and
“Remember Goliad!”
The fighting ended swiftly. In fewer than 20 minutes, Santa Anna’s
army was all but destroyed. In the Battle of San Jacinto, the Texans
captured Santa Anna and forced him to sign a treaty giving Texas its
independence.
An Independent Nation Sam Houston was the hero of the new indepen-
dent nation of Texas. The republic created a new town named Houston and
made it the capital. Voters elected Sam Houston as president. Stephen F.
Austin became secretary of state, but died shortly after his election.
To increase the population, Texas offered land grants. American settlers
came from nearby southern states, often bringing slaves with them to help
grow and harvest cotton.
Most Texans hoped that the United States would annex, or take control
of, Texas, making it a state. Some Southerners in Congress wanted to

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 The single star of
the flag represents
the Republic of
Texas, also called
the Lone Star
Republic.

annex Texas, but President Andrew Jackson did not pursue the issue. He
was concerned that admitting Texas as a slave state would upset the fragile
balance of free and slave states. The president also did not want to have a
war with Mexico over Texas.
Finally, Jackson did recognize Texas as an independent nation. France
did so in 1839. Britain, which wanted to halt U.S. expansion, recognized
Texas in 1840.
The Mexican government, however, did not recognize Santa Anna’s
Reading Check forced handover of Texas. For this reason, in 1837 the republic organized
Find Main Ideas the Texas Rangers to guard its long frontier from Mexican and Native
What issues did
the new nation of American attacks. Finally, in 1844 Texas and Mexico signed an armistice.
Texas face? However, Mexico refused to recognize Texas’s independence.
Summary and Preview American settlers in Texas challenged the ­Mexican
government and won their independence. In the next lesson you will learn
about the war between Mexico and the United States.

Lesson 1 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking
1. a. Identify What role did Stephen F. Austin play in the 3. Sequence In this lesson you learned about American
settlement of Texas? settlement in Texas. Create a chart similar to the one
b. Make Inferences Why did Mexican officials want to below and use it to show the significant events that
bring more settlers to Texas? led to the formation of the Republic of Texas.
c. Contrast How was Spanish settlement in the
Significant Events
Southwest different from English settlement on the
1.
East Coast? 2.
d. Evaluate Do you think Mexico’s requirements for 3.
foreign immigrants were reasonable or unreasonable? 4.
5.
Explain. 6. Houston is founded and made the capital.
2. a. Describe What were the important battles in
the Texas War for Independence? Why was each
important?
b. Make Inferences Why did Texas offer land grants to
settlers?
c. Predict What problems might the Republic of
Texas face?

396 Module 12
 Lesson 2

The Mexican-American War

If YOU were there . . .

The Big Idea Your family are Californios, Spanish settlers who have
The ideals of manifest destiny
lived in California for many years. You raise horses on
and the outcome of the your ranch. So far, you have gotten along with ­American
Mexican-American War led to settlers. But it has become clear that the American
U.S. expansion to the Pacific ­government wants to take over California. You hear that
Ocean. fighting has already started between American and
Main Ideas Mexican troops.
■■ Many Americans believed How might life change under
that the nation had a manifest American rule?
destiny to claim new lands in
the West.
■■ As a result of the Mexican-
Manifest Destiny
American War, the United “We have it in our power to start the world over again.”
States added territory in the —Thomas Paine, from his pamphlet Common Sense
Southwest. Americans had always believed they could build a new, better
■■ American settlement in the society founded on democratic principles. In 1839 writer John
Mexican Cession produced O’Sullivan noted, “We are the nation of human progress, and
conflict and a blending of who will, what can, set limits to our onward march?”
cultures.
Actually, there was one limit: land. By the 1840s the United
Key Terms and People States had a booming economy and population. Barely 70 years
manifest destiny old, the nation already needed more room for farms, ranches,
James K. Polk businesses, and ever-growing families. Americans looked West
vaqueros to what they saw as a vast ­w ilderness, ready to be taken. With
Californios American settlers already living in Oregon, New Mexico, and
Bear Flag Revolt
Texas, many believed that the ­country should annex those
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
lands to the United States, giving ­A mericans more lands into
Gadsden Purchase
which they could spread.
Some people believed it was America’s manifest destiny, or
obvious fate, to settle land all the way to the Pacific Ocean in
order to spread American ideals. O’Sullivan coined the term in
1845. He wrote that it was America’s “manifest destiny to over-
spread and to possess the whole continent which Providence
[God] has given us for the development of the great experiment
of liberty. . . .”

Expansion and Conflict 397

 The woman represents
America, moving west The Mississippi River is in
and bringing sunlight, the background as settlers
settlers, and telegraph push farther west.
wires to the new lands.

Native Americans and buffalo

are pushed away by the
approaching settlers.

Manifest Destiny
John Gast’s 1872 painting American Progress shows the spirit of manifest destiny leading
settlers westward.

In the 1840s and 1850s, manifest destiny was tied up with the slavery
issue. If America expanded, would slavery be allowed in the new territo-
ries? Several presidents became involved in the difficult issue, including
President John Tyler. A pro-slavery Whig, Tyler wanted to increase the
power of the southern slave states by annexing Texas. His ­fellow Whigs
disagreed.
In 1844 the Whig Party passed up Tyler and chose Senator Henry Clay
of Kentucky as its presidential candidate. At first opposing ­annexation,
Clay changed his mind due to pressure from southern politicians. The
­Democratic Party chose former Tennessee governor James K. Polk to
oppose Clay. Both candidates strongly favored acquiring Texas and Oregon.
Southerners feared the loss of Texas, a possible new slave state. Others
worried that Texas might become an ally of Britain. These concerns helped
Polk narrowly defeat Clay.
Acquiring New Territory President Polk quickly set out to fulfill his cam-
paign promise to annex Oregon and Texas. By the 1820s Russia and Spain
had given up their claims to Oregon Country. Britain and the United States
had agreed to occupy the territory together.
As more Americans settled there, they began to ask that Oregon become
part of the United States. Polk wanted to protect these settlers’ interests.
Some politicians noted that Oregon Country would provide a Pacific port
for the growing U.S. trade with China.

398 Module 12
 Meanwhile, Britain and the United States disagreed over how to draw
the United States–Canadian border. American expansionists cried, “Fifty-
four forty or fight!” This slogan referred to 54°40’ north latitude, the line
to which Americans wanted their northern territory to extend.
Neither side really wanted a war, though. In 1846 Great Britain and the
United States signed a treaty that gave the United States all Oregon land
south of the forty-ninth parallel. This treaty drew the border that still
exists today. Oregon became an organized U.S. territory in February 1848.
The Texas question was also coming to a head. By March 1845 ­Congress
had approved annexation and needed only the support of the Republic of
Texas. Texas politicians hoped that joining the United States would help
solve the republic’s financial and military problems. The Texas Congress
approved annexation in June 1845. Texas became part of the United States
in December. This action angered the Mexican government, which consid-
ered Texas to be a “stolen province.”
The Mexican Borderlands Though it had lost Texas, Mexico still had
settlements in other areas of the present-day Southwest to govern. New
Mexico was the oldest settled area, with its capital at Santa Fe. Mexico also
had settlements in present-day Arizona, Nevada, and California.
During early Spanish rule, the mission system had dominated much
of the present-day Southwest. Over time, it had become less important
there, especially in New Mexico, where settlers lived in small villages.
In ­California, however, missions remained the focus of everyday life.
­Missions under later Spanish rule carried out huge farming and ranching
operations using the labor of Native Americans. Some of the Native Ameri-
cans came willingly to the missions. Others were brought by force. Usually,
they were not allowed to leave the mission once they had arrived. They had
to adopt the clothing, food, and religion of the Spaniards.
Missions often sold their goods to local pueblos, or towns, that arose
near the missions and presidios. One wealthy California settler, Mariano
Guadalupe Vallejo, remembered the early days.

“We were the pioneers of the Pacific coast, building towns and
missions while General [George] Washington was carrying on the
war of the Revolution.”
—Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, “Ranch and Mission Days in Alta California,”
The Century Magazine

After winning independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico began to

change old Spanish policies toward California and Texas. In 1833, for
example, Mexico ended the mission system in California. Mission lands
were broken up, and huge grants were given to some of the wealthiest Cali-
fornia settlers, including Vallejo. They created vast ranchos, or ranches,
with tens of thousands of acres of land. Vaqueros, or cowboys, managed
the large herds of cattle and sheep. Cowhides were so valuable that they
were called “California banknotes.” Hides were traded for household items
and luxury goods from the eastern United States. Some settlers also made
wine and grew citrus fruits.

Expansion and Conflict 399

Ranch Life Vaqueros were
Spanish and Mexican vaqueros, or cowboys, were expert horse riders. known for
They used their horses to herd cattle on the ranches of the Spanish their specially
Southwest. designed hats.

Saddles like
these were
highly prized
by vaqueros.

Leather chaps
protected riders
from dust and Analyze Visuals
scrapes.
What features of the vaqueros’
life are shown in the painting?

Although they had been freed from the missions, for most California
Academic Indians the elements of life changed very little. They continued to herd
Vocabulary animals and do much of the hard physical labor on ranches and farms.
element a basic
part of an individual’s
Some, however, ran away into the wilderness or to the nearby towns of
surroundings San Diego and Los Angeles.
The Californios Because of the great distance between California and
the center of Mexico’s government, by the early 1820s California had only
around 3,200 colonists. These early California settlers, called Californios,
felt little connection to their faraway government.
Californios developed a lasting reputation for hospitality and skilled
horse riding. In Two Years Before the Mast, American novelist Richard
Henry Dana Jr. wrote about his encounters with Californio culture. He
described, for example, what happened after a Californio served a feast to
Dana and a friend.

“We took out some money and asked him how much we were to pay.
He shook his head and crossed himself, saying that it was charity—
that the Lord gave it to us.”
—Richard Henry Dana Jr., from Two Years Before the Mast
Reading Check
Draw Inferences In addition to traders and travelers, a small number of settlers also
How did manifest arrived from the United States. They were called Anglos by the Californios.
destiny affect
Mexican rule in Although there were few Anglo settlers in California, their calls for inde-
California? pendence increased tensions between Mexico and the United States.

400 Module 12
Mexican-American War
Although diplomacy helped the United States resolve territorial disputes
in the Pacific Northwest, diplomats working in the Southwest faced more
challenges. Faced with an unstable and uncooperative Mexican govern-
ment, the U.S. government found it necessary to become more aggres-
sive in its diplomatic overtures. As a result, diplomatic relations between
Mexico and the United States became increasingly strained. U.S. involve-
ment in California and Texas contributed to this tension.
Conflict Breaks Out Mexico had long insisted that its northern border in
Texas lay along the Nueces River and refused to accept Texas annexation
as legitimate. The United States said the border was farther south, along
the Rio Grande. In June 1845 President Polk ordered General Zachary
Taylor to lead an army into the disputed region.
Polk sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico City to try to settle the border
dispute. Slidell came with an offer to buy New Mexico and California for
$30 million. Mexican officials refused to speak to him.
In March 1846 General Taylor led his troops to the Rio Grande. He
camped across from Mexican forces stationed near the town of Mata­
moros, Mexico. In April, the Mexican commander told Taylor to ­w ithdraw
from Mexican territory. Taylor refused. The two sides clashed, and several
U.S. soldiers were killed.
In response, President Polk said to Congress:

“Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded
our territory, and shed American blood upon the American soil. . . .
The two nations are now at war.”
—James K. Polk, from his address to Congress, May 11, 1846

Polk’s war message was persuasive. Two days later, Congress declared
war on Mexico.
War Begins At the beginning of the war with Mexico, the U.S. Army had
better weapons and equipment. Yet it was greatly outnumbered and poorly
prepared. The government put out a call for 50,000 volunteers. About
200,000 responded. Many were young men who thought the war would be
a grand adventure in a foreign land.
On the home front, many Americans supported the war. However, many
Whigs thought the war was unjustified and avoidable. Northern aboli-
tionists also opposed the conflict. They feared the spread of slavery into
southwestern lands.
While Americans debated the war, fighting proceeded. General Taylor’s
soldiers won battles south of the Nueces River. Taylor then crossed the
Rio Grande and occupied Matamoros, Mexico. While Taylor waited for
more men, Polk ordered General Stephen Kearny to attack New Mexico.
On August 18, 1846, Kearny took Santa Fe, the capital city, without a
fight. He claimed the entire province of New Mexico for the United States
and marched west to California, where another conflict with Mexico was
already under way.

Expansion and Conflict 401

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Mexico City,
SCOTT 20°N
Sept. 1847
Veracruz,
SA NN
A Mar. 1847
N T A A Cerro
Gordo,
April 1847
N

W E

Interpret Maps
1. Location What Mexican city did Scott’s forces attack in March 1847?
2. Movement Which U.S. commander led forces from Santa Fe to San Diego?

402 Module 12
10°N
 The Bear Flag Revolt
American settlers took over Sonoma,
the regional headquarters of the
Mexican general Mariano Vallejo, and
declared California a new country: the
California Republic.

The Bear Flag Revolt In 1846 only about 500 Americans lived in the huge
province of California, in contrast to about 12,000 Californios. Yet, in the
spirit of manifest destiny, a small group of American settlers seized the
town of Sonoma, north of San Francisco, on June 14. Hostilities began
between the two sides when the Americans took some horses that were
intended for the Mexican militia. In what became known as the Bear Flag
Revolt, the Americans declared California to be an independent nation.
Above the town, the rebels hoisted a hastily made flag of a grizzly bear
facing a red star. Californios laughed at the roughly made bear, thinking it
“looked more like a pig than a bear.”
John C. Frémont, a U.S. Army captain, was leading a mapping expedi-
tion across the Sierra Nevada when he heard of the possible war with
Mexico. Frémont went to Sonoma and quickly joined the American settlers
in their revolt against the Californios. Because war had already broken
out between the United States and Mexico, Frémont’s actions were seen
as beneficial to the American cause in the region. His stated goal, how-
ever, was Californian independence, not to annex California to the United
States. During the revolt, several important Californios were taken pris-
oner, including Mariano Vallejo. Governor Vallejo and his brother were
held at an Anglo settlement for two months without any formal charges
being brought against them. Long after his release, Vallejo wrote a history
of California that included an account of his time as a bear flag prisoner.
But the bear flag was quick to fall. In July, naval forces from the United
States—which never recognized Californian independence—came ashore
in California and raised the stars and stripes. Kearny’s army arrived
from the East. The towns of San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco
fell ­rapidly. In August, U.S. Navy commodore Robert Stockton claimed
­California for the United States. Some Californios continued to resist until
early 1847, when they surrendered.
War’s End In Mexico General Taylor finally got the reinforcements he
needed. He drove his forces deep into enemy lands. Santa Anna, who had
been removed from office and exiled the previous year, returned to power
in Mexico in September 1846. He quickly came after Taylor.
The two armies clashed at Buena Vista in February 1847. After a
close battle with heavy casualties on both sides, the Mexican Army
retreated. The next morning, the cry went up: “The enemy has fled! The
field is ours!”

Expansion and Conflict 403

 Taylor’s success made him a war hero back home. The general’s popu-
larity troubled President Polk, and when Taylor’s progress stalled, Polk
gave the command to General Winfield Scott. A beloved leader, Scott was
known by his troops as “Old Fuss and Feathers” because of his strict mili-
tary discipline.
Scott sailed to the port of Veracruz, a major port and the site of the
strongest fortress in Mexico. On March 29, after an 88-hour artillery
attack, Veracruz fell. Scott moved on to the final goal, Mexico City, the
capital. Taking a route similar to one followed by Spanish conquistador
Hernán Cortés in 1519, the Americans pushed 200 or so miles inland.
Santa Anna tried to stop the U.S. forces at Cerro Gordo in mid-April, but
failed. By August 1847 U.S. troops were at the edge of Mexico City.
After a truce failed, Scott ordered a massive attack on Mexico City.
­Mexican soldiers and civilians fought fierce battles in and around the
­capital. At a military school atop the steep, fortified hill of Chapultepec,
Reading Check young Mexican cadets bravely defended their hopeless position. At least
Sequence In one soldier jumped to his death rather than surrender to the invading
chronological order, forces. Finally, on September 14, 1847, Mexico City fell. Santa Anna soon
list the key battles
of the Mexican- fled the country. Scott’s capture of the Mexican capital led to the end of
American War. the war.

Battle of Buena Vista

After the two-day Battle of Buena Vista, the American army gained control of
northern Mexico. At the beginning of the battle, Mexican forces outnumbered the
American soldier Americans. But the Mexicans suffered more than twice as many casualties.

404 Module 12
American Settlement in the Mexican Cession
The war ended after Scott took Mexico City. In February 1848 the United
States and Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which
­officially ended the war and forced Mexico to turn over much of its
­northern territory to the United States. Known as the Mexican Cession,
this land included the present-day states of California, Nevada, and Utah.
In addition, it included most of Arizona and New Mexico and parts of
Colorado and ­Wyoming. The United States also won the area claimed by
Texas north of the Rio Grande. The Mexican Cession totaled more than
500,000 square miles and increased the size of the United States by almost
25 percent.
Diplomatic Agreements and Payments In exchange for this vast
­territory, the United States agreed to pay Mexico $15 million. In
addition, the United States assumed claims of more than $3 million held
by ­A merican citizens against the Mexican government. The treaty also
addressed the status of Mexicans in the Mexican Cession. The treaty
provided that they would be “protected in the free enjoyment of their
liberty and property, and secured in the free exercise of their religion.” The
Senate passed the treaty in March 1848.
After the war with Mexico, some Americans wanted to guarantee that
any southern railroad to California would be built completely on American
soil. James Gadsden, U.S. minister to Mexico, negotiated an important
diplomatic agreement with Mexico in December 1853. Under the terms of
the Gadsden Purchase, the U.S. government paid Mexico $10 million. In
exchange, the United States received the southern parts of what are now
Arizona and New Mexico. With this purchase, the existing boundary with
Mexico was finally fixed.
Surge of American Settlers After the Mexican-American War, a flood of
Americans moved to the Southwest. Their movement sparked a new
debate about slavery in the United States. Many southerners who
moved west wanted to bring slaves with them into the new territories.
­Northerners who opposed slavery wanted to ban the practice in the new
lands. Even before the war had ended, northern Senator David Wilmot
proposed a policy, called the Wilmot Proviso. His policy would have
banned slavery in all lands gained from Mexico. The proviso was defeated
in Congress, but debates about slavery in the Mexican Cession continued
for several years.
American newcomers struggled against longtime residents to con-
trol the land and other valuable resources, such as water and minerals.
Most Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and Native Americans faced legal,
­economic, and social discrimination. As a result, they found it difficult to
protect their rights.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo promised full U.S. citizenship to all
Mexicans who wished to stay in the new American lands. However, many of
those who stayed faced discrimination. Even Mexican ­A mericans who

Expansion and Conflict 405

 were already living in Texas, some of whom
Mexican Americans Today had fought against Mexico, faced challenges.
Today Mexican Americans make up a little over For example, differences between Mexican and
10 percent of the U.S. population, or about 33 U.S. land laws led to great confusion. The U.S.
million people. Mexican Americans live in all government often made Mexican American
50 states, although most live in the South and land­owners go to court to prove that they had
Southwest. Many Mexican Americans in these
titles to their land. Landowners had to pay their
areas are descended from people who lived
there long before the region became part of
own travel costs as well as those of ­w itnesses
the United States. and interpreters. They also had to pay attor-
neys’ and ­interpreters’ fees. These legal battles
Top Ten States by often bankrupted landowners. New settlers also
Mexican American Population tended to ignore Mexican legal concepts, such
Mexican American as community property or community water
Rank State
Population rights.
1 California 11,423,146 White settlers also battled with Native Ameri-
2 Texas 7,951,193 cans over property rights. In some areas, for
3 Arizona 1,657,668 example, new white settlers soon outnumbered
4 Illinois 1,602,403 southwestern Native Americans. The Anglo set-
5 New Mexico 837,171 tlers often tried to take control of valuable water
6 Colorado 757,181 resources and grazing lands. In addition, settlers
7 Florida 629,718 rarely respected Native American holy places.
8 Washington 601,768 Native American peoples such as the Navajo
9 Nevada 540,978 and the Apache tried to protect their land and
10 Georgia 519,502 livestock from the settlers. Settlers and Native
Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2010) Americans alike attacked one another to protect
their interests.
Cultural Encounters Despite conflicts, different cultures shaped one
another in the Southwest. In settlements with large Mexican populations,
laws were often printed in both English and Spanish. Names of places—
such as San Antonio, San Diego, and Santa Barbara—show Hispanic
heritage. Other place-names, such as Taos and Tesuque, are derived from
Native American words. Communities throughout the Southwest regularly
celebrated both Mexican and American holidays.
Mexican and Native American knowledge and traditions also shaped
many local economies. Mexican Americans taught Anglo settlers about
mining in the mountains. Many ranching communities were first started
by Mexican settlers. In addition, Mexican Americans introduced new types
of saddles and other equipment to American ranchers. Adobe, ­developed
by the Anasazi Indians, was adopted from the Pueblo people by the Span-
ish. It is still commonly used by American residents in New Mexico, Ari-
zona, and California.
Trade also changed the Southwest. For example, the Navajo created
handwoven woolen blankets to sell to Americans. Americans in turn
brought manufactured goods and money to the Southwest. The city of El

406 Module 12
 Paso became an important regional trading center. As trade increased after
the Mexican-American War, the economies of many Mexican American
and Native American communities in the Southwest began to change.
Water Rights Eastern water-use laws commonly required owners whose
land bordered streams or rivers to maintain a free flow of water. These
restrictions generally prevented landowners from constructing dams
because doing so would infringe upon the water rights of neighbors
downstream.
In the typically dry climate of the West, large-scale agriculture was not
possible without irrigation. Dams and canals were required to direct scarce
Reading Check water to fields. This need conflicted with the accepted eastern tradition of
Summarize What
were some of the early
equal access to water.
important agreements Brigham Young established a strict code regulating water rights for the
between the United Mormon community. In any dispute over water use, the good of the com-
States and Mexico,
and why were they munity would outweigh the interests of individuals. Young’s approach
significant? stood as an example for modern water laws throughout the West.
Summary and Preview America’s westward expansion continued rapidly
after the Mexican-American War. In the next lesson you will learn about
the California gold rush.

Lesson 2 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People b. Draw Conclusions Why were water rights so
important in the American Southwest?
1. a. Define What was manifest destiny?
c. Evaluate In your opinion, what was the most
b. Make Inferences Why was westward expansion
important effect of the annexation of the Mexican
such an important issue in the election of 1844?
Cession?
c. Identify Cause and Effect How did Mexican
independence affect California? Critical Thinking
2. a. Recall Why did the United States declare war on
4. Identify Cause and Effect In this lesson you learned
Mexico?
about manifest destiny and U.S. territorial expansion.
b. Explain Why did American diplomacy with Mexico Create a graphic organizer like the one shown below.
become more aggressive, and what was the result? Identify how Americans’ expansion into California
c. Summarize What was General Winfield Scott’s caused the war with Mexico as well as the effects of
strategy for winning the war with Mexico? the war.
d. Elaborate Would you have sided with those who
opposed the war with Mexico or with those who Causes
supported it? Why?
Mexican-American War
3. a. Describe What conflicts did American settlers,
Native Americans, and Mexican Americans in the Effects
Mexican Cession experience?

Expansion and Conflict 407

 Lesson 3

The California Gold Rush

If YOU were there . . .

The Big Idea You are a low-paid bank clerk in New England in early
The California gold rush changed
1849. Local newspaper headlines are shouting ­exciting
the future of the West. news: “Gold Is Discovered in California! Thousands Are
on Their Way West.” You enjoy having a steady job.
Main Ideas However, some of your friends are planning to go west,
■■ The discovery of gold brought and you are being influenced by their excitement. Your
settlers to California.
friends are even buying pickaxes and other mining
■■ The gold rush had a lasting equipment. They urge you to go with them.
impact on California’s popula-
tion and economy. Would you go west to seek your
fortune in California? Why?
Key Terms and People
John Sutter
Donner party Discovery of Gold Brings Settlers
forty-niners In the 1830s and 1840s, Americans who wanted to move to
prospect California started up the Oregon Trail. At the Snake River in
placer miners
present-day Idaho, the trail split. People bound for ­California
took the southern route, which became known as the Califor-
nia Trail. This path ran through the Sierra Nevada mountain
range. American emigrants and traders on the California Trail
tried to cross these mountains before the season’s first snows.
Although many Americans traveled along the California
Trail, few actually settled in California. American merchants
were usually more interested in trading goods made in factories
than in establishing settlements. They traded for gold and sil-
ver coins, hides, and tallow (animal fat used to make soap and
candles) from Mexico. California became a meeting ground for
traders from Mexico and the United States.
Before the Mexican-American War, California’s population
consisted mostly of Mexicans and Native Americans.
When Mexico controlled California, Mexican officials did
not want many Americans to settle there. However, in 1839
they did give Swiss immigrant John Sutter permission to
start a colony. Sutter’s Fort, located near the Sacramento River,
soon became a popular rest stop for many American
emigrants. These new arrivals praised Sutter’s hospitality

408 Module 12
 and helpfulness. By the mid-1840s some Anglo Californians were publish-
ing newspaper advertisements and guidebooks encouraging other settlers
to move to the West.
The Donner party was a group of western-bound travelers who went
to California but were stranded in the Sierra Nevada Mountains during
­winter. The party began its journey west in the spring of 1846. Trying
to find a shortcut, the group left the main trail and got lost. When the
­Donner party reached the Sierra Nevada Mountains, they became trapped
by heavy snows. They were stuck and had almost no food.
A rescue party found the starving and freezing group in February 1847.
Of the original 87 travelers, 42 had died.
Gold in California In January 1848 Sutter sent a carpenter named James
Marshall to build a sawmill beside a nearby river. While working near
­Sutter’s Mill, Marshall glanced at the ground. “I reached my hand down
and picked it up; it made my heart thump, for I was certain it was gold.”
Sutter and Marshall agreed to keep the discovery a secret. However,
when they examined the work site the next day, they met a Spanish-­
speaking Native American worker holding a nugget and shouting, “Oro
[gold]! Oro! Oro!”
Sutter’s workers soon quit to search for gold. Stories of the discovery
rapidly spread across the country. President Polk added to the national
excitement by confirming the California gold strike in his farewell
­message to Congress in December 1848. In 1849 about 80,000 gold-
seekers came to California, hoping to strike it rich. These gold-seeking
migrants to California were called forty-niners. As one Iowa woman who
left to find gold recalled, “At that time the ‘gold fever’ was contagious, and
few, old or young, escaped the malady [sickness].” Nearly 80 percent of the
­forty-­niners were Americans, while the rest came from all over the world.

“Gold Fever”
“Gold fever” brought 80,000 people, like
this miner, to ­California in 1849 alone.
One California newspaper captured
the excitement: “The whole country,
from San Francisco to Los Angeles,
and from the sea shore to the base of
the Sierra Nevadas, resounds with the
cry of ‘gold, GOLD, GOLD!’ while the
field is left half planted, the house half
built, and everything neglected but the
manufacture of shovels and pickaxes.”

Expansion and Conflict 409

 Most forty-niners braved long and often dangerous journeys to reach
California. Many easterners and Europeans arrived via sea routes.
­Midwestern gold-seekers usually traveled west in wagon trains. Most
forty-niners first arrived in San Francisco. This port town became a
­convenient trade center and stopping point for travelers. As a result,
its population increased from around 800 in March 1848 to more than
25,000 by 1850.
Staking a Claim Few of the forty-niners had any previous gold-mining
experience. The work was difficult and time-consuming. The forty-niners
would prospect, or search for gold, along the banks of streams or in
­shallow surface mines. The early forty-niners worked an area that ran
for 70 miles along rivers in northern California.
The first person to arrive at a site would “stake a claim.” Early ­miners
frequently banded together to prospect for gold. The miners agreed that
each would keep a share of whatever gold was discovered. When one group
abandoned a claim, more recent arrivals often took it over, hoping for
­success. Sometimes two or more groups arrived in an area at the same
time. In the early gold-rush days, before courts were established, this
competition often led to conflict. Occasionally, violent disputes arose over
competing claims.
Mining methods varied according to the location. The most popular
method, placer (PLA-suhr) mining, was done along rivers and streams.
Placer miners used pans or other devices to wash gold nuggets out of loose
rock and gravel. To reach gold deposits buried in the hills, miners had to
dig shafts and tunnels. These tasks were usually pursued by mining com-
panies, rather than by individuals.

Miners came to California from around the world to make their

fortune. In the photo, Anglo and Chinese miners work together
in Auburn Ravine in 1852.

410 Module 12
 In 1853 California’s yearly gold production peaked at more than
$60 million. Individual success stories inspired many miners. One lucky
man found two and a half pounds of gold after only 15 minutes of work.
Two African American miners found a rich gold deposit that became
known as Negro Hill in honor of their discovery. The vast majority of
­miners, however, did not become rich. Forty-niner Alonzo Delano com-
mented that the “lean, meager [thin], worn-out and woebegone [sorrowful]
miner . . . might daily be seen at almost every point in the upper mines.”
Life in the Mining Camps Mining camps sprang up wherever enough
people gathered to look for gold. These camps had colorful names, such as
Hangtown or Poker Flat. The mining camps usually began as a row of tents
along the streams flowing out of the Sierra Nevada. In time the tents gave
way to rough wooden houses, stores, and saloons.
Miners in the camps came from many cultures and backgrounds. Most
miners were young, unmarried men in search of adventure. Only around
5 percent of gold-rush immigrants were women or children. The hardwork-
ing women generally made good money by cooking meals, washing clothes,
and operating boardinghouses. One such woman, Catherine Haun, recalled
her first home in California—a wooden shed that was built in a day. The
building next door was a saloon. However, she quite liked her new home
and neighbors.
Haun’s husband was a lawyer. He concluded that he could make more
money practicing law than he could panning for gold. He was one of many
people who made a good living supplying miners with food, clothing,
equipment, and other services. Miners paid high prices for basic necessities
because the large amounts of gold in circulation caused severe inflation in
California. A loaf of bread, for example, might cost 5 cents in the East, but
would sell for 50 to 75 cents in San Francisco. Eggs sometimes sold for $1
apiece.
Some settlers took full advantage of these conditions for free enter-
prise. Biddy Mason and her family, for instance, had arrived in California
A woman joins men to look
for gold. Fewer women than
men moved west to search for
gold, but the ones who did
often found greater social and
economic opportunity than they
had in the east.

Expansion and Conflict 411

 as slaves. A Georgia slaveholder had brought them during the gold-rush
years. Mason quickly discovered that most Californians opposed slavery,
­particularly in the gold mines. She and her family gained their freedom
and moved to the small village of Los Angeles. There she saved money
until she could purchase some land. Over time, Mason’s property increased
in value from $250 to $200,000. She became one of the wealthiest land-
owners in California, a community leader, and a well-known supporter
of charities.
Immigrants to California The lure of gold in California attracted
­miners from around the world. Many were from countries that had seen
few immigrants to the United States in the past. They were drawn to
­California by the lure of wealth. For example, famine and economic hard-
ship in southeastern China caused many Chinese men to leave China for
America. Most hoped to find great wealth, and then return home to China.
These immigrants were known in Chinese as gam saan haak, or “travelers
to Gold Mountain.” Between 1849 and 1853, about 24,000 Chinese men
moved to California. “From far and near we came and were pleased,” wrote
merchant Lai Chun-chuen in 1855.
Chinese immigrants soon discovered that many Americans did not
welcome them, however. In 1852 California placed a tax of $20 a month on
all foreign miners. This was more than many of the Chinese miners could
afford. However, they had no choice but to find a way to pay this tax if
they wanted to prospect for gold. Some Chinese workers were the targets
of violent attacks. If the Chinese miners dared to protest the attacks, the
legal system favored Americans over immigrants.
Despite such treatment, many Chinese immigrants still worked in
the gold mines. Some looked for other jobs. Others opened their own
­businesses. A newspaper reported Chinese working as “ploughmen,
­laundry-men, placer miners, woolen spinners and weavers, domestic
­servants, cigar makers, [and] shoemakers.” So many Chinese owned busi-
nesses in San Francisco that their neighborhood became known as China-
town, as it still is today.
In 1849 alone, about 20,000 immigrants arrived in California not only
Reading Check from China but also from Europe, Mexico, and South America. Like most
Categorize Americans who sought gold, these new arrivals intended to return home
What types of people after they had made their fortunes. However, many decided to stay. Some
came to California
hoping to benefit began businesses. For example, Levi Strauss, a German immigrant, earned
from the gold rush? a fortune by making tough denim pants for miners.

Impact on California
During the Spanish and Mexican periods of settlement, California’s
population grew slowly. The arrival of the forty-niners changed this
dramatically.
Population Boom By 1849 California was home to more than 100,000
people, including Americans and immigrants. Also included in this num-
ber were slaves, although a state constitution written in 1849 outlawed

412 Module 12
Quick Facts

Westward Movement in the

United States
Causes Effects
• Americans believe in the idea of • Native Americans are forced off lands.
manifest destiny. • Americans travel west to settle new
• The United States acquires vast new areas.
lands in the West. • The United States stretches to the
• Pathfinders open trails to new Pacific Ocean.
territories. • California experiences a population
• Gold is discovered in California. boom.

slavery. California’s population explosion made it eligible for statehood

only two years after being acquired by the United States. In 1850 Califor-
nia became the 31st state.
However, fast population growth had negative consequences for many
Californios and California Native Americans. One early observer of the
gold rush described why.

“The Yankee regarded every man but [his own kind] as an interloper
[trespasser], who had no right to come to California and pick up the
gold of ‘free and enlightened citizens.’”
—W. Kelly, An Excursion to California

Economic Growth In addition to rapid population growth, a flood of new

businesses and industries transformed California’s economy. Gold mining
remained an important part of its early economy. But Californians soon
discovered other ways to make a living. Farming and ranching became
industries for those willing to do the necessary hard labor. The California
farming industry quickly took off, with Sacramento as its business cen-
ter. Soon crops from the state were being shipped to markets around the
United States and the world. In addition, lumber mills and factories were
established to provide for the needs of miners and city dwellers.
Perhaps the most successful industry during the gold rush, however, was
retail trade. Miners wanted to spend their time looking for gold, not growing
crops or making products. Instead, they chose to buy the food and supplies
they needed from merchants. However, the prices they paid were often very
high. California could not supply all the food and materials its new popula-
tion demanded, and materials had to be imported. Food and lumber were
shipped from the eastern United States and from other parts of the world
in return for gold. Merchants, in turn, sold these goods for inflated prices.
Many successful merchants made huge fortunes in ­California. Some of them
took their money back east to create new companies of their own. Among
the entrepreneurs who owed their fortunes to gold rush sales were railroad
tycoon Leland Stanford and blue jeans manufacturer Levi Strauss.

Expansion and Conflict 413

 San Francisco Population, 1847–1850
25

Population (in thousands)

20

15

10

San Francisco Grows 0

1847 1848 1849 1850
San Francisco boomed in the early years of the gold rush.
Year
What factors led to San Francisco’s population growth?

California faced an obstacle to growth, though. The state was isolated

from the rest of the country. It was difficult to bring in and ship out goods.
Reading Check The answer to the isolation problem was to bring the railroad all the way
Analyze Information to California. Although Californians would have to wait almost 20 years
What political for that, the gold rush did inspire the development of the American rail-
effect resulted from
­California’s rapid road industry. Completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 at last
population growth? gave Californians the means to grow a stronger economy.
Summary and Preview Americans moved west to create new lives and
seize new opportunities. In the next module you will learn about the
Industrial Revolution in America.

Lesson 3 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People c. Evaluate Overall, do you think that the gold rush
had a positive or negative effect on California? Explain.
1. a. Recall Why was Sutter’s Mill important?
b. Summarize What types of people participated Critical Thinking
in the California gold rush, and how did they take part
in it? 3. Evaluate In this lesson you learned about the Cali-
fornia gold rush. Create a concept web like the one
c. Elaborate What are some possible problems caused
shown below. Use it to show how the discovery of gold
by the arrival of so many new settlers to California?
changed California.
2. a. Describe How did some people hope to solve the
problem of California’s isolation from the rest of the
country? Discovery
of Gold
b. Draw Inferences What effect did California’s rapid
population growth have on Californios and Native
Americans?

414 Module 12
Social Studies Skills
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History and Geography

America’s
Growth by 1850
In the 1830s a new dream began
to shape the American mind—
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the way to the Pacific Ocean. By HMH— Middle School U.S. History—2016
1850 that dream50°Nhad become MS_SNLESE454149_219M
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America’s Population, 1850: 23.6 million

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Mexican Cession, 1848
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416 Module 12
 Water Rights Water was critical in the dry
West. Bitter disputes arose over who had the
water rights to streams. Gold rush miners
developed a simple system: whoever used the
water first owned the rights to it. In other parts
of the West, the community as a whole had a
right to use the water source.

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Interpret Maps
1. Movement Why did San Francisco grow so rapidly?
2. Human-Environment Interaction Why was water so
important in the West?

90°W 90°W

Expansion and Conflict 417

Module 12 Assessment
Review Vocabulary, Terms, and People
Identify the correct term or person from the module that best fits each of the following descriptions.
1. Mexican priest who led a rebellion for independence from Spain
2. Early settlers in California
3. A group of pioneers who were stranded in the Sierra Nevada Mountains and strug-
gled to survive the winter
4. Agents hired by the Mexican government to attract settlers to Texas
5. The belief that the United States was meant to expand across the continent to the
Pacific Ocean
6. Mexican ruler who fought to keep Texas from gaining independence
7. Swiss immigrant who received permission from Mexico to start a colony in
California

Comprehension and Critical Thinking c. Predict What long-term effects might

Lesson 1 the gold rush have on California’s future?
8. a. Identify Who were Stephen F. Austin
and Antonio López de Santa Anna? Review Themes
b. Draw Conclusions Why did settlers in 11. Economics What impact did the gold rush
Texas rebel against Mexican rule? have on the economy in California?
c. Elaborate In what ways was the Texas 12. Geography Why did many Americans in
struggle for independence similar to that the 1840s believe the United States should
of the United States? annex the territories of Oregon, New Mex-
Lesson 2 ico, and Texas?
9. a. Recall Why were some Americans
opposed to the annexation of new Reading Skills
territories? Vocabulary in Context Use the Reading Skills
b. Draw Conclusions What economic and taught in this module to answer the question
cultural influences did Native Americans about the reading selection below.
and Mexican Americans have on Ameri-
can settlers in the Mexican Cession? Texas politicians hoped that joining the United
c. Predict What are some possible prob- States would help solve the republic’s financial
lems the acquisition of so much territory and military problems. The Texas Congress
might cause the United States? approved annexation in June 1845. Texas
Lesson 3 became part of the United States in December.
10. a. Identify What roles did women and
immigrants play in the California gold 13. Determine the definition of annexation
rush? using context clues.
b. Make Inferences Why were most
gold-rush settlers young, unmarried
men?

418 Module 12
Module 12 Assessment, continued
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 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

The Real West:

Rush for Gold

When gold was discovered in northern California many people arrived so quickly that California became a
in 1848, it caused a sensation. Gold seekers from the state within three years of gold being discovered.
United States and the rest of the world rushed to California Explore some of the history and documents of the
to find their fortunes. The conditions of the trip were California gold rush online. You can find a wealth of
difficult, as was the labor required to extract the gold from information, video clips, primary sources, activities, and
rivers and mines. Although some people became wealthy, more through your online textbook.
many more never found the riches they had expected. So

419 MC1 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

 Go online to view these and
other HISTORY® resources.

“If any man has his health &

will work, he can make more
than ten times as much here
as he can in the states in Heading West
the same length of time. But Watch the video to learn about the dangers that
many, very many, that come overland travelers faced when trying to get to
California from the eastern United States.
here meet with bad success
& thousands will leave their
bones here.”
—S. Shufelt

A Miner’s Letter Home

Read the document to learn about
one miner’s opinion on the possibility
of becoming rich in California.

Search for the Mother Lode

Watch the video to see the various methods that
forty-niners used to mine the gold in California.

Statehood
Watch the video to discover the political issues
surrounding the admission of California as a free
state and its implication for the rest of the nation.

THE REAL WEST: RUSH FOR GOLD 419 MC2

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