Index

/
Sl.No. Chapter Pg.No.
1. Physical World 07
2. Units and Measurement 14
3. Motion in a Straight Line 29
4. Motion in a Plane 39
5. Laws of Motion 46
6. Work, Energy and Power 65
7. System of Particles and Rotational Motion 79
8. Gravitation 95
9. Mechanical Properties of Solids 106
10. Mechanical Properties of Fluids 115
11. Thermal Properties of Matter 128

12. Thermodynamics 141

13. Kinetic Theory 157
14. Oscillations 167
15. Waves 184
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Physical World
Science

• Science means organized knowledge

• Science is a systematic and organized attempt to acquire knowledge about the surroundings through observations,
experiments and verifications

Scientific Method
• Scientific methods are used to observe things and natural phenomena. It includes several steps:
⮚ Observations
⮚ Controlled experiments
⮚ Qualitative and quantitative reasoning
⮚ Mathematical modeling
⮚ Prediction
⮚ Verification or falsification of theories

• There is no ‘final’ theory in science and no unquestioned authority in science

• Observations and experiments need theories to support them. Sometimes the existing theory is unable to explain
the new observations, hence either new theories are formed or modification is done in the existing theories
• Natural Sciences can be broadly divided in three branches namely Physics, Chemistry and Biology

Physics

• Physics is a fundamental science concerned with understanding the natural phenomena that occur in our universe
• It has many branches such as Mechanics, Electromagnetism, Thermodynamics, Modem Physics, etc.
• Between 1600 and 1900, three broad areas were developed, which is together called Classical Physics. These three
areas of study are Classical Mechanics, Thermodynamics and Electromagnetism
• But by 1905 it became apparent that classical ideas failed to explain several phenomena. Then some new theories
were developed in what is called Modern Physics such as Special Relativity, Quantum Mechanics, etc.

Principal Thrusts in Physics

• There are two principal thrusts in Physics

1. Unification
2. Reductionism
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Unification

‐ Efforts are made to explain different phenomena in nature on the basis of one or minimum laws. This is Principle
of Unification
‐ Example: Phenomena of apple falling to ground, moon revolving around earth and weightlessness in the rocket,
all these phenomena are explained with help of one law i.e., Newtons Law of Gravitation

Reductionism

‐ To understand or to derive the properties of a bigger or more complex system the properties of its simpler
constituents are taken into account. This approach is called reductionism
‐ It is supposed to be the heart of Physics
‐ For example, a complex thermodynamical system can be understood by the properties of its constituents like
kinetic energy of molecules and atom

Scope of Physics
• It can be divided in to two domains; Macroscopic and Microscopic
• Macroscopic domain includes phenomena at the level of laboratory, terrestrial and astronomical scales
• Microscopic domain includes atomic, molecular and nuclear phenomena
• Recently third domain in between is also thought of with name Mesoscopic Physics. This deals with group of
Hundreds of atoms
• Scope of physics is very wide and exciting because it deals with objects of size as large as Universe (1025 m) and
as small as (10−14 m), the size of a nucleus

The Excitement of Physics

• The excitement of Physics is experienced in many fields like,
⮚ Live transmissions through television
⮚ Computers with high speed and memory
⮚ Use of robots
⮚ Lasers and their applications
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Physics in Relation to other Branches of Science

i) Physics in relation to Mathematics

‐ Study of physical variables led to the idea of differentiation, integration and differential equation.↑
Meaningful interpretation of Mathematics becomes Physics

ii) Physics in relation to Chemistry

‐ The concept of X-ray diffraction and radioactivity has helped to distinguish between the various solids and to
modify the periodic table
‐ Understanding the bonding and the chemical structure of substances is easy with the help of the concept of
interactions between various particles

iii) Physics in relation to Astronomy

‐ Optical telescopes of reflecting and refracting type enabled man to explore the space around. Discoveries
like radio telescopes have revolutionized the study of Astronomy

iv) Physics in relation to Biology

‐ The conceptual study of pressure and its measurement has helped us to know blood pressure and hence the
functioning of heart. Invention of X-rays developed the field of diagnosis
‐ Electron and optical microscopic designs have revolutionized the study of medical science

v) Physics in relation to Meteorology

‐ The discoveries regarding the study of pressure variations help us to forecast the weather.
Various other inventions of physics have opened new vistas of study in the field of sciences and social sciences

vi) Physics in Relation to Technology and Society

‐ Advancement in physics has led to new technologies and vice-versa. Sometimes technology gives rise to new
dimension of physics; at other times physics generates new technology. In fact, the technological development
is closely related to the application of science and physics in particular
‐ Physics has a dominant influence on society. It has helped the human being to develop its ideas. Development
of digital communication systems, rapid mass transport system, lasers making bloodless surgeries, etc., has
made human life easy and pleasant
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Some Physicists from Different Countries of the World and their Major Contributions

COUNTRY OF
NAME MAJOR CONTRIBUTION/DISCOVERY
ORIGIN

Archimedes Principle of buoyancy; Principle of the lever Greece

Galileo Galilei Law of inertia Italy
Christiaan Huygens Wave theory of light Holland
Isaac Newton Universal law of gravitation; Laws of motion; Reflecting telescope U.K.
Michael Faraday Laws of electromagnetic induction U.K.
James Clerk Maxwell Electromagnetic theory; Light-an electromagnetic wave U.K.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Generation of electromagnetic waves Germany
J.C. Bose Ultrashort radio waves India
W.K. Roentgen X-rays Germany
J.J. Thomson Electron U.K.
Marie Sklodowska Curie Discovery of radium and polonium; Studies on natural radioactivity Poland
Albert Einstein Explanation of photoelectric effect, Theory of relativity Germany
Victor Francis Hess Cosmic radiation Austria
R.A. Millikan Measurement of electronic charge U.S.A.
Ernest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom New Zealand
Niels Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom Denmark
C.V. Raman Inelastic scattering of light by molecules India
Louis Victor de Borglie Wave nature of matter France
M.N. Saha Thermal ionisation India
S.N. Bose Quantum statistics India
Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion principle Austria
Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission Italy
Werner Heisenberg Quantum mechanics; Uncertainty principle Germany
Paul Dirac Relativistic theory of electron; Quantum statistics U.K.
Edwin Hubble Expanding universe U.S.A.
Ernest Orlando
Cyclotron U.S.A.
Lawrence
James Chadwick Neutron U.K.
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Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces Japan

Homi Jehangir Bhabha Cascade process of cosmic radiation India
Lev Davidovich Landau Theory of condensed matter; Liquid helium Russia
S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution of stars India
John Bardeen Transistors; Theory of super conductivity U.S.A.
C.H. Townes Maser; Laser U.S.A.
Abdus Salam Unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions Pakistan

Link between Technology and Physics

TECHNOLOGY SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES

Steam engine Laws of thermodynamics
Nuclear reactor Controlled nuclear fission
Generation, propagation and detection of
Radio and Television
electromagnetic waves
Computers Digital logic
Lasers Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Production of ultrahigh magnetic fields Superconductivity
Rocket propulsion Newton’s laws of motion
Electric generator Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
Conversion of gravitational potential energy into
Hydroelectric power
electrical energy
Aero plane Bernoulli’s principle in fluid dynamics
Particle accelerators Motion of charged particles in electromagnetic fields
Sonar Reflection of ultrasonic waves
Optical fibers Total internal reflection of light
Non-reflecting coatings Thin film optical interference
Electron microscope Wave nature of electrons
Photocell Photoelectric effect
Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) Magnetic confinement of plasma
Giant Metre wave Radio Telescope (GMRT) Detection of cosmic radio waves
Trapping and cooling of atoms by laser beams and
Bose-Einstein condensate
magnetic fields
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Fundamental Forces in Nature

• There is a large number of forces experienced or applied
• These may be macroscopic forces like gravitation, friction, contact forces and microscopic forces like
electromagnetic and inter-atomic forces
• But all these forces arise from some basic forces called Fundamental forces
• Fundamental Forces in Nature:
1. Gravitational force
2. Electromagnetic Forces
3. Strong nuclear Force
4. Weak Nuclear Force

1. Gravitational Force

• It is due to mass of the two bodies

• It is always attractive
• It operates in all objects of universe
• It is long range force
• It is the weakest force in nature
• Independent of intervening medium
• 10−38 times compared to strong nuclear force

2. Electromagnetic Force

• It is due to stationery or moving electrical charge

• It may be attractive or repulsive
• It operates on charged particles
• It is long range force
• Dependent of intervening medium
• Its stronger 1036 times than gravitational force but 10−2 times of strong nuclear force

3. Strong Nuclear Force

• Force between nucleons in nucleus

• It may be attractive or repulsive
• Charge independent and mass independent
• It is short range force
• Strongest force in nature
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4. Weak Nuclear Force

• Operate within nucleons, that is elementary particles like electron and neutrino
• It appears during radioactive  decay
• It is short range force
• 10−13 times than strong nuclear force

Ratio of Strengths of Forces

• Strong force > Electromagnetic force > Weak force > Gravitational force
• The ratio of strengths is 1 : 10−2 : 10−13 : 10−39

NAME RELATIVE STRENGTH RANGE OPERATES AMONG

Gravitational force 10−39 Infinite All objects in the universe

Some elementary particles,

Very short, Sub-nuclear size
Weak nuclear force 10 −13
particularly electron and
(∼ 10−16 m)
neutrino

Electromagnetic force 10−3 Infinite Charged particles

Short, nuclear size Nucleons, heavier elementary

Strong nuclear force 1
(∼ 10−15 m) particles

CONSERVATION LAWS IN PHYSICS

A. Law of conservation of energy

B. Law of conservation of charge
C. Law of conservation of momentum
D. Law of conservation of angular momentum
 14

Units and Measurements

Physical quantities
· These quantities which can describe the laws of physics and are possible to measure are called physical quantities

Physical Quantities

Fundamental Quantities Derived Quantities

(Independent) (Dependent)
Ex: Mass, Length, Time, Current etc. Ex: Speed =
Distance
Time

Mechanical quantities Density =

Mass
Volume

UNIT

Standard reference used to measure a physical quantity

i) Fundamental units
The units of fundamental quantities (standard units)
Mass = kg (kilogram)
Amount of Substance = mol (mole)
Length = m (meter)
Time = sec (second)
Temp = k (kelvin)
Current = A (Ampere)
Luminous intensity =cd (candela)

Basic unit system: Name of the system

Quantity C.G.S F.P.S M.K.S

Length Centimeter Foot Meter

Mass Gram Pound Kilogram

Time Second Second Second

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Measurement of Length

Measurement of
Length

Direct method Indirect Method

i) Vernier caliper a, screw Guage, scale i) SONAR sound Navigation And Ranging
ii) RADAR (Radio detection And Ranging); ii) s = vt /2 s-distance; vt =velocity time
Reflection of radiowaves can be used to find the distance 1/2 Is added because the sound waves reflect back from
of an astronomic object the object and received by detector .
S =ct /2(reflection concept) It is used in measuring depth of sea.

Practical units of length

1 Astronomical unit = 1.5 x108Km (Distance between sun and earth)
1 Parsec = 3.08 x 1016m
Light year = 9.46 x1012km (Distance travelled by light in one year)
Angstrom = 10-10m
Fermi = 10-15m

Measurement of mass

▪ Scalar magnitude that measures the inertia of bodies. While dealing with atoms and molecules instead of kg,
atomic mass unit a.m.u is used
▪ 1 a.m.u = 1/12 th mass of carbon atom = 1.66 x10-27 kg

Measurement of Time

Atomic clocks are used for accurate measurement of time in seconds

Some other units (Not contained in SI units)

Length
i) 1 micron = 1μm = 10-6m
ii) 1 nanometer = 1nm = 10-9 m
iii) 1 Angstrom = 1A = 10-10m = 10-8cm = 10-4 μ
iv) 1 Fermi = 1 fm = 10-15m
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v) 1 Astronomical unit = 1 AU = 1.496 x1011m

vi) 1 Light year =1 ly = 9.467 x1015m
vii) 1 Parsec = 3.08x1016m = 3.26 ly = 206267 AU

Mass
i) 1 Quintal = 100kg
ii) 1 Tone or 1 metric ton = 1000 kg = 10 quintal
iii) 1 Megagram = 103kg
iv) 1 Gigagram = 106kg
v) 1 Tera-gram = 109kg
vi) 1 Slug =14.57 kg
vii) 1 Pound = 1 lb= 0.4536 kg

Time
i) 1 Millisecond = 10-3s
ii) 1Microsecond = 10-6s
iii) 1 Shake = 10-8s
iv) 1 Nanosecond= 10-9s
v) 1 Picosecond =10-12s
vi) 1 Hour = 60 minutes =3600s
vii) 1 Day = 24 hours =86400s
viii) 1 Year = 365 days = 3.15 x107s
ix) 1 Century = 100 years

Common SI prefixes and symbols for Multiples and Sub Multiples

Multiple Sub Multiple

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

1018 Exa E 10-18 Atto a
1015 Peta P 10-15 Femto f
1012 Tera T 10-12 Pico p
109 Giga G 10-9 Nano n
106 Mega M 10-6 Micro μ
103 Kilo K 10-3 Milli m
102 Hecto h 10-2 Centi c
101 Deca da 10-1 Deci d
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Derived units
Speed = d/t = ms-1
Force = ma = kgms-2
Acceleration = v/t = ms-2

Dimensions of physical quantity

The expression of the physical quantity in terms of its basic unit with proper dimensions is called dimensional
formula

• A physical quantity may have number of units but it must have same dimension
Ex: Velocity – ms-1, cms-1, kms-1 – M0 L-1 T-1

• Dimensionless quantity may have unit

Ex: Angle and solid angle

• The method of dimensions can’t be applied to derive physical formula because it doesn’t involve dimensionless
quantity
Ex: S = 1/3 at2
It is dimensionally correct, but not correct formula

The principle of Homogeneity of Dimension

Dimension of physical quantity on left hand side of dimensional equation should be equal to net dimension of
physical quantity on right hand side. The physical quantity with some dimensions can be added or subtracted

Uses of dimensional equations

• Conversion of one system of units to other
• Checking the accuracy of various formula or equation
• Derivation of formula
• To find unit of physical quantity
• Used to find new system of units

Dimensional formulae of some physical quantities

The table given below gives the dimensional formulae and SI units of some physical quantities frequently used in
physics -
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Sl.no Physical Quantity SI Unit Dimensional

Formula

1 Velocity = Displacement /Time m/s [M0LT-1]

2 Acceleration = Velocity / Time m/s2 [M0LT-2]
3 Force = Mass x Acceleration kg - m/s2 = newton or N [MLT-2]
4 Work = Force x Displacement kg –m2/s2 = N-m = joule or J [ML2T-2]
5 Energy J [ML2T-2]
6 Torque = Force x Perpendicular distance N-m [ML2T-2]
7 Power = Work / Time J/s or watt [ML2T-3]
8 Momentum = Mass x Velocity kg -m/s [MLT-1]
9 Impulse = Force x Time N-s [MLT-1]
10 Angle = Arc / Radius Radian or rad [M0L0T0]
11 Strain =
∆L
∝
∆v
No units [M0L0T0]
L v
12 Stress = Force / Area N/m2 [ML-1T-2]
13 Pressure = Force / Area N/m2 [ML-1T-2]
14 Modulus of elasticity = Stress / Strain N/m2 [ML-1T-2]
15 Frequency = 1 / Time period Per second or hertz(Hz) [M0L0T-1]
16 Angular velocity = Angle / Time Rad/s [M0L0T-1]
17 Moment of inertia = kg – m2 [ML2T0]
(Mass) x (Distance)2
18 Surface tension = Force / Length N/m [ML0T-2]
19 Gravitational constant = N-m2/kg2 [M-1 L3T-2]
(Force x (Distance))2 / (Mass)2
20 Angular momentum kg-m2/s [ML2T-1]
21 Coefficient of viscosity N-s/m2 [ML-1T-1]
22 Planck’s constant J-s [ML2T-1]
23 Specific heat J/kg-k [M0 L2T-2θ-1]
(s)
24 Coefficient of thermal conductivity (k) Watt/m-K [MLT-3θ-1]
25 Gas constant (R) J/mol-K [M L2T-2θ-1mol-1]
26 Boltzmann constant (k) J/K [M L2T-2θ-1]
27 Wien’s constant (b) m-K [L θ]
28 Stefan’s constant (𝜎) Watt / m2-K4 [ML0T-3 θ -4]
29 Electric charge C [AT]
30 Electric Intensity N/C [MLT-3A-1]
31 Electric potential Volt (V) [ML2T-3A-1]
 19

32 Capacitance Farad(F) [M-1L-2T4A2]

33 Permittivity of free space C2N-1m-2 [M-1L-3T4A2]
34 Electric dipole moment C-m [LTA]
35 Resistance Ohm [ML2T-3A-2]
36 Magnetic Field Tesla(T) or weber/m2(Wb/m2) [MT-2A-1]
37 Coefficient of self-induction Henry(H) [ML2T-2A-2]
38 Magnetic Flux Wb (weber) [ML2T-2A-1]
39 Permeability of free space Hm-1 [MLT-2A-2]
40 Magnetic moment Am2 [M0L2T0A]

QUANTITIES HAVING SAME DIMENSIONS

DIMENSION QUANTITY
[M0L0T-1] Frequency, Angular frequency, Angular velocity,
Velocity gradient and Decay constant
[M1L2T-2] Work, Internal energy, Potential energy,
Kinetic energy, Torque, Moment of force
[M1L-1T-2] Pressure, Stress, Young’s modulus, Bulk modulus,
Modulus of rigidity, Energy density
[M1L1T-1] Momentum, Impulse
[M0L1T-2] Acceleration due to gravity,
Gravitational field intensity
[M1L1T-2] Thrust, Force, Weight, Energy gradient
[M1L2T-1] Angular momentum and Planck’s constant
[M1L0T-2] Surface tension, Surface energy (Energy per unit area)
[M0L0T0] Strain, Refractive Index, Relative density, Angle,
Solid angle, Distance gradient, Relative Permittivity
(dielectric constant), Relative permeability etc.
[M0L2T-2] Latent heat and gravitational potential
[ML2T-2-1] Thermal capacity, gas constant, Boltzmann constant
and Entropy
[M0L0T1] l m R
√g , √ k , √ g where l= length,
g= acceleration due to gravity, m= mass,
k=spring constant, R= radius of earth
 20

[M0L0T1] L/R, √LC. RC where, L= Inductance, R=Resistance,

C=Capacitance
[ML2T-2] I2RT,
V2
t, VIt, qV, LI2,
q2
, CV2 where I-Current,
R C
t-Time, q=Charge, L=Inductance, C=Capacitance,
R=Resistance

Conversion of one system of units into another

Let n1 and n2 - Numerical values of Quantity Q in two-unit system
U1 = M1a L1b T1c U2 = M2a L2b T2c
nu = constant
n1U1 = n2U2 = n1 [M1a L1b T1c] = n2[M2a L2b T2c]
M1 a L1 b T1 c
n2 = n [ ] [ ] [ ]
M2 L2 T2

TO CHECK ACCURACY OF FORMULA

Based on Homogeneity principle of dimensions, formula is correct when L.H.S = R.H.S dimensionally

TO DERIVE FORMULA BY DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Let physical quantity S depends on another quantities P, Q, R

c
Then, S ∝ (P)a (Q)b (R)
Dimensional formula,
MxLyTz = [Mx1 Ly1 Tz1]a[Mx2 Ly2 Tz2]b [Mx3 Ly3 Tz3]c
MxLyTz = Max1+bx2+cx3 x Lay1+by2+cy3 x T az1+bz2+cz3
ax1 + bx2 + cx3 = x
ay1 + by2 + cy3 = y
az1 + bz2 + cz3 = z
By solving this, we get a, b and c S = K (P)a (Q)b (R)c

Example 1
Find the value of 100 J on a system which has 20 cm, 250 g and half minute as fundamental units of length, mass and
time