Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY - JONES CAMPUS

Jones, Isabela

CRIM FORENSIC 6 - FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Chapter 6
Cartridge Case

Cartridge Case
 is the metallic or non-metallic tabular container usually made of brass (70% copper and 30%zinc)
 it is designed to unite the bullet, primer and the gunpowder into one unit.
 It is also known as a shell or casing.
 Traditionally, a cartridge case is made of brass although there are many present-day cartridges that are made
of plastic, varnish steel, zinc-coated or even chemically coated are use.

Functions of the Cartridge Case

1. It properly locates the bullet relative to the bore of the fire- arm.
2. It is used to carry the means of ignition.
3. It provides gas seals at the breech against an unwanted escape of propellant gas upon firing.
4. Serves as the waterproof container for the propellant or powder charge.
5. Acts as the insulator between the propellant and the hot walls of the chamber in a rapid firing of firearms

Parts of the Cartridge Case

1.

Base – it is the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp marking on the shell containing
the caliber, manufacturer and in some cases including the date, trade name, and batch number.
2. Rim – it is that part of the cartridge case designed to limit the forward movement of the cartridge to the
chamber.
3. Extracting grooves – it is the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for automatic withdrawal of the
case from the chamber.
4. Primer Pocket – it is the part of the shell which provides the means for the primer to be put in the central
position. Its function is extended to:
(a) hold the primer in place;
(b) to provide means to prevent the escape of gas;
(c) to provide solid support for primer anvil.
5. Body – it is the cylindrical part of the shell which houses the gunpowder. It is sometimes called the Powder
Chamber.
 6. Shoulder – it is the part of the cartridge case which supports the neck of the cartridge which is evident in a
bottleneck type.
7. Cannelure – it is the cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the cartridge case designed to secure the shell to
the chamber as well as to prevent the bullet from being pushed down to the powder charge. In some instance it
is even being utilized for identification.
8. Neck - is that part of the shell which is actually occupied by the bullet. This is obvious in a bottleneck type of
shell but not with the straight type.
9. Crimp – it is the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed for two purposes:
(1) is to hold the bullet and prevent it from being pulled out from the shell and
(2) to offer resistance to the bullet out of the neck to ensure the burning of the gun powder.
10. Vent or Flash hole – it is the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket that serves as the passage way for the
priming mixture to impart an ignition to the propellant charge.
11. Case web – it forms the junction between the case body and the case head. This crucial junction can weaken
after repeated firings as the brass is stretched under firing and then compressed when sized in a sizing die.
Known as a case head separation, this can render the firearm inoperable until the body of the case is removed
from the chamber.
12. Case head – it is the thickest and hardest part of the case, consequently it is also the strongest part of the
case. The case head contains, the flash hole, the primer pocket, the head stamp, and the extractor groove.
Some cases also headspace off the head of the case via a rim or a belt.

Types of Cartridge Case

1. Straight type = a type of a cartridge case or shell which has
a straight shell body usually found on cartridge used in an
automatic weapon.
2. Tapered type = a type of a cartridge case similar to a flower
base where a wide–based cartridge case is gradually reduced
in diameter along its length. It is found in caliber 22 magnum-
jet.
3. Bottle-neck = a type of cartridge commonly found in
ammunition s for rifles.

Chapter 7
Primer

Primer (also called CAP)

 It is also known as the percussion cup.
 it is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a highly sensitive chemical
compound that would easily ignite or burst into flame when struck by the firing pin.
 Primers are used for igniting gunpowder or the propellant charge. A blow from the firing pin on the primer
cup compression causes the priming composition to explode or detonate. This detonation or explosion
produces flame which passes through the “vent” or “Flash hole” in the cartridge case and this ignites the
propellant of powder charge. Primers are used for igniting propellant powders and the promptness, adequacy,
and uniformity with which they ignite powder charge play a vital part in the performance of ammunition.
 It may either be Berdan, Boxer type. These are the two kinds of primer according to flash hole mechanism
construction.
 The Berdan is a type of primer construction, which was designed in the
1860s by Colonel Hiram S. Berdan of the U.S Army Ordinance
Department. Its distinction over the boxer is that, its anvil forms part of the
cartridge case and a number of flash holes to serve as the passage of
ignition usually two (2). This is common in almost all military ammunition.
  The Boxer on the other hand, was developed by Col Edward M. Boxer of the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich
Arsenal in the year 1866. This type of anvil was formed separately from the shell and became a part of the
ignition cap making a single flash hole to serve as the passage of ignition. Despite the difficulty in
manufacturing, it has become popular because of its adaptability for reloading.

Origin of Ignition System

The term 'lock' has been used since the ancient times to refer to the ignition system. Many kinds of ignition
system were used in ancient weapons such as the muskets.
Matchlock
 The earliest of this ignition system is the "match lock" also referred to as
refined "serpentine lock" with a s-shaped piece of metal pivoted on the
stave, the forward end holding the hump fiber treated with saltpeter, twisted
and tied by a thread to retain the twists to make it slow burning.
 The matchlock incorporated a "lock" that was actuated by a trigger,
originally called a "tricker." The lock was a simple lever which pivoted when
pulled and lowered the match down to the touchhole.
 It burns at about 3 to 5 inches per hour.

Wheellock
 The match lock was later superseded by a "wheel lock" in the early years of
the 16th century.
 It used a spring-loaded, serrated steel wheel which rubbed against a piece
of iron pyrite, similar to a modern lighter.
 A roughened wheel, driven by a spring that needs to be first would up or
spanned producing sparks igniting the priming powder and passed through
a touch hole burning the powder charge.

Flintlock
 Fifty years later, the "flint lock" ignition system was developed (also known
as "snap-lock").
 In this system a simple mechanical fire striking lick called "snaphaunce"
replace the wheel mechanism and an iron right-angle pan cover hinged
over the priming pan, constituted the flint lock. The hinged will be stricken
by the cock (from the resemblance of its motion to a pecking chicken) upon
release of the trigger, causing the hinged cover to be thrown back,
exposing and igniting the priming powder by the sparks produced by the scraping flint along the iron.
 This system was used until the start of the 19th century when the percussion system was finally been
developed.

Cap lock
 Percussion ignition was invented by Scottish clergyman Rev. Alexander
John Forsyth (father of percussion system) in 1807.
 The percussion cap was a thin metal cup that contained a small quantity
of pressure-sensitive explosive, often mercury fulminate. When crushed,
the explosive would detonate, sending a stream of hot gas down through
a hole in the nipple and into the touchhole of the gun to ignite the powder
charge.
 The percussion system was spread and almost totally replaced the flint
lock in the year 1840. This led to the making of the famous percussion cap of Joshua Shaw in 1814 and finally
adopted by the British Army in the year 1838 and by the American in the year 1842.
Electric-fired
 A small number of caseless cartridges use no primer at all, but the primary propellant is ignited using an
externally provided electric charge.

Parts of the Primer

1. Primer Cup - is the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming
mixture, the disc and the anvil.
2. Priming Mixture - is the highly sensitive chemical compound which
ignites by the mechanical blow of the firing pin. It is also called as
percussion powder.
3. Anvil - is the portion of the primer which provides solid support and
absorbs the blow of the firing pin causing friction that would initiates
ignition.
4. Disc - is a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to protect it from moisture attack.

Types of Priming Mixture Compound

1. Corrosive = one containing potassium chlorate which when ignited produce moisture causing the formation of rust
in the bore of the firearm. Other components are antimony sulfide and mercury fulminate.
2. Non-Corrosive = one which is designed for less chances of rusting by replacing the potassium chlorate with
barium nitrate.

Chapter 8
Propellant (Gun Powder)

Gunpowder
 (also called as propellant or Powder Charge)
 is the mixture of chemicals of various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of its expansive
force of gas when burned.
 Gunpowder is a substance that burns very rapidly, realizing gases that acts as a propellant in firearms.
 The weight of the powder or propellant charge in cartridge is expressed in “Grains” in English speaking countries,
and in grams in the countries using the metric system.
 Common ingredients of Gunpowder
a. Sulfur (10%)
b. Carbon (Charcoal) (15%)
c. Potassium nitrate (Saltpeter) (75%)

The Development of Gun Powder

A question of where it was discovered, who first used it for gun and who invented it is still a mystery. Maybe this
is caused by lack of proof beyond doubt as to the claim of various writers as to who invented the gun powder and
realized its capabilities. Two of the most popular individuals whose name is always attached to gunpowder discovery
were Roger Bacon and Berthold Schwartz.

Roger Bacon, (1242 A.D.)

 a Franciscan monk, who wrote the "De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae" (On the Marvelous Power of Art and
Nature), including an anagram. This anagram was only re-arranged and properly punctuated by a British
Artillery Officer named Colonel Hime, and it read "but of salpetre takes seven part, five of young hazel twig and
five of sulfur, and so thou wilt call up thunder and destruction of thou know the art". This is practically a working
gunpowder formula.
 Bacon did not make any claim of its discovery but suggest that by 1266 the gunpowder was already of a
common knowledge and he was merely reporting it as a fact. Maybe another reason why he never made any
claim is due to the prohibition existing during his time that no forms of an article involving explosives should be
made. If he was to directly print the same it might even cause him his life.
Berthold Schwartz (whose real name was Constantin Anklitzen),
 a mysterious monk of Freiburg, who according to legend that is supported by an engraving dated 1643, while
experimenting on some powder in a cast iron vessel he ignited a charge and thus blew off the lid, and from this
deduced the principle of containing a charge in a tube and propelling a shot (Encyclopedia of ammunition). The
engraver dated the scene 1380, and it was evident that well before that date, cannons were already in use.

Explosives
 An explosive is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion. It is a
material either a pure single substance or mixture of substance which is capable of producing an explosion by
its energy.

Classification of Explosives
1. Propellants or low explosives - burns but do not explode and function by producing gas which produces
explosion. E.g. black powder and smokeless powder.
2. Primary explosive or initiators - explodes or detonate when they are heated or subjected to shock. They do
not burn; sometimes they do not even contain the element necessary for combustion. The material themselves
explode, and the explosion result whether they are confined or not e.g. mercury fulminate, lead ozide, lead salts
or picric acid.
3. High explosives - detonates under the influence of the shock of the explosion of a primary explosive. They do
not function by burning; in fact, not all of them are combustible, but most of them can be ignited by a flame and
in small amount generally burn tranquilly and can extinguished easily e.g TNT, dynamite, nitroglycerine, picric
acid.

Other forms of Explosives

 Nitroglycerine (NG) - a high explosive substance widely used in industrial explosives. It has been the main
component of many dynamites. It is an oily liquid made of nitric acid, sulfuric acid and glycerine.
 Trinitrotoluene (TNT) - it is the most widely used explosive usually used in military explosives.
 RDX - (abbreviation of "Research Department eXplosive" or Royal Demolition eXplosive) or also called
hexogen or cyclonite of cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine. It is the most important military explosive used today.
 Nitrocellulose (NC) - or cellulose nitrate or nitro-cotton, is the nitrate ester of cellulose that serves as the main
ingredient of many smokeless powders.
 Bomb - is poorly defined as a hallow projectile of iron generally spherical, containing an explosive material
which is fired by concussion of by time fuse. Modern bombs are no longer constructed on such pattern.
Classification of Propellants
1. Black powder
 it is the oldest known chemical explosive, and instead of detonating it burns quickly.
 was initially made from saltpeter (75%), charcoal (15%) and sulfur (10%). This formula varies in
percentage and even in composition in different countries throughout the world. This mixture is being
ground into fine dust, called "Serpentine" which was said to have been used until the middle of the 16th
century. After such form, a "corned powder was used to replace serpentine, for being more stable.
 But due to its high sensitivity leading to accidents modifications had been made to develop other forms.
Some used potassium nitrate while the other used sodium nitrate.
 But whatever forms or composition of black powders there is generally great disadvantage of this
powder. IT creates a dark smoke and causes fouling.
2. Flash gunpowder
 This type of gunpowder is not for firearm.
 It is a pyrotechnic composition, a mixture of oxidizer and metallic fuel, which burns quickly
(deflagrates) and produces a loud noise regardless of confinement. It is widely used in
theatrical pyrotechnics and fireworks (namely salutes, e.g., cherry bombs, M-80s, firecrackers, and cap
gun shots) and was once used for flashes in photography.
3. Brown gunpowder – it is also known as prismatic gunpowder sometimes referred as "cocoa powder" due to its
color. It has a slower burn rate. It was a propellant used in large artillery and ship's guns from the 1870s to the
1890s.
4. Smokeless powder
  The basic ingredient used for smokeless powder is a nitrocellulose that was first produced by adding a
nitric acid to cellulose fiber.
 According to Harrison, Captain E. Schultze of the Prussian Army, made the 1st successful use of
smokeless powder in shotgun in the year 1864.
 M. Vieille of French developed the first smokeless powder for riffle in the year 1884 and named it
"poudre B" taken after Gen. Boulanger's name.
 a gunpowder that is made from nitrocellulose or nitroglycerine.
a. Single base or nitrocellulose
b. Double base or nitroglycerine

Chapter 9
Firearms Characteristics

A gun barrel is the tube, usually metal, through which a controlled explosion or rapid expansion of gases are
released in order to propel a projectile out of the end at a high velocity. All barrel irrespective of the type of the weapons
for which they are made, are manufactured from a solid piece of metal. The metal from which the barrel is made is
carefully selected for its chemical and metallurgical properties, thus assuring a high-quality product after the various
machine operations and heat treatment are completed.

The Following are the Stages in the Manufacture of the Barrel

A. Drilling - A special deep-hole is used and through the center of which lubricating oil is forced under pressure.
This operation results to a comparatively rough hole of uniform diameter from one end of the barrel to other. At
this stage the interior surface of the barrel will bear numerous scars and scratches resulting from the irregular
cutting of the drill and the metal chips which mark the finish. It is also the stage at which the bore diameter
(caliber) of the firearm is determined.

B. Reaming - In this process, some of the scars or scratches left by the drilling operation are removed. The reamer
removes the metal from the entire surface because it is slightly larger in diameter than the drill which completes
the bore operations. It includes roughly finishing and burnishing reamer to have a smooth bore barrel.

C. Rifling - This process is necessary for the making of the helical groves inside the barrel and such can be
performed in any of the following methods:
1. Hook-cutter system (cutter)
2. Scrape-cutter system (scraper)
3. Broaching system - (broach)
4. Button-system (button)
Rifling in the bore of the firearm is a helical groove consisting of depressed portion (grooves) and an
elevated portion (lands) which is responsible for the rotation motion of the projectile as it leaves the gun muzzle.

D. Lapped - This is the polishing operation in which a lead plug closely fitting the inside of the barrel is drawn back
and forth on a rod carrying with it is a polishing compound. This will remove large imperfection on the inside
surface of the barrel both to the lands and the grooves. What is important about this process is that no matter
how many times we polish or finish the barrel, only the large imperfections may be eliminated but not the minute
imperfections making a series of striations that will be impressed on every bullet that will pass through it. This is
the basis for which firearms are identified.

The Breech faces

Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech face also bears with it the same importance. It is that portion of
the firearms against which the shell or the cartridge case and the primer is pressed backward every time that a cartridge
is fired in the chamber. If this happens, the base of the cartridge will be marked by the breech face of the gun.

Types of Characteristics in Firearms

A. Class Characteristics are those properties or attributes of a firearm which can be determined even before the
manufacture of the gun. This is true for such characteristics are considered to be a manufacturer's designs or
specifications and security.
B. Individual Characteristics are meant for those characteristics which are being determined only after the firearm
has already been manufactured. They are the product of machine imperfections while others are subsequently
produced after the firearms have been used.

Class Characteristics of firearms

1. Bore diameter (caliber or gauge)
It is the diameter to which the bore was reamed, and it is the distance measured between two opposite
lands inside the bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In most cases, it is expressed in either caliber
in inch or in millimeters such as cal 22, 25, 30, 32, 38, 380, 357, 44, 45, 50 etc. or 5.56mm, 6.35mm, 9mm,
11mm, etc. In shotguns, they are either in gauge or in inch, such as 10 gauge (.775), 12 gauge (729), 20 gauge
(.615), 24 gauge (.579), 30 gauge (.537) 36 gauge (506), and the smallest of which is gauge 410.

2. Number of lands and grooves

The number of lands and grooves inside the barrel of a given firearm are always the same or equal. It
may run from 3 to 8, but the most in the modern firearm are five and six.
 Lands are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.
 Grooves are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.

3. Width of the lands

It is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves width and number. The lands are the
remainders of the circumference after subtracting all the grooves width.

4. Width of the Grooves

It is measured as the shortest distance between the two dies or edge of a groove.

5. Direction of Twist
Rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to the left or to the right which causes the bullet to
rotate as it passes through the bore, in order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.

6. Pitch of Rifling
The pitch of rifling is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers to the measure of
the distance advance by the rifling in order to make a complete turn inside the barrel.

7. Depth of the Grooves

The groove's depth is measured on a radius of the bore. Grooves are usually few thousandths of an
inch deep, which is equal to the height of the lands.

Types of Rifling
1. Steyer Type - is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right twist and the width of the lands and
grooves are equal. (4 RG=L)
2. Carbine Type - rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the grooves is two (2) times the
width of the lands (4RG2X).
3. Smith and Wesson - rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the land and grooves
are equal. (5RG=L)
4. Colt type - rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of the grooves is twice (2) the width of
the lands. (6LG2X)
5. Browning - type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the grooves is twice the
width of the lands. (6RG2X)
 6. Webley - Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the groove is three times
larger than the boarder of the lands. (7RG3X)
7. Winchester - Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the grooves is three times
larger than the width of the lands. (6RG3X)

Individual Characteristics in firearms are usually determined by the test firing which will give us both the test bullet
and the test shell that will show the individuality of its property based on the marks that are left on every bullet and shell
fired from it. Such marks are so minute that the use of the lens with high magnification is necessary to discover
individuality.

Marks left on fired shells or fired bullets are generally categorized as either Accidental or Repetitive. Accidental
marks are those marks that bare some importance to the investigation but are considered to be not of significant value
in the identification of a particular firearm or weapon since they are not regularly formed in the operation of the gun. On
the other hand, repetitive marks are those marks which are very useful in identifying a firearm. They show the identity
of performance.
Marks Found on Fired Bullets:
A. Land Marks - marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact to the elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the
firearm. It appears as slight depressions or scratches the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
B. Groove Marks - marks found on a fired bullet caused by the grooves of the barrel which is the same number as
that of the landmarks.
C. Skid Marks - Marks that are generally found on fired bullet from a revolver. It is more or less located at the
anterior portion of the fired bullet due to its forward movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before
it initially rotates.
D. Stripping Marks - marks found on those bullets fired from a "loose-fit" barrel wherein the rifling is already badly
worn- out. Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be caused by either chemical reaction brought about by
rust (corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion)
E. Shaving Marks - marks commonly found on bullet fired from a revolver caused by its forward movement to the
barrel that is poorly aligned to the cylinder.
F. Slippage Marks - marks found on fired bullets passing through either an oily or oversized barrel.

Marks found on Fired Shell

1. Firing Pin Mark - mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge case more specifically near center
of the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge. It is considered as one of
the most important marks for the identification of firearms using fired shell.
2. Breech Face Mark - mark found at the base portion of the shell caused by backward movement to the breech
face of the block of the firearm. This is also one of the important marks in shell identification.
3. Extractor mark - mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired cartridge case caused by its
withdrawal from the chamber.
4. Ejector mark - mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an automatic firearm. It is located near the rim
of the case caused by the throwing of the shell from the firearm to the area of shooting.
5. Shearing - sometimes called "Secondary Firing Pin mark" found in the primer near the firing pin mark.
Magazine
6. Lip Mark - marking found at the two sides of the rim caused by the magazine lips during the loading of the
cartridge into the magazine for firing.
7. Chamber Mark - mark mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case caused by the irregularities of
nips inside the walls of the chamber.

In a fired cartridge case, either of the Firing pin mark and the Breech face marks can be used as basis for
identification. In the absence or non-usage of these two, both the ejector and extractor marks can be utilized as
secondary choices.