OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY

AGO-IWOYE, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

Harmattan Semester, 2023/2024 Academic Session

ACP 101: Introduction TO Data Processing

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Lecturer:

Dr. S. O. Hassan
(Room 10, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Science Building)
E-mail: [Link]@[Link]
1.1 Data and Information
Data exist in a variety of forms, such as numbers or text on pieces of paper, as bytes in
computer memory or as facts stored in a person's mind. Data is the plural form of the word datum
and refers to basic facts about an object. An object refers to a person, place, or thing. Data consist of
numbers, words, images, etc. Data is meaningless until it undergoes some forms of processing.
The outcome of processed data is information (see Figure 1.1). Although the word data and
information are often used interchangeably, there is an essential distinction between them. In the
strictest sense, data consist of the raw number that computers process to produce information. Data
can be looked at as facts out of context.

Figure 1.1: Information as a processed data

Information is obtained after subjecting data to a series of processing operations which

convert related groups of data (raw facts) into a meaningful and coherent form. Processing could be
in the form of addition, subtracting, comparison, sorting, rearrangement etc. This makes
information useful and meaningful. In other words, information could be defined as the desired
form to which data is finally transformed after undergoing a series of processing.
We should know that the main reason why people muddle both terms: data and information
is because they are both dynamic in their state. That is, data used as input for a computational
process may be an output of an earlier computation performed on the same computer and vice
versa. Table 1 gives some distinctions between data and information

Table 1: Distinction between data and information

Sr. No. Data Information
1. Data is raw, an unchanged fact Information is an organised and sorted
fact
2. It serves as input into the computer system It serves as an output from the
computer
system
3. Observation and recording are done to produce data. Analysis of data are done to obtain
information
4. Data is the lowest level of knowledge Information is the second level of
knowledge
5. Data by itself is not significant Information is significant
 Table 2 captures basic facts about an enrolled student of the Olabisi Onabanjo University.
The data items consisting of Name, Matriculation Number, Course of Study, Department, Faculty,
Date of Birth, and Gender are used to hold the student's details.
Similarly, a commercial bank may request the following data before the same student can
operate an account or enjoy some banking services.

Table 2: Student Registration

Sr. No. Data item Actual Detail or value
1. Name Nnamdi, Faith Mariam
2. Matriculation Number SCI/13/14/H/2478
3. Course of Study Statistics
4. Department Mathematical Sciences
5. Faculty Science
6. Date of Birth March 19, 2004
7. Gender Female

Table 3: Students Account

Sr. No. Data item Actual Detail or value
1. Name Nnamdi, Faith Mariam
2. Matriculation Number SCI/13/14/H/2478
3. Occupation Student
4. State of Origin Lagos
5. Local Government Area Alimosho
6. Date of Birth March 19, 2004
7. Gender Female

The details of this student (Nnamdi, Faith Mariam), if treated independently, may not have
specific meanings until it is subjected to some manual or computerized processing. A human or
input may further process the raw data in the tables into a computer, stored, processed, and
transmitted (output) to another human or a computer. A typical data processing function will be to
locate a student record or data from a large file-based on matriculation numbers. If this is to be
carried out manually, a lot of time and effort will be required by the data processing personnel.

1.2 Data Processing

Data processing is a process of converting raw facts or data into a meaningful information
(see Figure 1.2).
 Figure 1.2: The conversion of data to information

When the method of data processing is manual, it is called manual data processing. On the
other hand, when the method of processing is electronic, we refer to it as electronic data processing.
Computers are used to turn meaningless data by processing them into useful information, such as
spreadsheets, graphs, and reports. Information is defined as either a meaningful answer to a query or
a significant stimulus that can cascade into further queries. For example, with the data in Tables 2
and 3, the bank official may be interested in the number of students from each school that has
subscribed to a particular service its offers. In which case, a query will be run on the existing
database. The result of the query will provide information that will help the management of the
bank to discontinue or continue with the service. Some characteristics of information are presented
next.

1.2.1 Manual data processing

In manual data processing, data is processed manually without using any machine or tool to
get required results. In manual data processing, all the calculations and logical operations are
performed manually on the data. Similarly, data is transferred manually from one place to another.
This method of data processing is very slow and errors may occur in the output. Mostly, is
processed manually in many small business firms as well as government offices & institutions. In
an educational institute, for example, marks sheets, fee receipts, and other financial calculations (or
transactions) are performed by hand. This method is avoided as far as possible because of the very
high probability of error, labor intensive and very time consuming. This type of data processing
forms the very primitive stage when technology was not available or it was not affordable. With the
advancement in technology the dependency on manual methods has drastically decreased.
1.2.2 Mechanical Data Processing
In mechanical data processing method, data is processed by using different devices like
typewriters, mechanical printers or other mechanical devices. This method of data processing is
faster and more accurate than manual data processing. These are faster than the manual mode but
still forms the early stages of data processing. With invention and evolution of more complex
machines with better computing power this type of processing also started fading away.
Examination boards and printing press use mechanical data processing devices frequently

1.2.3 Electronic Data Processing Systems

Electronic Data Processing (EDP) is any computer automated process that converts raw
facts. Data into useful information through a well-defined procedure. Data becomes more useful
only when they have undergone some computer processing and well-presented to allow for decision
making. Data processing systems have become indispensable in managing information in modern
day organizations. In recent times, data processing systems are often referred to as information
systems to highlight their practicality. All the same, both terms are more or less the same,
performing similar functions; data processing systems typically manipulate raw figures into
information, and likewise, information systems usually take raw statistics as input to generate useful
information as output. In many organizations, these systems exist as payroll systems, sales and
marketing systems, finance and accounting systems, manufacturing and production system, human
resources systems, University management systems, etc.
Also, the term data processing can apply to any process of transforming data into
information and also the converting of information back to data.
Thus, data processing consists of those activities concerned with the systematic recording,
sorting, computing, modifying, reporting displaying, and printing of details relating to business
transactions. At the same time, a data processing system can, therefore, be viewed as an
administrative system superimposed upon the physical business systems such as banking,
engineering, insurance, etc. The ultimate goal of data processing is to obtain information with
which to control the financial and administrative aspects of the business. Besides, managers and
administrators with up-to-date information can make the right decisions that will positively affect
the growth of the organization.
EDP can be achieved in any of these four ways:
A. Batch Processing
Batch Processing is a method where the information to be organized is sorted into groups to
allow for efficient and sequential processing. Online Processing is a method that utilizes Internet
connections and equipment directly attached to a computer. It is used mainly for information
recording and research. Real-Time Processing is a technique that has the ability to respond almost
immediately to various signals in order to acquire and process information. Distributed Processing
is commonly utilized by remote workstations connected to one big central workstation or server.
ATMs are good examples of this data processing method.

Batch processing has these benefits:

i. It can shift the time of job processing to when the computing resources are less busy.
ii. It allows the system to use different priorities for interactive and non-interactive work.
iii. By keeping high overall rate of utilization, it amortizes the computer, especially an
expensive one.
iv. Rather than running one program multiple times to process one transaction each time, batch
processes will run the program only once for many transactions, reducing system overhead.
v. It avoids idling the computing resources with minute-by-minute manual intervention and
supervision.
Disadvantages
i. Users are unable to terminate a process during execution, and have to wait until execution
completes.

B. Online Processing
This is a method that utilizes Internet connections and equipment directly attached to a
computer. This allows for the data stored in one place and being used at altogether different place.
Cloud computing can be considered as a example which uses this type of processing. It is used
mainly for information recording and research.

C. Real-Time Processing
This technique has the ability to respond almost immediately to various signals in order to
acquire and process information. These involve high maintenance and upfront cost attributed to
very advanced technology and computing power. Time saved is maximum in this case as the output
is seen in real time. For example in banking transactions.

Example of real time processing

i. Airline reservation systems
ii. Theatre (cinema) booking
iii. Hotel reservations
iv. Banking systems
 v. Police enquiry systems
vi. Chemical processing plants
vii. Hospitals to monitor the progress of a patient
viii. Missile control systems

Advantages
i. Provides up-to-date information
ii. The information is readily available for instant decision-making
iii. Provides better services to users/customers.
iv. Fast & reliable
v. Reduces circulation of hard copies.

Disadvantages
i. Require complex Os & are very expensive
ii. Not easy to develop
iii. Require large communication equipment.
iv. Real time systems usually use 2 or more processors to share the workloads, which is
expensive.

D. Distributed Processing
This method is commonly utilized by remote workstations connected to one big central
workstation or server. ATMs are good examples of this data processing method. All the end
machines run on a fixed software located at a particular place and makes use of exactly same
information and sets of instruction. Examples of industries and business organizations that
extensively use distributed processing systems are:
i. Banks
ii. Computerized retails stores, e.g. supermarkets
iii. Airline reservation systems
iv. Bureaus or communication cyber cafes
v. Airline reservation systems
vi. Learning institutions with many departmental offices ➢ Bureaus or communication cyber
cafes
2.1 General Characteristics of Information
Information is processed data. The following are the essential attributes of information for
management decisions:
a) It must be detailed enough to allow for effective decision.
b) It must contain an appropriate level of details for the recipient. At the top management level,
the information must be very broad in scope while at the operating or departmental
management level; the information must be of a very detailed nature;
c) It must relate to the current situation and have acceptable level of integrity;
d) It must be produced at an optimum cost and must be compatible with response time needs of
the systems;
e) It must be easily understood by the recipients. Presentation, in forms of charts, diagrams and
tables may be essential.
f) It must be concise and not contain unnecessary redundancy;
g) It must be precise and have an acceptable level of accuracy to the recipient. It must be
producible at regular intervals and be relevant to its purpose. For example, bank balances are
given to 2 decimal places for accuracy;
h) It must be verifiable. Many knowledgeable people acting independently will produce the
same information.
i) It must be arranged or organised to suit the requirement or purpose for which it is needed.
j) Information, when derived, must be communicated through the right channel to the
recipient.

2.2 Types of Information

Information needs of an organization can either be quantitative or qualitative
a) Quantitative Information: Quantitative information deals with the magnitudes of variables,
their variability or absolute values. Some examples are Annual sales of a production
company, Variation in the wages of low-level staff in an organization, Prices of goods; and
Number of hours worked on a production line.
b) Qualitative Information: Qualitative information is related to the attributes of an entity in
respect of quality factors. This type of information is not exact (precise) in nature but it is
very useful for comparative measurement. Examples include standard of finished product in
respect of paintwork or electroplating; and Variation of tolerances of manufactured parts i.e.
deviation from standard dimensions.
2.3 Information System
With the proper definitions of data, information and the attributes of information given
above, we can now define an Information System as distinct from information.
An Information System is the set of interconnected procedures, the purpose of which is to
provide managers at all levels and in all functions of an organization with the information necessary
to enable them make timely and effective decisions.
Information Systems can also be defined as a combination or collection of people, hardware,
software, communication networks and data resources that collects, transform and provides
information to managers at all levels in all functions to allow timely and effective decision making
in an organisation.
These decisions are for:
i. Planning,
ii. Directing, and
iii. Controlling of all activities for which they are responsible

2.3.1 The common characteristics of all information systems are:

i. The existence of procedures for orientating and/or collecting data;
ii. The existence of procedures which sort and classify data, carry out arithmetic and logical
operations on the data, holds data in the form of records for immediate or future use,
summarise and analyse data and check the results for accuracy. All these activities constitute
the processing of data; and
iii. The existence of procedures for communicating the processed data to appropriate managers.

2.3.2 Benefits of Information systems

Information systems can help an organization in any of the following ways:
i. Operational Efficiency: This entails doing routine tasks faster, cheaper, neater and more
accurately. The use of transaction processing software, word processing and electronic
spreadsheet help to make operations more efficient;
ii. Functional Effectiveness: This entails the use of decision support software which are
oriented towards helping managers to make better decisions;
iii. Provision of better improved services: This entails the use of help technologies like the
automatic teller machine (ATM), e-commerce and the reservation systems used by travel
agents. All these are examples of provision of improved services to customers;
iv. Better Product selection: The provision of information helps in the selection of products
offered for sales by industries like Banks, insurance companies, travel and financial
 services. Products that can be differentiated largely on the basis of the information inherent
in them are called Information-Intensive Products; and
v. Competitive Advantage: The provision of information and the creation of new products
through information technology can give some companies competitive advantage over other
companies in the same industry.

2.3.2 Disadvantages of Information System

Everything that has an advantage will have some disadvantages and Information Systems is
not an exception. Some of the disadvantages of Information systems include:
i. Ease Of Fraud: Information System makes whoever uses it efficient. This implies that if
fraudsters have access to information systems, it will make their fraudulent activities
efficient too.
ii. Data Loss: If there is a disaster and an organisation fails to back-up her data regularly, the
information she has may be lost and this can lead to legal liability and may eventually lead
to the collapse of an organisation.
iii. GIGO Effect: The popular term GIGO (Garbage-in Garbage-Out) implies that whatever you
feed into the system is what you get. This becomes a disadvantage if wrong data is fed into
the system, as it will produce wrong information that may ultimately lead to wrong decision
making in businesses.
iv. Information can be deceptive sometimes, e.g. statistical information, if not well explained,
which can lead to wrong use.

2.4 Roles of Information In the Accounting Environment

Accounting information plays major roles in organisations which include the following:
a) It identifies activities requiring action. For example, a cost report with a huge variance might
stimulate investigation and possible corrective action;
b) It reduces uncertainty and thus provides a basis for choosing among alternative action. For
example, it often used to set prices and determine credit policies.
c) Information makes decision making process of the accountant to be fast.
d) It makes the Accountant’s output to be accurate
e) It enables the Accountant to develop strategies and formulate policies for the survival of
their profession
f) It enables effective planning and control, desirable in the accounting profession.
g) Information is needed in the accounting profession to proactively respond to rapidly
changing conditions in the environment
 h) It enables the Accountants to be abreast of government policies and regulations
I) It enables the Accountants to monitor and gain insights into the activities of their
professional competitors
j) It enables the Accountants to meet customers’ request adequately
k) It enables the Accountants to maintain patronage and goodwill of their customers

2.5 Accounting Information System (AIS)

A special type of Information System for accounting professionals is the Accounting
Information System. An Accounting Information System (AIS) consists of people, procedures and
Information Technology (I.T). Just as we have above, the AIS performs three important functions in
any organisation:
(a) It collects and stores data about activities and transactions so that the organisation can
review what has happened;
(b) It processes data into information that is useful for making decisions that enable
management to plan, execute and control activities; and
(c) It provides adequate controls to safeguard the organisation’s assets, including data. These
controls ensure that the data is available when needed and that it is accurate and reliable
(d) It helps in the analysis of information presented in Payroll/Payslips; Stocks report; List of
debtors/creditors; Cost summaries; Budget reports; Labour turnover statistics.

The AIS differs from other information systems in its focus on accountability and control.
Subsystems of Accounting Information Systems (AIS)
Most business organisations engage in many similar and repetitive transactions/activities. These
transaction types can be grouped into the five basic cycles, which constitute the basic subsystems in
the AIS:
a) The Expenditure subsystem/cycle which consists of the activities involved in buying and
paying for goods or services used by the organisation;
b) The production subsystem/cycle which consists of the activities involved in converting raw
materials and labour into finished products (only manufacturing organisations have
production subsystem);
c) The Human Resources/payroll subsystem/cycle which consists of the activities involved in
hiring and paying employees;
d) The Revenue subsystem/cycle which consists of the activities involved in selling goods or
services and collecting payment for those sales; and
e) The Financing subsystem/cycle which consists of those activities involved in obtaining the
 necessary funds to run the organisation and in repaying creditors and distributing profits to
investors.

The above basic subsystems suggest the most important work activities performed by
Professional Accountants. Some of these include:
i. Accounting systems and financial reporting;
ii. Long-term strategic planning;
iii. Managing the accounting and finance function;
iv. Internal consulting;
v. Short-term budgeting;
vi. Financial and economic analysis;
vii. Process improvement;
viii. Computer systems and operations;
ix. Performance evaluation (of the organisation); and
x. Customer and product profitability analysis.
3.1 What is a Computer file?
A file is collection of data or information that has a name called the filename. Most of the
information stored in computer system is stored as files. A file is often stored with a user’s given
name and a system supplied extension. The name of the file should reflect the content of the data
stored in the file. For example, payroll or result File. The extension of the file should reflect either
the type of file (i.e. program file, image file, audio file etc.) or the software used to create the file
(e.g. MS WORD document, MS EXCEL Worksheet, BASIC Compiler). For example;

Sr. No. Type of File / Software Extension

1. Microsoft Word Document .doc
2. Audio file / Video .wav , avi, .mp3
3. BASIC compiler .bas
4. Text .txt
5. Microsoft Excel .xls

a) Program File: These are files that store sets of instructions written in a programming
language. A source program file, for example, contains the instructions written in a high-
level language such as BASIC or FORTRAN programming language by a programmer. In
contrast, the object file is the translated form of the source file in machine code after. The
files that contain the machine code are called executable files (or binary files)
b) ASCII File: ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
ASCII files are text-based files. The characters are represented in ASCII code (without
formatting such as underline, italics, boldface, or graphics). Files stored in this format are
used to transfer documents between incompatible computer platforms, such as IBM and
Macintosh.
c) Image File: Documents containing digitized graphics or images are stored in this format.
 Image files: Image files contain digitized graphics.
 Audio and video files: Audio files contain digitized sound, while video files contain
digitized video images and animation.
d) Audio and Video File: This is a file that is used to store digitized sound or digitized
video images and animation.
e) Data File: This refers to document files, contain data, not programs. Their contents are
using application software.

3.2 Method of Organizing Data in Files

The file is created, arranged, and maintained in data processing systems to retrieve quickly.
There are a number of methods to organize data in files. The selection of the method depends upon
factors like storage media, accessing methods, processing techniques, etc. The commonly used file
organizations are:
1) Sequential file organization: In sequential file organization, records are written and stored
on a secondary storage device in the same sequence or order in which they are collected.
The records are arranged in order, using a unique key and are physically adjacent to one
another. For instance, employee records are arranged in the order of their Date Of Joining. In
this case, 'DOJ' is the unique key. In order to retrieve a record or process it, a file is
sequentially processed from the beginning, in the order in which it was created, until the
desired record is located. That is, the ordering of data cannot be changed when the file is
processed. If any record is modified, then the entire file needs to be rearranged.

Merits of sequential files

a) Sequential file organization is very efficient and economical when a large number of file
records need to be updated at regular intervals.
b) This method of file organization is inexpensive when compared to other methods.
c) Sequential files are very easy to arrange, store and understand.
d) Locating a specific record is very easy since it requires the specification of the key field.

Demerits
a) In order to retrieve a record, an entire file may need to be read.
b) In order to make the files sequential, transactions must be arranged in sequence before
processing.
c) There is scope for high data redundancy.
d) Sequential files are inefficient and uneconomical, when the number of files to be arranged is
very small.
In spite of its limitations, sequential file organization is well suited for batch processing applications
like pay-roll preparation. The method requires very little storage space and is useful for applications
where records have to be retrieved in the same order, every time the file is processed.

2. Direct file organizations/Hashed file organizations: This type of file organization is

otherwise called Random access file organization, which allow data to be retrieved quickly
in a random manner, regardless of the way in which the data was originally stored. The data
are arranged in such a way that the computer can directly locate the key of the desired
record without searching the series of records in the file. The problem is that it is very
difficult to find out the location of the records. It requires a direct access storage device like
drum, disk strip file, etc.
 Advantages of Direct files
a) They can provide minute up-to-date information.
b) They are capable of easy access and quick retrieval of data.
c) No sequential arrangement of data is required before processing.
d) It is possible to arrange them sequentially if required.
e) This type of file organization is highly suitable for interactive online applications like airline
or railway reservation systems.
f) The transactions can be processed as and when are generated.

Disadvantages
a) They require larger storage capacity and space than sequential files.
b) They require special security measures.
c) Updating of files is very difficult.
d) They are highly expensive, since the direct access devices like hardware, software etc. are
required.

3. Indexed sequential files: In indexed sequential files also, data is stored in a special sequence.
The peculiarity is that a special index is created to show the memory address of each piece
of data. The index table is used to speed up access to the records without searching the entire
file. Such files provide the user with sequential access. For example, a telephone index or
book index shows the location of each topic. Similarly, a file index shows the physical
location of each piece of data. The method of keeping indexed files is called Indexed
Sequential Acess Method (ISAM) and files of this type are referred to as ISAM files.

Merits of indexed sequential files:

a) Direct access to records is possible when the number of files is very small.
b) They allow efficient and economical use of sequential processing techniques when the
number of files is very large.
c) They help to identify the location of a record without searching the entire file.

Demerits of indexed sequential files:

a) They are inefficient in using storage space.
b) They are relatively expensive, since they require direct access storage devices like hardware
and software.
c) Their slow access to records problem.
3.3 The Concept of Database
In earlier days, data was stored and processed, using file-processing system. Today, database
is preferred to traditional files due to the several problems associated with the file processing
system. Important among such problems are:
a) Data Independence: In file processing system, each file is independent of other files, and in
order to integrate data in different files customized programmes have to be written.
b) Data and application: that use data are so tightly interwoven that any change to the data
requires changing all the programmes that use the data.
c) Data redundancy: This is the situation where same data resides in several files, which
causes wastage of storage capacity, difficulty in updating and maintaining files, and
inconsistency of data values.
d) Data Duplication: It may compromise the integrity of data. When one file is updated, file
containing the same record may not be updated. The data base overcomes many of these
problems.

Unlike file processing systems, in which files are independent, a database is a collection of
interrelated files. Files are dependent on the application programmes that access and process the
files. The important features of database are:
a) Databases are organized and structured in different ways.
b) Duplication of data is minimized.
c) A database is an integrated and centralized data files consisting of all the data required by
the organization.
d) It provides for easy and equal access to all data stored.
e) Programs and data in a database are independent.
f) It can be stored on a direct - access device.
g) Logical relationships among various records are defined in database.

3.4 Database Management System

Database Management System is a support programme that works in conjunction with the
operating systems, to create, process control and manage data. It is a collection of programs
required to store and retrieve data from a database.
DBMS is defined as a set of programs that act as an interface between the application
programs and the data in the database.
One of the primary advantage of a DBMS is data independence, which means that the user
can access a piece of data without being burdened with the question of physical location of the data.
The accessing of data in a DBMS is simply based on its contents and associations with other data.
Further, in a DBMS, the physical organization of data is independent of the program that uses the
data. Hence, if data is physically relocated, the programs that use the data do not have to be
modified, making it considerably easy to maintain the database. Moreover, data redundancy is
considerably reduced, since there is no need to store the same data in different locations. Accessing
and processing of data is comparatively easy in DBMS than in traditional files.
The primary disadvantage of a database is that it requires a considerable outlay of resources.
Mainframe hardware is expensive and the cost of software development for DBMS is high.
Moreover, integration or co-ordination of the activities of different departments is not an easy task.

3.5 Components of DBMS

The principal components of a DBMS are a data description module, which analyses the
data requirements of application programs and' transfers the control, and data manipulation module
which retrieves the needed data elements from the database. These two components can again be
into the following three categories:
(a) Data Definition Language (DOL): The contents of a database is created, using the DDL. It
defines the relationships between different data elements and serves as an interface for the
application programs that use the data.
(b) Data Manipulation Language (DML): Data is processed, and updated, using a language
called DML, whose commands process, update, and retrieve data. It includes special user-
friendly structured query languages. They deal exclusively with data integrity, data
manipulation, data access, data retrieval, data query, and data security. Most DBMS
products use some version of SQL, whose primary purpose is to allow users to query. There
are four basic operations in an SQL, such as select update, insert, and delete. Users can ask
two kinds of questions in SQL. They are: static questions which are routine, standardized
questions that once defined can repeatedly be used for and are appropriate for generating
weekly, monthly and quarterly reports, and dynamic questions that are adhoc and specific to
the decision-maker.
(c) Data Dictionary (DO): It means data about data and can be defined as a component of a
DBMS, which describes the data and its characteristics like location, size and type of data.
Every organization, whether small or large, needs a tool to describe, identify, locate, control
and manage each piece of data in the organization and to ensure consistency and
standardization in the use of data through out the organization. A data dictionary identifies
the origin, use, ownership, and methods of accessing and searching data. The DBMS uses
DD to address all questions pertaining to data, such as definitions, storage locations, use and
access privileges.
3.6 Database Models
Database model is the way of organizing data and its interrelationships. There are three such
models. They are developed on the basis of three types of basic relationships, like one-to-one, one-
to-many, and Many-to-many. These relation ships can be represented as:

Figure
3.1:

Database relationships
The relationship between husband and wife is an example of one-one-one relationship,
where as the relationship between a mother and her children is an example of one-to-many
relationship, many-to-many relationship exists among teachers and students. The three logical
models of database are:
a) Hierarchical data model: In a hierarchical data model, logical relationships among various
data elements are represented as a hierarchy which is similar to an organization chart. A
given data element can be accessed only by going through the proper hierarchy. Each box in
the hierarchical model is a record, sometimes referred to as a 'node'. The topmost node is
called the 'root node'. The relationships between different nodes is referred to as a parent-
child relationship. In a hierarchical structure, each node, except the root node, has exactly
one parent. In other words, this has a one-to-many relationship. It can be represented as
shown in Figure 3.2.
The hierarchical model is ideally suited to problems in which data elements have a natural
hierarchical structure. However, this model has some disadvantages. The data values stored
at a lower level cannot be accessed without accessing data values above them. So, retrieval
from a database, especially from a large one is time-consuming. Moreover, this model has a
rigid structure in which the relationships between different elements must be clearly
identified before development begins, and any change to the model require major
programming effort. So, the model is not always be flexible to accommodate the dynamic
data needs of an organization.
Figure
3.2:

Hierarchical data model

b) Network model: In a network model, each record in a database can have multiple parents.
The relationship among data elements is many-to-many. For example, each student in a class
can attends the classes of different teachers. Similarly, each teacher can teach different
students. The main difference between hierarchical model and network model is that, in the
latter, a child can have a number of parents where as in the former; a child can have only
one parent. It can be represented as:

Figure 3.3: Network model

The network model has many advantages. Its structure promotes flexibility and data
accessibility, since data elements at a lower level can be accessed without accessing the data
elements above them. The model is efficient, easy to understand, and can be applied to many
 real world problems that require routine transactions. The disadvantages of this model are
that it is complex to design and develop, and it has to be developed and fine-tuned
frequently, so that relationships among different pieces of data are true representatives of the
real world. Like the hierarchical model, the network model requires that the relationships
among all data elements be defined before development begins, and changes often demand a
major programming effort. Further, for large databases, operation and maintenance of
network model are time-consuming and expensive.

c) Relational model: Here, data is represented using two-dimensional tables, which are made
up of columns and rows. For example, the faculty table can be represented as follows:

The relational model suffers from certain drawbacks also. It is very slow when compared
with other data models, Since it has to access data from different files which is time
consuming. Secondly there is the problem of data redundancy. However, the relational
model continues to gain popularity.
The biggest advantage of the relational model over others is that it can relate data in a table
to data in any other table as long as two tables or files share at least one common attribute.
Its most appealing quality is its simplicity. Users can easily relate the data in tables and thus
find the data structure in a relational model easy to understand and implement. Secondly,
uses are not burdened with issues like storage structure and access strategy, because the
relational database automatically address these issues. Thirdly, the relational model is
flexible and can integrate data and information from multiple files. The fourth advantage is
that relational models support ad hoc queries. Finally, new data can be easily added and old
ones can be deleted or updated without significant design changes to the database.
4.1 Data Processing Personnel
The categories and number of staff found in a data processing center will largely depend on the
organization's size and the volume of work handled by the department. In any typical data
processing center, the following categories of staff will be found performing various duties:

A. Data Processing Manager

The head of a data processing department: A data processing manager's duties are summarized as
follows:
i. Interprets and executes the data processing policy as defined by management
ii. Controls immediate subordinate in the attainment of project objectives
iii. Participates in the formulation of data processing policy
iv. Ensures that security policies are enforced
v. Coordinates all data processing operations and ensures the workflow is smooth.
vi. Ensures that computer operating instructions are modified when the need arises
vii. Assess and review the effectiveness of all data processing procedures
viii. Ensures that the right software and hardware are purchased and used
ix. Monitoring test runs;
x. Supervises post-implementation evaluation
xi. Ensures than training policy is implemented for staff
xii. Assesses the performance of staff for salary review and promotion
xiii. Resolves between subordinates
[Link] leadership on data processing problems
xv. Develops and implements data processing standard s

B Systems Analyst
The duties of System Analyst are summarized as follows:
i. Liaises with the user departments to ensure their requirements and problem are fully
captured before systems design and implementation occur.
ii. Interprets terms of reference before embarking upon systems projects
iii. Studies the feasibility report before embarking on a systems development project
iv. Supervises, Organizes and coordinates the activities of subordinate staff
v. Reviewing Performance of subordinates for appropriate recommendations to the Data
processing manager
vi. Organizes and reviews systems documentations to ensure its compliance with data
processing standards
 vii. Studies, reviews and report progress on projects to the data processing manager
viii. Coordinates the development and implementation of alternative systems
ix. Reviewing performance of implemented systems and assessing the need for amendments or
additional training of staff
x. Discusses project proposal with subordinates such as the chief programmer

C. Computer Programmers
The principal duties of computer programmers are summarized as follow:
i. Liaise with system analyst to determine the philosophy of proposed systems and establish
the type of programming language to use a high level or assembly code.
ii. Reviews systems specification to establish the details of system requirements before actual
implementation(coding)
iii. Converts systems specification and design documents to actual products
iv. Develops, implements and maintains computer software
v. Deploys and configures software in the specified environments
vi. Handles integration and interoperability associated issues
vii. Develops user-friendly software
viii. Chooses test cases and monitor test runs
ix. Reviews the performances of subordinates
x. Reports status of program development to systems analyst

D. Operation Manager
The principal duties of the operations manager are summarized as follow:
i. Controls all operations activities such as data preparation, capture, and control, processing
of data, report generation, storing of data, preservation of backup devices, etc.
ii. Develops the operating schedule for all jobs to be run on the computer
iii. Ensures that data is received on time from the user’s department
iv. Maintains records on equipment utilization
v. Implements standard procedures to improve the efficiency of operations
vi. Keeps the inventory of data processing hardware supplies such as tapes, disk, hard drive,
Monitors, etc.
vii. Maintains log of computer operations for audit trails
viii. Reports to superior when system problems and other operational matters arise
E. Database Administrator
The principal duties of database administrators are summarized as follows:
i. Implements specific policies and procedures through which data can be managed as an
organizational resource.
ii. Plans for data usage
iii. Oversees the logical and physical database design and data dictionary development.
iv. Formulate information policy that specifies its rules for sharing, disseminating, acquiring,
standardizing, classifying, and inventorying information in an organization
v. Specifies rules governing the maintenance, distribution, and use of information in an
organization
vi. Define and organizes database structure and content
vii. Develops security procedure to safeguard the database
viii. Develops database documentation
ix. Maintains the database management software