Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education

Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology

Department of Food Technology
Program for High Quality Training

PRINCIPLE OF FOOD PROCESSING

AND FOOD PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
(PFPE120350E – 2 credits)

Lecturer: Dang Dinh Khoi, Ph.D.

Email: khoidd@[Link]
Applied-heat food processing
Thermal Processing Equipment
General Aspects
The industrial equipment used in the thermal processing of foods is divided
into two broad categories, in-container sterilizers and continuous flow
processing equipment. The majority of canned foods are still produced by
various in-container retorts (sterilizers). Pasteurization of liquid foods is
practiced with continuous flow pasteurizers, while aseptic processing, using
continuous flow sterilizers, has found many applications in fluid foods.
Due to the strict public health requirements and quality needs of the food
products, the good manufacturing practices are of particular importance to
the canning industry (Downing 1996). Federal, state, and international
regulations and directives should be adhered to by the food processors.
Blanching
• Blanching is a pretreatment in food processing which is normally carried
out between the preparation of raw materials and later operations.
• Food is rapidly heated to a specific temperature, held for a specific time
and then cooled rapidly to near ambient temperature.
• Blanching is also combine with peeling and/or cleaning methods to
achieve savings in energy consumption, space and equipment costs.
Blanching
Purposes: Demerits:
• Inactivation of enzymes that • Not all food materials are
cause browning, textural suitable for blanching;
changes and off-flavors; • Not Pasteurization or
• Removal of air trapped inside sterilization;
plant tissues → canning, • Loss of water-soluble nutrients;
oxidation;
• Degradation of thermal sensitive
• Peeling of nuts, fruits, vegetable compounds;
(almonds, potatoes…).
• Effluent.
Blanching
Enzymes lead to the deterioration of vegetables and fruits:
• Lipoxygenase;
• Polyphenoloxidase;
• Polygalacturonase;
• Chlorophyllase.
Heat-resistant enzymes:
• Catalase;
Indicators for blanching
• Peroxidase.
Blanching
Factors affecting blanching
• The size and shape of the pieces of food;
• The thermal conductivity of the food, which is influenced by the type,
cultivar and degree of maturity;
• The blanching temperature and method of heating;
• The convective heat transfer coefficient.
Typical time temperature combinations vary
from 1 to 15 mins at 70 to 100°C.
Equipment for blanching
Two most commonly methods:
• By saturated steam;
• By hot water.
Steam blanchers
Steam blanchers
• This is the preferred method for foods with a large area of cut
surfaces as leaching losses are much lower than those found using
hot-water blanchers.
• A steam blancher consists of a mesh conveyor that carries food
through a steam atmosphere in an insulated tunnel.
• The residence time of the food is controlled by the speed of the
conveyor and the length of the tunnel.
• Blancher Turbo Flo -frozen vegetables processing line- - YouTube
Hot-water blanchers
• The food is submerged in hot water at 70 to 100°C for a specified
time and then passes it to a dewatering cooling section;
• Pipe blancher;
• Rotary drum blancher.
Pasteurization
• Pasteurization is a relatively mild heat treatment in which liquid foods
are mostly heated to below 100°C;
• In low-acid foods (pH 4.5), such as milk or liquid egg, it is used to
minimize public health hazards from pathogenic microorganisms and
to extend the shelf-life of foods for several days or weeks;
• In acidic foods such as fruit juices (pH < 4.5) it is used to extend the
shelf-life by several weeks by destruction of spoilage microorganisms
(mainly yeasts or molds) and/or enzyme inactivation.
In-container Pasteurizers
In-container pasteurizers are normally used for the thermal
pasteurization of canned or bottled juices, high-acid fruits in syrup,
beer, carbonated beverages, and some other foods, which are
subsequently stored at refrigeration temperatures. Temperatures lower
than 100oC are applied, i.e., the equipment is operated at atmospheric
pressure. The food containers can be heated by hot water sprayed over
the product, by dipping in a hot water bath or by steam. In all cases,
cooling is achieved by cold water. Carbonated beverages and glass
containers are heated and cooled slowly for avoiding thermal shock.
Tunnel pasteurizers for food containers.
(a) Water bath and (b) water sprays
 Continuous Flow High-temperature Short-time
(HTST) Pasteurizers

Diagram of a continuous HTST pasteurizer.

P pump, HM homogenizer, HW hot water,
HT holding tube, FDV flow diversion valve,
CW cooling water, C cooler, R regenerator
Sterilization
• In-container retorts (sterilizers) are used extensively in canning
several food products in various hermetically sealed containers, made
of metallic cans (tinplate or aluminum), glass, and plastic materials
(rigid or flexible pouches). The heating medium is usually saturated
steam, steam/air mixtures, and hot water. Heating of the cans in still
retorts by sprays of hot water provides faster heating and a good
temperature control (Ohlsson 1994). Relative motion of cans and
heating (or cooling) medium increases considerably the heat transfer
rate.
• Sterilization in cans is still the most important in-container thermal
process.
 Canning Operations

Simplified process block diagram of canning peeled tomatoes

Batch Sterilizers
• Batch sterilizers (retorts) are used in many small- and medium-size
food processing plants, because of their low cost and simple
operation. The batch sterilizers include the still retorts, the rotary
batch retorts, the crateless retorts, and the retorts for glass and
flexible containers (Downing 1996).
• Batch retorts are convenient for thermal processing of several
different food products, particularly when the raw material is
seasonal and/or relatively small volume, such as fruits and
vegetables.
(i) Still Retorts
Two types of still retorts (autoclaves) are commonly used, the vertical and the
horizontal units

Still retorts: (a) Vertical and (b) horizontal. S steam, SP steam

spreader, T thermometer, V vent, BL bleeder, CW cold water, A air
(ii) Batch Rotary Sterilizers
The rotary system is particularly effective for convection heated food products. The
air in the headspace of the cans forms a bubble, which induces agitation of the food
contents during the rotation in the retort.
Effect of can rotation
on the temperature rise
in the can
(iii) Crateless Retorts

Crateless retorts reduce labor requirements for loading and unloading

the cans in batch sterilizers. The cans are loaded in bulk from the top of
the retort, which contains preheated water. After the retort is filled with
the cans, steam is introduced from the top, displacing the water. The
retort is closed and steam sterilization is accomplished in the prescribed
time. The cans are cooled with water in the retort, introduced from the
top, and then they are discharged in a water canal, below the retort, for
final cooling
Principle of
operation of
a crateless
retort
(iv) Retorts for Glass and Flexible Containers

Glass containers are thermally processed and cooled in water under

overriding air pressure to prevent the pop-up (rejection) of the glass lids
and breakage of the glass by the internal pressure, developed during
processing. Flexible packages, e.g., pouches, cannot withstand high
internal pressures, and they must be also processed and cooled under
overriding pressure.
Continuous In-container Sterilizers
• Continuous in-container sterilizers are used widely in medium-size
and large food processing plants, because of their advantages over
the batch systems, i.e., higher production rate, lower operating cost,
better process control, and improved food product quality. Two main
continuous systems are commonly used, i.e., the rotary
cooker/coolers and the hydrostatic sterilizers.
(i) Rotary Cookers/Coolers
The rotary cooker/coolers (FMC) consist of two horizontal pressure
shells (vessels) equipped with a rotating spiral reel mechanism, in which
the cans move progressively through the prescribed cycles of heating,
holding, and cooling. Special pressure feeders (pressure locks) transport
the cans into the pressure cookers and from the cookers to the
atmospheric water coolers.
The cans enter and leave the pressure cooker through pressure locks
(PL). The pressure cooker is heated with live saturated steam (S), and
cooling is achieved with cold water (CW) in the cooler, which operates
normally at atmospheric pressure. In some systems, the cans are
preheated in a separate pressure preheater, before entering the
pressure cooker.
Schematic diagram of a rotary cooker/cooler
(ii) Hydrostatic Sterilizers
Hydrostatic sterilizers operate under pressure, which is maintained by
water legs (columns), eliminating the need for closed pressure vessels
and pressure locks.
They consist basically of four chambers: (1) the hydrostatic “come-up”
feed leg, (2) the sterilizing chamber, (3) the hydrostatic discharge leg,
and (4) the cooling section. There are variations of the sterilizer
structure, with the four basic chambers split into more sections, which
are interconnected at their lower part.
Hydrostatic sterilizer.
S steam, HW hot water,
CW cold water, WS
cold water sprays
New In-container Sterilizers
(i) Circulating Water and Steam Sterilizers

Increased heat transfer rates are achieved by sprays of hot water, can
rotation or agitation, or recirculation of steam or hot water. Most of
these sterilizers are suitable for overpressure thermal processing, using
combinations of water, steam, and air to achieve the desired
temperature and pressure (different than the saturation pressure).
Overpressure is required in the processing of food products packaged
in plastic pouches, plastic trays, or plastic cups. Various types and sizes
of food containers can be processed.
Horizontal rotating sterilizer.
S steam, CW cooling water, V vent, BL bleeder
Circulating steam sterilizer (Stork–Lagarde)
(ii) Track Flow Sterilizers

The track flow sterilizers consist of a long serpentine pipe (duct) of

rectangular cross section, which acts as a track to the rolling food cans,
which are heated to the sterilization temperature by a stream of hot
water. Water, heated by steam injection, pushes the cans, which roll at
about 200 RPM, increasing the heat transfer rate. The sterilized cans
are cooled by cold water, which replaces the hot water in the pipe.
Track flow sterilizer systems:
(a) hydroflow;
(b) hydrolock
and (c) rolling can
(iv) Flame Sterilizers

Flame sterilizers are used for some solid food products, which are packed without a
fluid medium, like syrup or brine. Due to the high-temperature differences
developed, very high heat transfer rates are obtained, reducing significantly the
processing time and, thus, improving the product quality.
The cans are heated by direct exposure to the flames of gas burners at
temperatures of about 1200–1400oC. To prevent overheating and surface burning
by the flames and combustion gases, the cans are rotated rapidly during heating
(Casimir 1975; Halstrom et al. 1988; Fellows 1990). The flame sterilization process is
applied to small food cans, which can withstand the high internal pressure,
developed during thermal processing.
Continuous Flow Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT)
Sterilizers
UTH processing results in better-quality food products, due to the
different kinetics of thermal inactivation of microorganisms and food
nutrients. High temperatures favor nutrient retention, while destroying
more effectively the spoilage microorganisms. As explained earlier in
this chapter, when the sterilization temperature is increased by 10 oC,
the lethality (rate of inactivation) of m.o. increases by ten times, while
the destruction of nutrients (e.g., thiamine) and some sensory quality
factors (e.g., color, flavor) increases only by a factor of (3)
The equipment used for UHT sterilization is similar to the HTST
pasteurization system. The design of the UHT sterilizers is based on
the assumption that all the required thermal lethality is delivered to
the liquid food in the holding tube, neglecting the effects of the
“come-up” and the early cooling periods. Such an assumption is
valid for the direct (steam) heating of the liquid product, due to the
very fast heating. However, in indirect heating systems, the
contribution of preheating and cooling on the lethality is significant,
amounting to significant over processing, which, in practice, is taken
as a safety factor.
 Typical UHT sterilization processes (temperature T/time t)

Pumping
Direct Heating
Indirect Heating
Pumping: Rotary positive displacement (PD) pumps are normally used
for pumping the liquid food through the sterilization system.

Direct Heating: Direct heating is used to heat fast the liquid foods to the
process temperature, improving the quality of the sterilized sensitive
product (e.g., milk). The preheated liquid may be heated either by steam
injection (introduction of steam into a stream of liquid) or by steam
infusion (introduction of the liquid into a steam chamber).
Direct heating sterilizers are more complex and more costly than the
indirect heating systems, but they produce a better-quality product.
Indirect Heating:
(i) Plate Heat Exchangers: The plate heat exchangers are used in low-
viscosity applications, such as the UHT sterilization of fruit juices.
(ii) Tubular Heat Exchangers: Tubular heat exchangers are, next to the
direct heaters, the fastest heating units in UHT processing, an important
advantage in sterilizing low-acid liquid foods at high temperatures. Small-
diameter tubes and very high fluid velocities are used, resulting in high
heat transfer coefficients (h).
(iii) SSHE Heaters: The scraped (or swept) surface heat exchangers (SSHE)
are used for viscous and particulate fluid foods that cannot be handled in
other heating systems.
(iv) Ohmic Heating: heating by electrical current of low frequency (50–60
Hz), is suitable for particulate foods, since both liquid and food particles
can be heated at the same rate, overcoming the difficulty of slow heat
conduction into the solid particles.
Diagram of a UHT sterilizer using direct heating
Thermal Treatment
General Aspects
Food heating processes may involve chemical, biochemical, and biological
changes of the food material that must be considered simultaneously with
the physical heating process. The main purpose of cooking, baking,
roasting, and frying processes is to improve the eating quality of the food
products.
Industrial cooking
• Cooking using moist heat uses any kinds of hot liquid (water, stock,
wine…);
• Compared to dry heat methods, moist heat cooking uses lower
temperatures, from 60 to 100°C;
• The different moist-heat cooking methods include:
1. Poaching, simmering and boiling:
- Poaching is cooking in liquids at 60 to 80°C;
- Simmering uses higher temperatures, from 80 to 95°C, where steam
bubbles are visible but the cooking liquid does not boil.
Industrial cooking
2. Steaming:
• Gentle heating of food at 100°C;
• Suitable for cooking seafood, some vegetables and other foods that
have delicate textures or flavors;
• Enables rapid cooking with smaller losses of water-soluble nutrients
due to leaching.
Industrial cooking
3. Braising and stewing:
• Both methods are a combination of dry heat followed by moist
heat cooking;
• An important application of braising and stewing is to cook
tougher cuts of meat, where moist heating for an extended period
dissolves connective tissues and tenderizes the meat.
Industrial cooking
• Cooking using dry heat subjects the food to either the direct heat of a
flame or to indirect heat by surrounding the food with hot air or oil.
• Foods are heated at higher temperatures (up to ~300°C).
• The seven methods are broiling, grilling, roasting, baking, saute´ing,
pan-frying and deep-fat frying.
Industrial cooking
• Broiling: radiant heat from an overhead source is used to cook foods.
The food is placed on a heated metal grate to produce crosshatch
marks and radiant heat cooks the food from above. If crosshatch
marks are not desirable, foods may be placed on a preheated platter;
• Grilling: similar to broiling, this method uses a heat source that is
located either above or beneath the cooking surface. Grills may be
electric, gas, or wood- or charcoal-fired to produce a smoky flavour in
the food.
Industrial cooking
• Roasting and baking: food is heated by hot air in a closed
environment. The term ‘roasting’ is usually applied to meats and
poultry, whereas ‘baking’ is used for fish, fruits, vegetables, breads or
pastries.
• Saute´ing: the method involves conduction of heat from a hot pan to
the food using a small amount of oil heated to its smoke point.
• Pan-frying: a method that is similar to both saute´ing and deep-fat
frying in which heat is transferred by conduction from the pan to the
food, using a moderate amount of oil at a lower temperature than
that used in saute´ing.
Industrial cooking
• Deep-fat frying: a method that uses convection to transfer heat to
food submerged or floating freely in hot oil at 160 to 190°C.
Equipment for industrial cooking
• Electric cooking equipment is more common than gas equipment
because it is easier to install, operate and maintain, and requires no
exhaust flue for combustion gases or other on-site construction
requirements;
• The sides and cover of equipment are usually insulated with fireproof
fibreglass and aluminium sheathing.
Equipment for cooking using moist heat
Jacketed kettles
• Jacketed kettles (or boiling pans) are widely used for cooking a variety
of products, including creams, jams, sauces and risottos;
• The equipment is a double- or triplewalled hemispherical stainless
steel pan with a capacity from 30 to 8000 L that is heated by steam,
hot water or hot oil in the hollow wall;
• Some designs can be connected to a chilled water supply for cookchill
processing;
• Most kettles are equipped with a stirring mechanism and scrapers to
prevent products from adhering to the walls, with the speed and
direction of the stirrer being adjustable for different applications.
Bratt pans
• Bratt pans are deep, rectangular cooking vessels with a
counterbalanced lid;
• The capacity varies from 70 to 310 L and they may be programmed to
operate automatically;
• A pressure bratt pan has a lid that can be clamped shut for cooking at
temperatures higher than 100°C.
Bratt pans
These pans are versatile, multifunctional cookers used for braising,
boiling, steaming, poaching and stewing, and also for dry-heating
(roasting, deep-fat frying and shallow frying).
Steamer
• There are different designs of steam cookers, including large insulated
cabinets that contain a trolley carrying 150 kg of food, used to cook
rice, noodles or meat.
• This type of cooker may also be used for vacuum cooking, cooling and
blending operations for cooking, searing, caramelising, saute´ing and
then chilling products. They are claimed by manufacturers to have
50% more heat transfer area than hemispherical kettles or
conventional jacketed cookers, which reduces processing times.
Steamer

Batch steam cooker

Steamer

Continuous in-line steam injector

Equipment for cooking using dry heat
Stir fryer
• In addition to deep-fat fryers and bratt pans are suitable for rapid
sealing, searing or saute´ing of meat and vegetables at temperatures
of up to 180°C.
• Industrial stir fryers, heated by gas or electricity, are used to prepare
rice, noodles, vermicelli, spaghetti, shredded meat, fish and
vegetables.
• They have electronic temperature and time controls and stepless
speed adjustment, and are tilted to empty the fried products.
Equipment for cooking using dry heat
Stir fryer

Industrial stir fryer

Oven
• A spiral oven has PLC control and touchscreen operation,
which allows independent control of the processing time, air
temperature, humidity and air speed.
• These are automatically monitored to produce products that
have a consistent, uniform quality. The continuous oven is
used to process, for example, chicken fillets, spare ribs, roast
beef and formed meat products such as burgers, nuggets
and sausages, with a capacity of 500-3000 kg/h.
Spiral combi-oven
Oven
• Batch ‘combi’ (combination) ovens are used in smaller-scale
production and food service operations to produce a wide range of
roasted and grilled foods such as pan-fries and gratins. These also
have independent control over the air temperature, speed and
humidity and may be preprogrammed to process up to 50 individual
products.
• A contact cooker cooks products continuously between two teflon
belts that are in contact with heating platens. Heat is transferred by
conduction from the heating plates through the cooking belts and
directly into the product. The belts seal the surface of the food to
retain juiciness and fats in the product and minimise cooking losses to
provide a high product yield. This type of cooker is suitable for
cooking boneless products such as chicken or duck fillets, meat
patties, steak, bacon, pancakes, fish fillets, shrimps and vegetables.
Oven

Batch combi-oven
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